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JOHNA.SEAVERNS 


Webster  Family  Library  of  Veterinary  Medicine 

Cummings  School  of  Veterinary  fviediclne  at 

Tufts  University 

200  Westboro  Road 

North  Grafton,  MA  01 536    '      v  :;?^'n-4^^ 


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36th  Congress,  )  HOUSE  OF  EEPRESENTATIVES.        j  Ex.  Doc. 
1st  Session.      \  j 


REPOET 


COMMISSIONER  OF  PATENTS 


FOR   THE    YEAR    1859. 


AGRICULTURE 


WASHINGTON : 

GEORGE  W.  BOWMAN,  PRINTER. 

1860. 


In  the  House  of  Representatives,  June  13,  1860. 
Resolved,  That  there  be  printed,  in  addition  to  the  usual  number,  three  hundred  thousand 
extra  copies  of  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  on  Agriculture,  for  the  year  1859; 
fifteen  thousand  of  which  shall  be  for  distribution  by  the  Interior  Department,  and  two  hun- 
dred and  eighty-five  thousand  for  the  use  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 


EEPOET 


COMMISSIONER  OF  PATENTS. 


United  States  Patent  Office, 

January  3,  1860. 

Sir:  Agreeably  to  the  design  of  Congress,  as  indicated  in  the  clause 
of  the  act  of  March  3,  1859,  '^for  collection  of  agricultural  statistics, 
investigations  for  promoting  agriculture  and  rural  economy,  and  the 
procurement  of  cuttings  and  seeds,"  I  have  the  honor  herewith  to 
transmit  the  agricultural  portion  of  my  report. 

Owing  to  the  reduced  appropriation  made  by  Congress  for  agricul- 
tural purposes,  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1860,  the  office  has 
been  compelled  to  reduce  its  expenses  and  confine  its  action  to  a  more 
limited  sphere  than  heretofore.  In  doing  this,  it  was  found  necessary 
either  to  decline  purchasing  for  distribution  the  usual  varieties  of  gar- 
den and  field  seeds,  or  to  abandon  the  experiment  of  propagating  the 
tea,  and  various  other  foreign  plants  and  grape-cuttings,  for  which 
orders  had  been  given.  The  expense  which  had  already  been  incurred 
in  their  procurement  would  hardly  justify  the  office  in  throwing  them 
aside.  It  was  accordingly  deemed  advisable  to  apply  the  remainder 
of  the  funds  solely  to  the  procuring  of  information  and  preparing  the 
material  for  the  Agricultural  Eeport,  and  to  the  propagation  and 
distribution  of  such  varieties  of  foreign  seeds  and  cuttings  as  had  been 
already  engaged.  These  were  of  such  a  nature  that,  if  they  had  been 
distributed  throughout  the  country  immediately  upon  their  receipt,  the 
probability  is  that  very  few  of  them  would  have  reached  their  destina- 
tion in  a  fit  state  for  propagation.  The  tea  seeds,  more  particularly, 
arrived  in  such  a  condition  that  it  was  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
plant  them  at  once.  For  this  purpose,  large  propagating  houses  were 
erected  upon  the  government  grounds  north  of  the  canal,  between 
Four-and-a-half  and  Sixth  streets.  These  structures  now  answer  well 
the  purpose  for  which  they  were  intended,  as  is  exhibited  by  the  fact 
that  we  have,  ready  for  distribution,  over  30,000  well-rooted  tea  plants, 


IV  REPORT    OF    THE 

12,000  foreign  and  domestic  grape-vines  900  rooted,  seedless,  pome- 
granate cuttings,  and  various  foreign,  medicinal,  and  ornamental 
plants.  These  will  be  ready  for  distribution  during  the  present  winter 
and  the  ensuing  spring. 

The  nature  of  the  tea  plant  is  such  that  it  cannot  be  successfully 
cultivated  in  the  open  air  above  the  northern  boundaries  of  Tennessee 
and  North  Carolina.  For  this  reason,  the  larger  portion  will  be  sent 
south  of  that  line.  A  sufficient  number,  however,  will  be  divided 
among  the  remaining  States,  to  satisfy  the  reasonable  demands  of  such 
persons  as  have  the  conveniences  necessary  for  their  protection  during 
the  winter  months. 

Last  summer  and  fall  an  agent  was  employed  to  travel  through 
several  of  the  Northern  States  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  the  best 
varieties  of  ripe  native  grapes.  An  experienced  chemist  was  also 
engaged  to  analyze  the  fruit  thus  collected,  for  the  purpose  of  ascer- 
taining the  amount  of  saccharine  matter  and  other  ingredients  con- 
tained in  the  juice  of  each  variety,  and  determining  which  kinds  are 
best  adapted  to  the  making  of  wine.  The  reports  of  the  agent  and 
chemist  appear  in  this  volume,  and  will,  no  doubt,  prove  valuable  and 
interesting  to  the  public. 

It  is  now  about  twelve  years  since  Congress  adopted^the  system  of 
making  annual  appropriations  for  agricultural  purposes.  Previous  to 
this  time,  there  seemed  to  be  but  little  progress  made  by  the  people  in 
this  branch  of  our  national  industry.  Agricultural  newspapers  were 
then  in  their  infancy,  while  agricultural  societies  were  scarcely  known 
or  heard  of.  The  attention  paid  by  Congress  to  this  subject  seems  to 
have  awakened  the  people  to  its  importance.  It  has  stimulated  inquiry, 
encouraged  new  experiments,  and  to  such  an  extent  has  the  public 
mind  been  excited,  that  agricultural  societies  have  been  formed  and 
are  now  in  successful  operation  in  nearly  every  county  and  State 
throughout  the  Union.  Newspapers  entirely  devoted  to  agriculture 
are  published  in  nearly  every  State,  and  at  prices  which  place  them 
within  the  reach  of  all.  Enterprising  men  in  all  the  principal  cities 
have  established  agricultural  warehouses,  where  varieties  of  seeds, 
plants,  and  cuttings,  from  foreign  lands,  as  well  as  from  different  sec- 
tions of  our  own  country,  can  be  purchased  upon  reasonable  terms. 

More  recently,  a  national  agricultural  society  has  been  established, 
which  will  undoubtedly  prove  valuable  as  a  medium  of  communication 
between  the  various  county  and  State  societies.  Indeed,  so  thoroughly 
have  the  public  become  impressed  with  the  importance  and  necessity 
of  paying  more  strict  attention  to  improvements  in  agriculture,  that 


COMMISSIONER   OF   PATENTS.       .  V 

it  may  well  be  doubted  wbetber  anything  Congress  may  do  can  give 
an  additional  impetus  to  tbe  movement. 

I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  the  necessity  no  longer  exists  of 
distributing  the  various  seeds  of  domestic  growth,  inasmuch  as  the 
facilities  for  obtaining  them  are  such  that  every  person  of  enterprise 
enough  to  cultivate  them  can  obtain  everything  in  that  line  from  the 
seed-stores.  If,  therefore,  it  is  the  desire  of  Congress  to  continue  the 
appropriation  for  agricultural  purposes,  I  would  recommend  that  it  be 
limited  solely  to  the  collection  of  valuable  information  for  the  agricul- 
tural report  and  the  collection  and  distribution  of  such  varieties  of 
foreign  seeds,  plants,  and  cuttings,  as  have  not  heretofore  been  intro- 
duced into  this  country. 

All  of  which  is  respectfully  submitted. 

WM.  D.  BISHOP, 

Commissioner. 

Hon.  Wm.  Penningtozj, 

Speaker  of  the  House  of  Bepresenfatives . 


INDEX. 


Paj;e. 

Acclimation  and  domestication  of  animals 207 

Acid,  determination  of 57 

Acid,  tartaric 59 

Administering  medicines  to  domestic  animals  ....  199 

Powder 199 

Drink 1 99 

Infusion  or  potion 199 

Electuaries  or  jellies 2U3 

Pills 204 

Agricultural    Society,  United    States,    Historical 

Sketch 22 

Agricultural  Schools  of  Prussia 457 

Analysis  of  grapes 55 

Animals,  docility  of 448 

Animals,  administering  medicines  to  domestic ....  199 

Horse 199 

Cattle 205 

Sheep 206 

Swine 206 

Dog 207 

Apparatus  for  wine  making 85 

Benefits  of  soiling 448 

Breeding  of  fish 217 

Of  trout  at  Hartford 230 

Of  migratory  fishes 229 

Cells,  vegetable 37.3 

Cells,  grouping  of,  in  fiber 330 

Commissioner  of  Patents,  letter  of iii 

Construction  and  arrangement  of  liorse  stables ....  260 

Crops,  larger,  require  greater  manuring 449 

Diet,  fish  as  an  article  of 236 

Farm  journals 367 

Farm  "houses,  some  hints  upon 397 

Fences,  cost  of 447 

Fences  dispensed  with 446 

Fencing  and  herding 443 

Fertilizers 136 

Lime ]  52 

Marl 154 

Plaster  or  gypsum 162 

Sulphate  or  barytes 163 

Magnesia 165 

Phosphorus 166 

Fish  breeding 217 

Transportation  of  living  fishes 228 

Breeding  of  migratory  fishes.   229 

Breeding  trout  at  Hartford 230 

Practical  hints  to  fish  breeders 232 

Fish  as  an  article  of  diet 236 

Fiber,  vegetable 372 

Vegetable  cell 373 

Grouping  of  cells  in  fiber 380 

Fibrous  materials  for  paper 391 

Gall  &  Petiol's  method  of  wine  making,  (modern 

principles) 94 

Garden,  government  experimental  and  propagating      1 

Grapes  and  other  plants 13 

Seeds  for  distribution 18 

Plants  from  Palestine 19 

Government  experimental  and  propagating  garden      1 

Grapes,  native  Arkansas  and  Texas 30 

El  Paso,  or  grapes  cultivated  on  Rio  Grande. .     35 
Grapes,  report  on  the  saccharine  contents  of  na- 
•     five  American,  in  relation  to  wine  making. .     42 
Chemical  examination  of  juice  of,  from  vari- 
ous localities  of  the  United  States 44 

Analysis  of,  tabular  statement 55 

Grapes,  report  on  American 57 

Determination  of  the  proportion  of  acids 57 

Tabular  statement 59 

Grapes,  tartaric  acid  in  the  cultivated 59 

Grapes,  native,  of  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  New 

York,  and  New  England 61 

Vitis  vinifera 62 

Vitis  labrusca 62 

Vitis  labrusca 63 

Vitis  eordifolia 63 


Page. 
Grapes — 

Vitis  aestivalis 65 

Vitis  eordifolia  punctata 67 

Vitis  aestivalis  punctata 67 

Vitis  sinuata 68 

Culture  and  management  of,  and  the  mode  of 

making  wine 71 

Propagation,  by  layers,  cuttings,  eyes,  and  seed  71 
Improving  by  layering,  grafting,  budding,  and 

hybridizing 75 

Culture  of,  in  the  vineyard 78 

State  of  grapo,  when  and  how  it  should  be 

gathered,  and  apparatus  for  wine  making. . .  85 

Wine-making 89 

Treatment  of  the  young  wine 91 

Use  of  the  husks,  lees,  and  seeds 93 

Gall  &  Petiols'  method  of  wine  making 94 

Historical  Sketch  of  the  U.  S.  Agricultural  Society  22 

Horse-stables,  construction  and  arrangement  of. . .  260 

Location 261 

Ground 262 

External  wall 262 

Ceilings 263 

Floor 265 

Accommodation 269 

Division  of  stalls 270 

Doors 275 

Ventilation 279 

Cribs 282 

Racks 285 

Fastening  horses 287 

Houses,  farm,  some  hints  upon 397 

Husks,  lees,  and  seeds  of  grapes 93 

Ionian  Islands  and  Italy,  productions  of  the 100 

Sicily 104 

Rome 130 

Florence 132 

Pisa 133 

Arena 134 

Isola  Bella 136 

Lees,  husks,  and  seeds  of  grapes 93 

Lime 152 

Magnesia 154 

Marl 165 

Medicines,  administering  to  domestic  animals ....  199 

Meteorology 461 

Miscellaneous .535 

Reports  on — 

Grape  culture  in  Illinois 535 

Grapes,  by  H.  W.  Ravenel .536 

Glover's  experiments  on  orange  grove 540 

Alpaca  and  cashmere  goats,  &c 541 

Peruvian  bark 542 

Italian  bees 543 

Wine  making  in  New  York 544 

Grapes  in  Yates  county.  New  York 547 

Silk  culture 548 

Radish,  and  fruits  of  Japan 549 

Vegetable  tallow 550 

Orchard  house  culture 550 

Hang-worm 551 

Glover's  syringing  of  orange  groves 554 

Frost 555 

Chinese  yam » 558 

Seeds,  &c.,  from  the  Holy  Land 559 

Seeds  from  Ecuador 559 

Cotton  plants,  &c..  Sandwich  Islands 560 

Wooden  shoes 561 

Letter  from  Governor  Wright,  at  Berlin 562 

Cherimoya,  &c 562 

Algaroba 563 

Hungarian  grass 563 

Patent  Office  seeds 564 

Patent  Office  seeds 566 

Tuscan  wheat 567 

Organization  of  agricultural  society 567 

Samples  of  wheat,  &c.,  from  Russm 568 


VIII 


INDEX. 


Page. 
Miscellaneous— Reports  on — 

Crops  in  Nebraska 568 

Contributions  of  seeds,  cuttings,  &c 569 

Paper,  fibrous  materials  for 391 

Paw-paw  spirits,  experiments  on 370 

Mode  of  purifying  alcoliol,  &c 370 

Distilled  liquors  and  fusil  oil 371 

Petiol's,  Gall,  and,  method  of  wine  maJcing,  (modern 

principles) 94 

Phosphorus 166 

Plants  used  as  food  for  man 299 

Plaster  or  gypsum 162 

Patents  for  agricultural  inventions 572 

Plows  and  plowing,  English 239 

1.  Influence  of  weight  of  plow  on  the  draft...  243 

2.  Influence  of  mold-board  on  the  draft 244 

3.  Influence  of  depth  of  furrow  on  tlie  draft. .  245 

4.  Influence  of  velocity  on  the  draft 246 

5.  Influence  of  wheels  on  the  draft 247 

6.  Effect  of  the  length  of  the  various  parts  on 

the  operation  of  plow 248 

Steam  plows  in  England 249 

Fowler's  steam  plow 249 

Boydell's  patent  traction  engine 253 

Smith's  cultivator 254 

American  steam  cultivators 256 

Fawkes's  steam  plow 257 

Waters's  steam  plow 258 

Productions  of  the  Ionian  Islands  and  Italy 100 

Q,uincy's  statement  on  soiling 453 

Koots,  farm  supply  and 446 

Roots  and  soiling  in  England 452 

Salt  in  agriculture,  importance  of. 395 

Prize  paper  of.  Dr.  Desaive 396 

Sap,  art  of  governing  the 362 

Schools  of  Prussia,  agricultural 457 

Seeds,  husks,  lees,  and 93 

Sheep,  Saxon  merino 288 

Sketch  of  farm  of  Baron  Speck 294 

Sheep,  spleen  in,  and  its  prevention 296 

Soiling,  advantages  of 443 

Stables,  horse,  construction  and  arrangement  of. .  260 

Stock,  green-soiling 442 

Feiices  and  herding 442 

Advantages  of  soiling 443 

Farm  supply  and  roots 446 

Could  dispense  with  most  fences 446 

Cost  of  board  fences 447 

Docility  of  animals 448 

Nine  distinct  benefits '. 448 

Larger  crops  require  greater  manuring 449 

Higher  influences  of  the  system 450 

General  view  of  the  subject 451 


Page. 
Stock- 
Soiling  and  roots,  in  England 452 

Mr.  Quincy's  statement 453 

Sulphate  or  barytes 163 

Surgeons,  veterinary 183 

Tartaric  acid 59 

Tobacco,  reports  on 524 

Report  from  Charles  A.  Lees,  United  States 

consul.  Revel,  Prussia 524 

Report  from  B.  Hammatt  Norton,  United  States 

consul,  Pictou,  Nova  Scotia 526 

Report  from  Daniel  R.  B.  Upton,  United  States 

consul  at  Bathurst 526 

Report  from  S.  J.  Merrit,  United  States  consul 

at  Nassau,  Bahamas 526 

Report  from  Robert  Dowling,  United  States 

consul  at  Cork,  Ireland 527 

Report  from  Stephen  Ralli,  United  States  vice- 
consul  at  Odessa 527 

Report  from  Thomas  Savage,  United  States 

vice-consul  general,  Havana,  Cuba 529 

Report  from  J.  B.  Hayne,  United  States  con- 
sul, Turk's  Island,  West  Indies 529 

Report  from  Samuel  W.  Talbot,  United  States 

consul,  Dublin,  Ireland 530 

Report  from  Herbert  Davy,  United  States  con- 
sul, Newcastle-on-Tyne,  England 530 

Report  from  R.   S.   Newbold,  acting  United 

States  consul,  port  of  Spain,  Trinidad 53J 

Report  from  John  Black,  United  States  com- 
mercial agent,  Galle,  Ceylon 531 

Report  from  W.  H.  Morse,  United  States  con- 
sul at  Cape  de  Verds 5:S 

Report  from  G.   H.   Goundie,  United   States 

consul  at  Zurich,  Switzerland 532 

Report  from  Henry  Pemberton,  consular  agent 

of  the  United  States  at  Quebec,  Canada 532 

Report  from  L.  II.  Hatfield,  United  States  con- 
sul at  Bombay 533 

Transportation  of  living  fishes ^8 

Veterinary  science  and  art 179 

Royal  college  of  veterinary  surgeons 183 

Veterinary  medicine 185 

Vegetable  fiber 372 

Vitis  vinifera,  &c 62 

Wine  making 89 

White  wine 89 

Schiller  wine 89 

Red  wine  or  claret 90 

Wine,  young,  treatment  of 91 

Second  fermentation 91 

Remedies  for  flat  and  turbid  wines 92 

Fining .' 92 


GOVEENMENT  EXPEMMENTAL  AND  PEOPAGATING 

GAEDEN. 


Prominent  among  the  purposes  of  the  government,  with  respect  to 
agriculture,  is  the  introduction  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  plants  from  other 
countries.  In  whatever  form  these  are  received,  whether  as  seeds, 
roots,  cuttings,  or  plants,  the  most  tender  treatment  is  generally  re- 
quisite to  preserve,  develop,  multiply,  and  acclimatize  them ;  and  every 
possible  facility  therefor  should  always  be  in  readiness  at  the  moment 
of  their  arrival. 

The  want  of  accommodations  of  this  character  had  long  been  felt, 
when,  in  August,  1858,  intelligence  of  the  transmission  of  a  quantity 
of  tea  seeds,  from  China,  created  an  immediate  necessity  for  their  pro- 
vision. A  plot  of  five  acres  was  accordingly  chosen,  in  a  central  posi- 
tion, in  the  city  of  Washington,  and  prepared  in  the  manner  described 
in  the  Eeport  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  on  Agriculture,  for  that 
year.  A  system  of  underground  tile-drainage,  upon  a  plan  now  com- 
mon in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe,  was  applied  to  this  ground, 
and  with  excellent  results  for  a  time ;  but,  unfortunately,  there  was  a 
want  of  adaptation  in  the  manner  of  laying  the  tiles  upon  the  yield- 
ing, marshy  base,  and  the  continuity  has  consequently  been  inter- 
rupted by  occasional  depressions.  When  this  shall  have  been  remedied, 
as  it  doubtless  may  be  v/ithout  serious  detriment  to  the  field  or  its 
products,  the  experiment  may  be  regarded  as  complete  and  satisfactory. 

The  plan  pursued  in  constructing  and  warming  the  green-houses 
upon  this  ground,  though  successful  in  its  present  application,  is  not 
commended  for  all  purposes.  Decomposing  vegetable  matter,  covered 
with  a  portion  of  nitrogenous  materials,  might  be  adapted  to  general 
use,  were  the  process  of  decomposition  susceptible  of  being  controlled  at 
will:  but  so  variable  is  its  progress,  and  so  dependent  upon  exter- 
nal influences,  in  a  ratio  inverse  to  the  requirements  within,  that  the 
vicissitudes  of  temperature  proceeding  from  it  are  such  as  none  but 
hardy  plants  can  endure.  The  volatile  emanations  are  likewise  in 
excess  in  this  process,  insomuch  that  even  those  plants  which  become 
accustomed  to  and  prove  capable  of  sustaining  an  atmosphere  so 
highly  stimulating  may  suifer  when  suddenly  withdrawn  from  its 
influence  and  exposed  to  the  open  air. 

The  partial  exclusion  of  the  light  and  warmth  of  the  sun,  practised 
in  connection  with  this  plan,  also  proves  detrimental  to  tender  plants, 
while  the  altitude  of  the  roof,  eleven  feet  at  the  apex,  is  to  them  a  con- 
stant and  certain  cause  of  slender  and  feeble  growth. 

Happily,  these  disadvantages  are  remediable  at  small  cost  of  money 
and  labor,  by  the  provision  of  apparatus  for  artificial  heating,  the 
elevation  of  the  beds,  the  adoption  of  means  of  ventilation,  and  the 
extension  of  the  glass  roofing  over  the  whole  of  each  structure. 

1 A 


■2  AGRlCtJLTURAL   REPORT. 

The  garden  thus  establisliecl  may  be  properly  applied  to  other  uses 
than  the  propagation  of  exotic  plants.  Kot  only  may  the  tea  shrub, 
the  cinchona  tree,  the  camphor  tree,  the  cork  tree,  and  others  of  for- 
eign origin,  be  nurtured  here,  but  also  many  native  as  well  as  foreign 
plants  desirable  for  their  edible  and  medicinal  properties  and  products 
and  ornamental  qualities.  The  amateur,  pharmaceutical,  and  profes- 
sional botanist  may  'here  examine  the  vegetation  of  many  soils  and 
climates,  and  witness  experiments  in  the  culture  and  hybridization  of 
various  trees  and  j)lants.  Among  those  now  in  course  of  cultivation 
the  following  may  be  named : 

Tea  shrub  from  China,  '^2, Q^^ plants:  The  proposition  to  introduce 
the  tea  shrub  of  China  to  culture  in  the  United  States  has  been  dis- 
cussed in  the  Keports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  for  the  years 
1855  and  1857;  and  information,  gleaned  from  accredited  sources,  has 
been  given  in  regard  to  this  plant,  and  the  soils,  climates,  and  condi- 
tions of  its  profitable  growth  and  preparation.  The  subject  is  now 
presented  in  a  practical  form  ;  a  new  interest  has  been  excited  in  regard 
to  it ;  and  information,  upon  which  the  American  planter  may  rely,  is 
demanded  by  the  exigency  that  has  arisen. 

Tea  was  little  known  in  Europe  until  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Mr.  Pepys,  secretary  of  the  British  admiralty,  in  1661, 
speaks  of  "tea,  (a  China  drink,)  of  which,"  he  says,  "I  had  never 
drank  before."  Three  years  later,  the  Dutch  East  India  Company 
presented  two  pounds  and  two  ounces  to  the  king  of  England,  as  a 
rare  and  valuable  ofiering ;  and,  in  1667,  this  company,  by  the  im- 
portation of  one  hundred  pounds,  commenced  a  traffic  that  has  grown 
to  the  magnitude  of  thirty  million  pounds,  for  home  consumption 
alone,  in  England,  yielding  a  revenue  to  the  government  of  about 
£4,000,000  per  annum.  The  value  of  the  tea  imported  into  the  Uni- 
ted States,  in  the  year  ending  June  30,  1858,  was  $7^261,815,  and,  in 
the  succeeding  year,  $7,388,741. 

The  use  of  tea  as  a  beverage  was^  for  a  time,  strenuously  resisted  in 
Europe,  on  the  ground  of  its  alleged  deleterious  influence  on  the 
human  constitution.  Many  diseases  were  declared  to  be  aggravated, 
if  not  superinduced,  by  it,  and  manifold  evils  were  predicted  from  the 
importation.  This  should  not  be  a  subject  of  surprise  ;  since,  like 
many  other  luxuries,  and  especially  vegetable  narcotics,  tea  is  repul- 
sive to  the  natural  appetite,  and  its  effects,  when  used  in  excess,  are 
very  powerful,  and,  it  may  be,  hurtful  to  an  organization  not  habituated 
.  to  its  use.  But  it  is  now  generally  conceded  throughout  the  civilized 
world,  not  only  that  tea  is  far  less  pernicious  and  offensive  than  any 
of  the  various  excitants  or  stimulants  it  has  displaced,  but  that  it  has 
proved  a  positive  benefit  to  the  world,  with  as  few  evidences  of  injury 
from  its  abuse  as  exist  in  relation  to  any  article  of  luxury,  or  of  food, 
with  which  we  are  acquainted.  The  chemical  principle  characteristic 
of  tea,  coffee,  and  cocoa,  has  been  found  one  and  the  same,  and  has 
been  called,  indifferently,  theine  and  caffeine.  Dr.  Ure  remarks  that 
the  proportion  of  azote  in  theine  or  caffeine  is  much  greater  than  even 
in  any  animal  compound,  urea  and  uric  acid  excepted,  and  adds : 
"Since  so  many  different  nations  have  been,  as  it  were,  instinctively 
led  to  the  extensive  use  of  tea,  coffee,  and  chocolate,  as  articles  of  food 


EXPERIMENTAL  AND  PROPAGATING  GARDEN.         3 

and  enlivening  beverage,  whicli  agree  in  no  feature  or  property  but  in 
the  possession  of  one  peculiar  cliemical  principle,  we  must  conclude 
that  tlie  constitution  of  these  vegetable  products  is  no  random  freak  of 
nature,  but  that  it  has  been  ordained  by  Divine  wisdom,  for  perform- 
ing beneficial  effects  on  the  human  race." 

Various  writers  have  made  conjectures  with  respect  to  the  time  and 
manner  of  the  discovery,  by  the  Chinese  themselves^  of  the  properties 
and  uses  of  tea  ;  but,  as  with  most  questions  respecting  the  social  his- 
tory of  China,  all  is  vague  and  unsatisfactory,  A  passage  has  been 
quoted  from  an  ancient  Avork,  entitled,  ''Periplous  of  the  Erythrseum 
Sea,"  (the  Ked  sea,  or  Arabian  gulf,)  which  Vossius  Vincent  and  other 
writers  have  regarded  as  relating  to  the  betel  nut  ;  but  which  Ehind, 
in  his  "Vegetable  Kingdom,"  recites  as  descriptive  of  the  tea  plant 
and  its  cultivators  eighteen  centuries  ago:  "There  used  to  come, 
yearly,  to  the  frontier  of  the  Since,  [a  people  inhabiting  the  southeast- 
ernmost  part  of  Asia,  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  Cochin-Chinese,] 
a  certain  people  called  Sesatse,  with  a  short  body,  broad  forehead,  fiat 
noses,  and  of  a  wild  aspect.  They  came  with  their  VN^ives  and  chil- 
dren, bearing  large  mats  full  of  leaves,  resembling  those  of  the  vine. 
When  they  have  arrived  on  the  frontier  of  the  country  of  the  Sin89, 
they  stop  and  spend  a  few  days  in  festivity,  using  the  mats  for  lying 
upon  ;  they  then  return  to  the  abode  of  their  countrymen  in  the  inte- 
rior. The  SinEB  next  repair  to  the  place,  and  take  up  the  articles 
which  they  left ;  and  having  drawn  out  the  stalks  and  fibres,  they 
nicely  double  the  leaves,  make  them  into  a  circular  shape,  and  thrust 
into  them  the  fibres  of  the  seeds.  Thus  three  kinds  of  malabatJirum 
are  formed  ;  that  from  the  larger  leaf  is  called  hadrospJicerum  ;  that 
from  the  middling  one,  mesosphoencm ;  and  from  the  smaller,  micros- 
2^Jioerum."  The  fact  that  any  reliance  has  been  placed  upon  this 
statement,  for  the  purpose  of  proving  that  tea  was  known  to  the 
Greeks  or  Eomans  in  the  first  century,  but  serves  to  show  how  desti- 
tute the  civilized  world  was  of  all  knowledge  of  it  prior  to  the  era  of  its 
introduction,  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

However  remarkable  it  may  be  that  a  product,  destined  to  become 
essential  to  the  people  of  every  nation,  and  to  constitute  an  important 
commodity  in  the  commerce  of  the  world,  should  so  long  remain  hidden 
from  our  knowledge,  it  is  still  more  anomalous  that,  for  two  centuries 
after  its  general  adoption,  the  culture  of  it  should  still  be  limited,  with 
comparatively  inconsiderable  exceptions,  to  the  regions  in  which  it  is 
indigenous,  viz :  to  China,  Tonquin,  Japan,  and  Assam,  in  India,  in 
which  last-named  country,  though  the  plant  always  existed  abundantly 
in*a  wild  state  at  the  base  of  the  Himalayan  mountains,  its  cultivation 
and  the  manufacture  of  its  product,  and  the  introduction  of  plants 
from  China,  have  been  but  recently  commenced.  The  first  stimulus 
to  this  enterprise  was  given  by  Dr.  Royle,  who,  in  1807,  directed 
attention  to  the  subject,  and  induced  the  formation  of  the  Assam 
Tea 'Company,  which  now  exports  large  quantities  of  tea  of  superior 
quality,  chiefly,  it  is  represented,  from  the  indigenous  plant  {Tliea  assa- 
mica,)  which  is  regarded  there  as  a  distinct  species.  The  cultivation  of 
tea  is  also  prosecuted  with  success  in  Penang,  more  than  a  third  of  the 


4  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

population  of  wliicli  is  composed  of  Chinese  ;  and  in  Java,  where,  in  a 
population  of  nearly  10,000,000,  there  are  more  than  100,000  Chinese. 
From  Java,  the  exports  of  tea  were  valued,  in  1848,  at  |336,206.  The 
plant  was  introduced  to  both  these  islands  from  China,  the  experiment 
in  Java,  initiated  by  the  Dutch  proprietors,  having  precedence  of  all 
other  attemj)ts  of  the  kind. 

On  this  continent,  Brazil  has  gone  before  us  in  the  adoption  of  the 
Chinese  plant.  Here,  although  comparatively  little  effort  is  required 
for  the  subsistence  of  man ;  although  an  indigenous  plant,  the  mate, 
(Ilex  Paraguay ensis,^  is  in  general  use  among  the  people ;  although 
coffee,  long  a  staple  product  of  the  countr}^,  is  of  equally  general  con- 
sumption ;  and  although  an  inveterate  prejudice  exists  in  favor  of  the 
manufactured  tea  of  importation,  yet  the  culture  continues  to  increase 
and  to  gain  favor  among  the  people,  insomuch  that  it  may  be  regarded 
as  an  established  branch  of  industry.  In  a  letter  from  Mr.  John 
Eudge,  of  St,  Paul,  Brazil,  who  has  been  for  many  years  engaged  in 
the  cultivation  of  tea  in  that  province — communicated  to  the  Patent 
Office  in  April,  1859,  by  the  United  States  legation  at  Eio  de  Janeiro — 
the  writer  says:  ''The  tea  plant  flourishes  here,  I  think,  equally  as 
well  as  in  its  native  country,  and  I  can  see  no  reason  why  it  should 
not  do  as  vfell  in  the  southern  regions  of  the  United  States.  The  val- 
leys are  best  suited  to  it,  and  it  delights  in  manure.  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  cover  the  seeds  too  deep  in  planting ;  they  should  be 
merely  hidden  from  the  sun.*  The  tea  is  made  from  the  newest  and 
softest  leaves.  I  usually  cut  the  tree  down  every  year  nearly  to  the 
ground,  that  it  may  produce  leaves  and  not  seeds.  When  it  is  per- 
mitted to  go  to  seed,  the  leaves  become  hard  and  unfit  for  use  as  tea. 
The  plant  is  a  very  hardy  evergreen,  never  suffering  in  the  slightest 
degree  from  the  frosts,  which  greatly  injure  our  coffee  and  cane  in  the 
low  grounds.  The  home  consumption  is  much  affected  by  the  par- 
tiality of  the  common  people  for  coffee,  and  the  prejudice  of  the  higher 
classes  in  favor  of  tea  brought  from  afar.  In  some  instances,  tea 
grown  in  this  region  having  been  sent  to  Pdo,  and  there  put  up  in 
Chinese  boxes,  and  having  a  small  proportion  of  Chinese  tea  mixed 
with  it,  has  been  returned  to  St,  Paul  and  sold  for  double  the  price 
the  producer  would  have  demanded  for  it.  But  such  conceits,  I  believe, 
are  common  to  those  who  can  afford  to  indulge  them  throughout  the 
world." 

In  the  historical  and  descriptive  sketches  of  "Brazil  and  the  Brazil- 
ians," by  Kev.  D.  P.  Kidder,  D.  D.,  and  Eev.  J.  C.  Fletcher,  whose 
experience  in  that  empire  extended  through  a  period  of  twenty  years, 
published  in  1857,  an  account  is  given  of  the  adoption,  progress,  and 
prospects  of  tea  culture,  which  merits  the  perusal  of  every  ximerican 
reader.     These  writers  say  : 

"  There  is  probably  no  other  country  where  the  culture  of  this 
Asiatic  shrub  has  been  so.  successful  away  from  its  native  region.  The 
Portuguese  language  is  the  only  European  tongue  which  has  preserved 
the  Chinese  name  (cha)  for  tea  ;  and  as  the  stranger  at  Eio  de  Janeiro 
and  other  towns  of  the  empire  passes  the  vendas,  he  is  always  sure  to 


®The  protection  of  two  or  three  inches  of  soil  will  be  found  requisite  in  the  United  States. 


EXPERIMENTAL   AND    PROPAGATING    GARDEN.  5 

see  a  printed  card  suspended,  announcing  Cha  da  India  and  Clia 
Nacional ;  the  former  is  the  designation  given  to  tea  from  China,  and 
the  latter  to  the  same  production  grown  in  Brazil. 

"In  1810,  the  first  plants  of  this  exotic  were  introduced  at  Kio  de 
Janeiro,  and  its  cultivation,  for  a  time,  was  chiefly  confined  to  the 
botanical  garden,  near  the  capital,  and  to  the  Yojal  farm,  at  Santa 
Cruz.  In  order  to  secure  the  best  possible  treatment  for  the  tea,  which 
it  was  anticipated  would  soon  flourish  so  as  to  supply  the  European 
market,  the  Count  of  Linhares,  prime  minister  of  Portugal,  procured 
the  immigration  of  several  hundred  colonists,  not  from  the  mingled 
population  of  the  coast  of  China,  but  from  the  interior  of  the  celestial 
empire — persons  acquainted  with  the  whole  process  of  training  the 
tea  plant  and  of  preparing  tea. 

"This  was  probably  the  first  colony  from  Asia  that  ever  settled  in 
the  New  AVorld,  of  w^hich  we  have  authentic  records.  The  colonists, 
however,  were  not  contented  with  their  expatriation;  they  did  not 
prosper,  and  they  have  now  disappeared.  Owing,  in  part,  doubtless, 
to  characteristic  differences  in  the  soil  of  Brazil  from  that  of  China, 
and  perhaps  as  much  to  imperfect  means  of  preparing  the  leaf  when 
grown,  the  Chinese  themselves  did  not  succeed  in  producing  the  inost 
approved  specimens  of  tea.  The  enthusiasm  of  anticipation,  being 
unsustained  by  experiment,  soon  died  away ;  and  near  the  city  of  Eio 
de  Janeiro,  the  cultivation  of  tea  has  dwindled  down  to  be  little  more 
than  an  exotic  grown  on  a  large  scale  at  the  botanical  gardens. 

"Asa  government  matter,  it  was  a  failure;  but  several  Paulista 
planters  took  up  the  culture,  and,  though  they  encountered  years  of 
discouragement,  they  have  lived  to  see  it,  though  as  yet  in  its  infancy, 
one  of  the  most  flourishing  and  remunerative  branches  of  Brazilian 
agriculture. 

"Between  Santos  and  San  Paulo,  near  San  Bernardo,  I  saw  large 
and  productive  tea  plantations.  Tlie  manner  of  its  culture  differs  but 
little  from  that  adopted  in  China.  Tea  is  raised  from  the  seed,  which, 
being  preserved  in  brown  sugar,  can  be  transjDorted  to  any  portion  of 
the  country..  These  little  tea  balls  are  planted  in  beds,  and  then,  in 
the  manner  of  cabbage  plants,  are  transported  to  the  field,  and  placed 
five  feet  apart.  The  shrubs  are  kept  very  clean,  by  the  hoe  or  by  the 
plough,  which,  though  a  recent  introduction,  has  on  some  plantations 
been  eminently  successful  for  this  purpose. 

' '  The  shrubs  are  never  allowed  to  attain  a  height  of  more  than  four 
feet ;  and  the  leaves  are  considered  ready  for  picking  the  third  year 
after  planting.  The  culture,  the  gathering,  and  the  preparation  of  tea 
are  not  difficult,  and  children  are  profitably  and  efficiently  emploj^ed 
in  the  various  modes  of  arranging  it  for  market.  The  apparatus  used 
is  very  simple,  consisting  of — 1.  Baskets,  in  which  the  leaves  are  de- 
posited when  collected;  2.  Carved  frame-work,  on  which  they  are 
rolled,  one  by  one;  3.  Open  ovens,  or  large  metallic  pans,  in  which 
the  tea  is  dried  by  means  of  a  fire  beneath.  Women  and  children 
gather  the  leaves  and  carry  them  to  the  ovens,  where  slave  men  are 
engaged  in  keeping  up  the  fire,  stirring,  squeezing,  and  rolling  the 
tea,  which  operations  are  all  that  it  requires  before  packing  it  in  boxes 
for  home  sale,  or  for  exportation  to  the  neighboring  provinces. 


6  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

"The  tea  plant  is  a  hardy  shrub,  and  can  "be  cultivated  in  almost 
any  portion  of  Brazil,  though  it  is,  perhaps,  better  adapted  to  the 
south,  where  frosts  prevail,  and  vv^hich  it  resists.  If  left  to  itself  in 
the  tropics,  it  will  soon  run  up  to  a  tree.  The  coffee  tree  requires  rich 
and  new  soil  and  a  warm  climate,  unknown  to  frosts ;  but  the  tea  plant 

will  flourish  in  any  soil.     Dr.  ,  who  visited  various  portions  of 

China,  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  cha  can  be  grown  in  any  part  of  the 
United  States,  from  Pennsylvania  to  the  Mexican  Gulf.  There  are  not 
many  varieties  of  the  plant,  as  is  often  supposed,  black  and  green  teas 
being  merely  the  leaves  of  the  same  tree^  obtained  at  different  seasons 
of  the  year.  The  flavor  is  sometimes  varied,  as  that  of  wines  from 
the  same  species  of  grajDe  grown  on  different  soils.  The  plant  is  not 
deciduous,  as  in  China,  and  in  Brazil  is  gathered  from  March  to  July, 
which,  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  would  correspond  to  the  interval 
between  September  and  January. 

' '  I  was  informed  that  several  million  pounds  are  now  annually  pre- 
pared in  the  provinces  of  San  Paulo  and  Minas  Geraes,  and  its  culture 
is  on  the  increase. 

"Some  years  ago  the  tea  planters  were  greatly  discouraged;  for  the 
cha  was  badly  prepared,  was  sold  too  new,  and  hence  the  demand  did 
not  increase.  But,  since  a  greater  experience  in  its  culture  and  prepa- 
ration, a  better  article  for  this  favorite  beverage  has  met  with  corres- 
ponding encouragement.  Formerly,  the  cultivators  said  that,  if  they 
could  obtain  sixteen  cents  per  pound,  wholesale,  it  would  be  as  remu- 
nerative as  coffee.  In  1855,  twenty  cents  for  the  poorer  article  could 
be  obtained ;  and  for  superior  qualities,  the  greater  portion  of  the  crop, 
forty  cents  per  pound,  wholesale,  was  readily  commanded.  The  de- 
mand for  it  is  constantly  increasing.  When  rightly  prepared,  it  is  not 
inferior  to  that  imported  from  China.  Much,  indeed,  of  the  tea  sold 
in  the  province  of  San  Paulo  as  cha  da  India,  has  merely  made  the 
sea-voyage  from  Santos  to  Eio  de  Janeiro,  and  there,  after  being  packed 
in  Chinese  boxes,  is  sent  back  to  the  Paulistas  as  the  genuine  aromatic 
leaf  from  the  celestial  empire.  I  have  seen  foreigners  in  Brazil,  who 
esteemed  themselves  connoisseurs  in  tea,  deceived  by  the  best  cha  na- 
gional. 

"A  few  years  ago  Mr.  John  Kudge,  of  the  province  of  San  Paulo, 
sent  some  tea  from  his  plantation  as  a  present  to  his  relatives  in  Rio 
de  Janeiro.  This  was  prepared  very  nicely,  each  separate  leaf  having 
been  rolled  by  the  slaves  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  until  it 
looked  like  small  shot.  It  was  thus  invested  with  a  foreign  appear- 
ance, packed  in  small  Chinese  tea-caddies,  and  shipped  at  Santos  for 
the  capital.  When  the  caddies  arrived,  they  were  seized  at  the  cus- 
tom-house as  an  attempt  to  defraud  the  revenue.  It  was,  on  the  other 
hand,  insisted  that  the  boxes  contained  cha  nacional,  although  by 
neglect  they  did  not  appear  upon  the  manifest.  The  parties  to  whom 
the  tea  had  been  sent  offered  to  have  it  submitted  to  inspection.  The 
caddies  were  opened,  and  the  custom-house  officials  screamed  with 
triumph,  adding  to  their  former  suspicions  the  evidence  of  their  senses, 
for  the  sight,  the  taste,  the  smell  of  the  nicely-prepared  tea  proclaimed 
emphatically  that  it  was  cha  da  India,  and  that  this  was  an  attempt 
to  defraud  his  Imperial  Majesty's  customs.     It  was  not  until  letters 


EXPERIMENTAL    AND    PROPAGATING    GARDEN.  T 

were  sent  to  Santos,  and  in  reply  the  certiiicates  of  that  provincial 
custom-house  had  been  received,  that  the  collectors  at  Rio  were  satis- 
fied that  there  was  no  fraud,  and  that  the  province  of  San  Paulo  could 
produce  as  good  tea  as  that  l3rought  around  the  Cape  of  Grood  Hope. 

^'A  few  years  may  suffice  to  show^  on  the  pages  of  the  ^Commerce 
and  Navigation'  of  G-reat  Britain  and  the  United  States,  that  tea 
enters  largely  into  the  articles  of  importation  from  Brazil.  Fifty 
years  only  have  elapsed  since  the  first  cargo  of  coffee  was  shipped  from 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  now  Brazil  supplies  two  thirds  of  the  coffee  of  the 
world.  The  revolution  in  Hayti  was  the  commencement  of  .a  new  era 
for  the  coffee  of  Brazil. 

''In  1846,  Dr. learned  that  several  planters  were  about  to  root 

up  their  tea  shrubs.  He  besought  them  not  to  carry  out  their  inten- 
tion, 'for,'  said  he,  'there  is  to  be  a  great  revolution  in  China,  [in 
1845  he  had  been  informed,  in  the  Celestial  empire,  of  the  existence 
of  the  Triad  society,]  and  the  price  of  teas  will  be  sure  to  go  up  in  a 
few  years.'  The  dishea,rtened  planters  were  encouraged  to  go  on,  and 
only  a  short  time  before  my  visit  to  Limeira,  one  of  these  fazendeiros 

sent  to  Dr.  ■ several  pounds  of  most  excellent  tea,  at  the  same  time 

assuring  him  (the  doctor)  of  his  deep  gratitude  for  having  been  pre- 
vented from  the  destruction  of  his  plantation.  He  had  found  it 
exceedingly  remunerative,  and  next  year  he  intended  to  enter  into 
more  extensive  operations. 

"Throughout  the  world  the  use  of  tea  is  becoming  as  universal  as 
that  of  coffee,  and  any  continued  disturbance  in  China  must  bring  into 
prominent  notice  the  tea  culture  of  Brazil.  The  product  is  now  almost 
entirely  used  within  the  empire  ;  but  the  adaptability  of  the  culture  to 
almost  any  portion  of  the  immense  territory,  and  the  ease  by  which  it 
can  be  carried  on^  will  doubtless,  in  a  very  brief  period  of  time,  fully 
develop  this  new  source  of  national  wealth." 

In  the  United  States  a  single  enterprise,  upon  a  very  limited  scale, 
indifferently  managed,  and  early  abandoned,  is  the  only  experiment  in 
tea  culture  of  which  we  have  any  record.  Junius  Smith,  LL.  D.,  of 
South  Carolina,  in  1848,  imported  a  number  of  shrubs  of  from  five  to 
seven  years'  growth,  and  caused  them  to  be  planted  at  Greenville,  in 
that  State.  In  March,  1851,  they  were  removed  to  a  neighboring 
pla^ntation.  About  this  period  Dr.  Smith  wrote  concerning  them,  as 
follows:  "They  grew  remarkably  last  summer,  and  are  now  fully 
rooted,  with  fine  large  main  and  collateral  roots,  with  an  abundance 
of  fibrous  radicles.  They  all  stood  the  snow,  eight  or  nine  inches 
deep  upon  the  level,  on  the  3d  of  January,  and  the  severe  frosts  of 
winter,  without  the  slightest  covering  or  protection,  and  without  the 
loss  of  a  single  plant.  They  are  now  all  forming  part  of  the  planta- 
tion, composed  of  those  received  from  China  la.st  June  and  a  few 
planted  the  first  week  in  June,  which  germinated  the  17th  of  Septem- 
ber. All  these  young  j)lants  were  thinly  covered  with  straw.  Some 
of  them  have  lost  their  foliage,  others  have  not ;  the  stems  do  not 
appear  to  have  sustained  any  injury  ;  the  fresh  buds  are  beginning  to 
shoot.  I  cannot  help  thinking  that  we  have  now  demonstrated  the 
adaptation  of  the  tea  plant  to  the  soil  and  climate  of  this  country,  and 
succeeded  in  its  permanent  establishment  within  our  borders."    Littla 


8  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

more  is  known  of  tliese  plants,  except  that,  being  neglected,  they  have 
perished,  unless  a  few  isolated  specimens  have  been  preserved  as  sub- 
jects of  curiosity.  Last  spring,  however,  Mr.  S.  P.  Buckley,  a  well- 
known  writer  on  horticulture,  communicated  to  a  New  York  periodical 
(the  "Country  Gentleman")  the  following  statement:  "A  few  days 
ago  I  drank  a  cup  of  real  American  tea,  from  the  Chinese  tea  plant, 
of  which  Dr.  J.  P.  Barratt,  near  New  Market^  South  Carolina,  has  a 
fine  shrub  about  four  feet  high,  which  has  borne  fruit  during  several 
years.  By  its  side  was  a  thrifty  specimen  of  the  olea  fragrans,  or 
Chinese  olive,  witli  which  the  tea  is  scented.  *  *  :^  j  ^j^g 
recently  at  Greenville,  in  this  State,  where  Junius  Smith,  some  years 
ago,  essayed  its  culture.  I  was  told  that  his  experiment  was  by  no 
means  a  true  test.  His  soil  was  barren^  and  he  took  no  pains  to  im- 
prove it.  The  plants  did  not  receive  proper  nourishment,  and,  not 
being  used  to  such  treatment,  they  pined  and  died." 

Although  many  varieties  of  tea  are  known  in  commerce,  they  are 
not  the  products  of  as  many  different  species  of  the  tea  plant.  Burnett 
Bays,  (see  "Outlines  of  Botany:")  "Of  the  genus  thea  there  are  but 
three  or  four  known  species,  and  of  these  tw-o  only,  viz  :  thea  viridis 
and  thea  bohea,  afford  the  leaves  which  are  so  extensively  used  in 
infusion,  as  the  common  morning  and  evening  beverage  in  this  country, 
(England,)  and  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  as  well  as  in  China.  Indeed, 
some  authprities  declare  that  the  black  and  green  teas  are  not  the  pro- 
duce of  different  species,  but  merely  varieties  of  thea  viridis,  which, 
according  to  soil  and  culture,  will  produce  either  green  tea  or  black ; 
and  that  the  thea  bohea  of  botanists  does  not  enter  essentially  into 
the  manufacture,  although  its  leaves,  as  v/ell  as  those  of  different  spe- 
cies of  camellia,  may  be  introduced  accidentally,  or  be  mixed  design- 
edly, as  an  adulteration."  These  are  the  commonly  received  opinions 
on  this  subject,  but  Mr.  Fortune,  whose  opportunities  of  obtaining 
correct  information  have  been  very  ample,  asserts  that  both  green  and 
black  tea  are  made  from  each  of  the  two  species  named,  the  difference 
in  the  article  produced  depending  upon  the  period  of  gathering  and 
the  process  of  manufacture. 

But  one  species  forms  the  subject  of  the  present  experiment — thea 
viridis.  For  the  instruction  and  guidance  of  the  American  cultivator 
the  following  information  has  been  elicited  from  Mr.  Fortune,  in  re- 
sponse to  inquiries  presented  to  him  by  the  Patent  Office  concerning 
the  culture  of  the  tea  plant  in  China  and  India : 

The  principal  tea  districts  in  China,  which  supply  the  greater  por-, 
tion  of  the  teas  exported  to  Europe  and  America,  lie  between  latitude 
25°  and  35°  north;  the  finest  districts  between  26°  and  35°,  and  be- 
tween longitude  110°  and  120°  east  of  Greenwich.  The  Indian  dis- 
tricts in  which  tea  is  cultivated,  between  the  26th  and  32d  degrees  of 
north  latitude,  and  the  75th  and  95th  degrees  of  east  longitude.  The 
chief  districts  are  Assam,  Cachar,  Dehra-Dhoon,  Almorah,  and  Kan- 
gra,  in  the  Punjaub. 

In  China,  the  lower  slopes  of  the  hills  are  preferred,  at  1,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea  ;  in  India,  from  2,000  to  6,000  feet.  The 
best  description  of  soil  for  the  tea  plant  is  a  light  loam,  well  mixed 
with  sand,  and  enriched  with  vegetable  matter,  moderately  moist,  but 


EXPERIMENTAL  AND  PROPAGATING  GARDEN. 


9 


neither  wet  nor  sour.  Sloping  or  undulating  land  of  this  kind,  on 
which  good  crops  of  millet  and  Indian  corn  may  be  produced,  is  likely 
to  be  suitable.  Any  aspect  will  do,  but  east  and  west  are  preferred. 
The  tea  plant  will  not  flourish  in  a  wet  or  stagnant  soil.  Those  on 
which  it  succeeds  best  vary  in  their  constituent  elements  in  the  several 
districts.  With  respect  to  climate,  the  following  abstract  of  observa- 
tions in  the  open  air,  in  a  shaded  situation,  at  Shanghai,  in  lati- 
tude 31°  20'  north,  the  maximum  of  the  day^,  and  the. minimum  at 
night,  taken  by  a  self-registering  thermometer,  will  afford  satisfactory 
data  for  comparison.  In  the  tea  mountains,  to  the  west  of  this,  the 
thermometer  sinks  several  degrees  lower  in  the  winter  months: 


Abstract  of  Ohservations. 


Years  1851  to  1858,  inclusive. 


-J 

bj) 

-(-■ 

bD 

>-. 

r3 

c 

JS 

>> 

^. 

K 

a 

J2 

-O 

>^ 

QJ 

o 

s 

bJD 

bJD 

C3 

ci 

>. 

o 

o 

^ 

> 

< 

> 
< 

s 
Pi 

240 

510 

330 

7 

18 

48 

30 

3 

18 

45 

30 

.  10 

24 

51 

37 

9 

18 

44 

25 

4 

18 

47 

20 

7 

18 

49 

30 

3 

27 

46 

35 

16 

26 

49 

34 

10 

19 

45 

31 

13 

20 

45 

31 

11 

25 

44 

32 

12 

18 

51 

30 

5 

15 

44 

31 

13 

28 

59 

36 

13 

28 

47 

36 

11 

28 

52 

41 

16 

33 

51 

38 

12 

35 

56 

42 

10 

32 

52 

41 

10 

30 

55 

41 

11 

26 

55 

39 

6 

31 

54 

43 

10 

33 

53 

41 

10 

33 

59 

48 

21 

35 

62 

48 

10 

38 

63 

50 

17 

40 

64 

49 

10 

37 

63 

51 

15 

42 

65 

51 

9 

36 

66 

54 

10 

41 

67 

49 

10 

47 

70 

57 

5 

52 

73 

60 

8 

50 

72 

59 

11 

37 

73 

61 

15 

50 

74 

63 

18 

46 

73 

61 

11 

50 

71 

59 

14 

54 

70 

59 

16 

January,  1851. 
1852. 
1853. 
1854. 
1855. 
1856. 
1857. 
1858. 

February,  1851. 
18.52. 
1853. 
1854. 
1855. 
1856. 
1857. 
1858. 

March,  1851. 
1852. 
1853. 
1854, 
1855. 
1856 
1857, 
1858, 

April,  1851, 
1852 
1853 
1854 
1855, 
1856 
1857, 
1858, 

May,  1851 
1852, 
1853 
1854, 
1855 
1856 
1857, 
1858, 


650 

66 

66 

67 

52 

54 

58 

57 

65 

60 

56 

62 

68 

60 

65 

68 

63 

62 

67 

67 

72 

73 

72 

72 

70 

72 

79 

75 

82 

88 

78 

85 

83 

84 

86 

84 

90 

92 

82 


42° 

25 

30 

32 

33 

40 

34 


38 
38 
33 
32 
35 
30 


40 
43 
46 
42 
36 
40 
45 


50 
50 
50 
56 
52 
54 
53 


60 
60 
62 
64 
60 
60 
65 


450 
40 
43 
53 

40 
42 
44 


42 
40 
40 
43 
45 
42 
45 


55 
45 
57 
47 
57 
50 
56 


56 
61 
60 
60 
67 
62 
62 


68 
68 
68 
70 
73 
73 
70 


10 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

ABSTRACT— Continued. 


Years  1851  to  1858,  inclusive. 


6D 

'2 

a 
pi 
s 


p4 


July, 


Auarust, 


June  1851... 

1852... 

1853... 

1854... 

1855... 

1856... 

1857... 

1858... 

1851... 

1852... 

1853... 

1854... 

1855... 

1856... 

1857... 

1858... 

1851.., 

1852.. 

1853.. 

1864.. 

1855.. 

1856.. 

1857.. 

1858.. 
September,  1851.. 

1852.. 

1853.. 

1854.. 

1855.. 

1856.. 

1857.. 

1858.. 
October,       1851.. 

1852.. 

1853.. 

1854.. 

1855.. 

1856.. 

1857.. 

1858.. 
November,  1851.. 

1852.. 

1853.. 

1854.. 

1855.. 

1856.. 

1857., 

1858., 
December,  1851., 

]852., 

1853. 
1854. 
1855. 
1856. 
1857. 
1858. 


830 
99 
93 
90 
90 
88 
90 
87 
96 
100 
99 
98 
94 
96 
96 
94 
93 
94 
95 
99 
99 
95 
96 
90 
89 
92 
90 
90 
88 
90 
88 
87 
90 
83 
88 
88 
80 
84 
82 
76 
76 
80 
76 
76 
78 
75 
78 
73 
64 
65 
66 
66 
73 
76 
64 
57 


680 

66 

70 

71 

73 

68 

67 


70 

82 
83 
72 
82 
77 
75 


750 

81 

78 

80 

79 

77 

78 


81 
81 
81 


81 


76 

82 

82 

82 

82 

80 

75 

81 

83 

81 

85 

82 

76 

80 

65 

77 

70 

79 

70 

78 

66 

79 

70 

,78 

70 

80 

65 

80 

57 

72 

62 

70 

65 

77 

63 

70 

65 

69 

60 

73 

60 

75 

55 

60 

53 

62 

48 

65 

52 

60 

55 

62 

60 

57 

50 

62 

45 

47 

42 

52 

40 

46 

40 

46 

40 

43 

38 

47 

60O 
58 
59 
62 
56 
64 
59 
59 
66 
75 
77 
70 
73 
70 
74 
68 
63 
67 
70 
65 
75 
74 
68 
67 
51 
56 
64 
59 
58 
"58 
60 
63 
43 
49 
46 
50 
45 
45 
53 
45 
41 
32 
32 
31 
33 
32 
39 
26 
25 
19 
27 
26 
22 
26 
31 
31 


770 

81 

81 

79 

79 

80 

82 

80 

88 

92 

90 

86 

89 

89 

89 

87 

87 

88 

86 

89 

87 

90 

89 

83 

78 

79 


81 
82 
79 
80 
70 
74 
73 
74 
73 
70 
72 
70 
66 
64 
66 
66 
62 
68 
62 
63 
54 
54 
54 
55 
60 
57 
53 
51 


670 

73 

69 

69 

70 

66 

70 

68 

75 

78 

80 

78 

78 

78 

78 

76 

77 

76 

73 

79 

78 

79 

76 

74 

67 

66 

70 

69 

70 

72 

68 

70 

51 

58 

60 

60 

58 

59 

60 

57 

48 

48 

50 

45 

49 

45 

46 

44 

36 

32 

38 

39 

36 

35 

42 

40 


10 
17 
13 

10 
7 
3 

11 

10 

7 
8 
2 

13 


7 

16 

11 

7 

13 

10 

12 

6 

5 

14 

11 

10 

12 

9 

8 

15 

17 

14 

10 

4 

6 

5 

3 

11 

12 

5 

10 

2 

14 

3 

11 


3. 
12 

18 


EXPERIMENTAL  AND  PROPAGATING  GARDEN.         11 

In  the  Folden  districts,  where  black  tea  is  generally  produced,  the 
ice  is  never  of  any  considerable  thickness,  and  the  snow  lies  only  on 
the  tops  of  the  mountains,  rarely  so  far  down  as  the  tea  plantations. 
In  the  northern  districts  of  Hwuychow,  Honan,  and  Hopek,  ice  is 
often  found  from  two  to  four  inches  thick,  the  ground  frozen  six  to 
eight  inches,  and  the  snow  from  one  to  two  feet  deep^  though  rarely, 
as  the  winter  months  are  comparatively  dry.  But  the  sun,  even  in 
winter,  has  considerable  power,  and  the  snow  does  not  lie  long  on  the 
ground.  A  climate  having  abundance  of  rain  is  advantageous  to  this 
XDlant,  particularly  if  the  rain  falls  in  the  spring  and  summer  monthsj, 
say  from  April  to  July, 

The  tea  plant  is  an  evergreen,  not  unlike  the  camellia,  though  by 
no  means  so  retentive  of  its  leaves  in  winter.  Sometimes  the  plants 
are  ten  feet  high  in  a  wild  state,  but  they  never  form  stems  of  great 
thickness,  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter  being  the  largest.  The 
young  leaves  only  are  gathered,  and  in  young  plants  they  are  usually 
from  two  to  three  inches  long.  Some  kinds  of  fine  teas,  such  as  the 
flowery  ''Pekoe,"  are  made  of  partially  developed  leaves.  When  the 
leaves  are  very  large  and  succulent,  they  are  not  considered  suitable 
for  the  manufacture  of  good  tea,  especially  if  they  are  old.  When  pro- 
duced from  seeds,  the  tea  plant  first  flowers  in  the  second  year,  rarely 
in  the  first.  It  is  not  usual  to  propagate  it  from  cuttings  in  China, 
but  it  would  no  doubt  flower  the  first  year  if  the  cuttings  were  taken 
from  full-grown  plants.  The  usual  period  of  flowering  is  in  November, 
and  the  seeds  ripen  the  next  autumn.  The  number  of  seeds  produced 
by  a  shrub  depends  upon  its  size  and  health.  Vigorous  plants  pro- 
duce fewer  than  the  sickly  and  stunted.  A  great  number  of  the  young 
clusters  are  pulled  in  gathering  the  leaves,  and  may  be  seen  in  the  tea 
brought  to  America.  The  seeds  are  preserved,  preparatory  to  sowing, 
by  being  mixed  with  damp  sand  and  earth.  They  are  sown  at  any 
time  after  they  are  ripe  before  April  of  the  following  year.  Beds  about 
four  feet  vfide  are  prepared,  and  the  seeds  are  sown  in  rows  across  these 
beds  in  the  way  common  in  our  nurseries.  In  the  field  they  are  planted 
four  or  five  in  a  hole,*  the  bunches  usually  about  four  feet  from  each 
other,  in  rows.  The  ground  is  prepared  for  planting  by  being  dug,  or 
trenched,  in  the  usual  way.  Manure  is  rarely  used  in  tea  culture  in 
China ;  but  where  the  land  is  poor,  stable  litter  and  sewage  of  all  kinds 
are  sometimes  applied,  indiscriminately,  in  moderate  quantities,  and 
a  top-dressing  of  rich  loam  is  considered  valuable.  The  best  time  to 
apply  manure  is  in  the  spring,  before  the  plants  begin  to  grow,  or 
during  mild  weather  in  winter.  In  transplanting,  if  the  ground  has 
been  well  prepared,  the  holes  need  not  be  much  larger  than  the  size 
of  the  roots  requires ;  but  if  this  has  not  been  the  case,  the  holes  should 
be  at  least  eighteen  inches  in  diameter  and  in  depth.  The  same  rules' 
apply  to  tea  plants  and  to  our  fruit  trees.  The  shrubs  should  be 
planted  about  as  deep  as  in  their  original  beds.  The  roots  of  a  full- 
grown  shrub  ordinarily  descend  two  to  three  feet,  and  extend  laterally 
from  the  stems  about  two  feet  on  each  side.  The  plant  usually  attains 
a  height  of  from  three  to  five  feet,  when  fully  grown  in  a  cultivated 

*  Singly,  it  is  believed,  will  be  the  preferred  mode  in  this  country. 


12  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

•state,  or  it  is  kept  at  this  lieiglit,  .and  round  and  busliy,  that  it  may 
yield  a  large  crop  of  leaves.  When  it  is  about  eighteen  inches  high, 
the  leading  shoots  are  pinched  off,  and  the  shrub  is  forced  to  throw 
out  laterals.  Naturally,  it  has  a  tendency  to  grow  tall  and  straggling, 
with  few  side  shoots.  The  object  of  pruning,  or  rather  pinching  off 
the  ends  of  the  shoots  with  the  fingers,  is  to  force  each  plant  to  form 
hundreds  of  little  shoots,  and  to  assume  a  round  and  bushj^  outline. 
As  the  leaves  used  in  making  tea  are  produced  yearly  at  the  ends  of 
the  shoots,  the  object  of  this-  system  of  treatment  is  apparent.  It  is 
practised  during  the  tea-gathering  season,  so  that  liothing  may  be 
wasted,  all  being  made  into  tea.*  A  small  crop  of  leaves  may  be 
gathered  the  third  year  after  planting.  In  the  eighth  or  tenth  year, 
the  produce  may  be  considered  at  its  maximum. 

In  China,  in  consequence  of  the  continual  plucking  of  the  leaves,  the 
tea  plant  remains  in  full  bearing  only  twenty-five  or  thirty  years,  when 
it  becomes  feeble  and  stunted,  and  can  no  longer  be  cultivated  profit- 
ably.    The  usual  annual  product  is  as  follows  : 

Tea  produced  in  3d  year,  1 0  pounds  to  an  acre. 

Tea  produced  in  4th  year^  30  pounds  to  an  acre. 

Tea  produced  in  5th  year,  80  pounds  to  an  acre. 

Tea  produced  in  6th  year,  120  pounds  to  an  acre. 

Tea  produced  in  '7th  year,  150  pounds  to  an  acre. 

Tea  produced  in  8th  year,  200  j^ounds  to  an  acre. 

Tea  produced  in  9th  year,  250  pounds  to  an  acre. 

Tea  produced  in  10th  year,  300  pounds  to  an  acre. 

For  ten  or  fifteen  years  longer,  the  maximum  of  300  pounds  may  be 
kept  up  by  judicious  management.  The  Chinese  cultivators  are  most 
careful  in  gathering  the  leaves.  They  know  well  that  the  continual 
plucking  has  a  tendency  to  make  the  bushes  unhealthy,  and  conse- 
quently they  do  not  gather  from  very  young  plants,  nor  from  those 
which  are  not  vigorous  and  healthy.  For  the  first  three  years  the 
chief  object  is  to  form  the  plants,  as  has  been  already  described. 
Stunted,  unhealthy  bushes  are  always  passed  by  in  the  gathering 
season. 

While  the  instruction  thus  derived  from  the  experience  of  the  Chi- 
nese is  worthy  the  attention  of  every  American  cultivator,  a  servile 
adherence  to  it  is  not  desired.  With  our  superior  implements  and 
superior  skill  in  husbandry,  and  with  the  unceasing  efforts  of  our  peo- 
ple to  improve  upon  past  usages,  it  can  hardly  be  otherwise  than  that 
the  labor  of  cultivating  and  manufacturing  tea  will  be  greatly  facili- 
tated, and  that  acceptable  and  even  improved  qualities  may  soon  be 
produced  at  lower  prices  than  the  imported  varieties  now  command  in 
general  commerce.  In  accordance  with  this  practical  view,  a  note  has 
been  prepared  for  the  instruction  of  those  to  whom  the  plants  are  to 
be  committed  for  culture,  in  the  following  words: 

''The  tea  plant  is  a  half-hardy  evergreen  shrub,  thickly  branched, 
with  dark  coriaceous  foliage.  Under  cultivation  it  grows  from  four 
to  six  feet  high.  It  is  seldom  attacked  by  insects,  and  is  sufficiently 
hardy  to  flourish  where  the  temperature  in  winter  does  not  fall  below 

*The  early  spring,  before  budding,  will  doubtless  prove  the  proper  time. 


EXPERIMENTAL    AND    PROPAGATING   GARDEN.  13 

'2°  of  Falireiilieit.  It  may  be  readily  propagated  from  seeds,  from 
ayers,  and  from  cuttings.  The  seeds  may  be  sown  from  two  to  three 
nches  deep,  in  rows,  and  they  will  germinate  in  from  two  to  three- 
months.  They  grow  from  six  to  ten  inches  high  the  first  season,  and 
in  the  following  spring  may  be  plaiited  out  to  the  sites  in  which  they 
are  to  remain.  The  ground  should  be  kept  clear  of  weeds,  and  occa- 
sionally loosened  about  their  roots.  In  Septemher  the  lower  branches 
may  be  laid  in  the  ground,  and  kept  covered  with  sandy  soil,  until  the 
next  autumn,  when  they  should  be  severed  from  the  parent  stock  and 
removed  to  the  plantations  prepared  for  them.  Cuttings  may  be  taken 
in  October  from  well-ripened  shoots.  The  operator  should  cut  smoothly 
across,  at  a  joint,  with  a  sharp  knife,  and  remove  two  or  three  of  the 
lower  leaves,  and  then  plant  the  cuttings  in  boxes  of  sand,  making 
them  firm  with  a  small  dibber.  The  boxes  should  then  be  placed  in  a 
cold  frame  and  kept  shaded,  during  sunshine.  In  the  next  spring,, 
those  that  have  taken  root  will  begin  to  grow,  when  their  progress 
may  be  accelerated  by  a  gentle  bottom  heat ;  and  in  autumn  they  may 
be  planted  out  in  rows,  six  feet  apart,  the  shrubs  standing  five  feet 
apart  along  the  row." 

In  order  that  this  enterprise  may  be  judiciously  conducted,  it  is  pro- 
posed to  supply  to  each  experimenter,  in  those  regions  in  which  the 
shrub  may  be  expected  to  flourish  in  the  open  air,  a  sufficient  number 
of  plants  to  occupy  a  few  square  rods  of  ground.  Accordingly,  there 
will  be  but  one  consignment  to  each  congressional  district,  and  that 
to  some  intelligent  and  responsible  person,  selected  with  the  assistance 
of  the  representative  of  the  district.  As  it  is  supposed  that  the  plant 
cannot  be  cultivated  in  the  open  air  north  of  the  northern  boundaries 
of  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina,  but  must  be  protected  in  heated  con- 
servatories and  green-houses  during  the  winter,  they  will  be  distrib- 
uted among  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  persons  in  the  States,  respectively, 
north  of  the  above-named  line,  for  the  gratification  of  the  taste  and 
the  curiosity  of  the  public.  The  names  and  address  of  these  persons, 
also,  have  been  obtained  through  the  aid  of  their  representatives  in 
Congress.  The  distribution  will  be  made  in  February  and  March. 
1860,  and  the  intended  recipients  will  be  duly  notified  thereof. 

The  Chinese  processes  of  gathering,  rolling,  drying,  coloring,  scent- 
ing, and  packing  tea  for  commerce,  have  frequently  been  described  in 
English  and  American  publications,  and  partially  in  the  Patent  Ofiice 
Report  for  1857.  Rolling,  coloring,  and  scenting  will  probably  be 
wholly  omitted  in  the  manufacture  in  this  country.  The  discussion  of 
the  other  operations  will  be  in  season  hereafter,  when  the  public  mind 
shall  have  been  drawn  more  practically  and  interestedly  to  the  subject. 

Pyretlirum  caucasicum,  250  plants :  This  plant,  from  which  the 
Persian  insect  powder  is  obtained,  is  partially  known  in  the  United 
States.  It  was  described  in  the  Patent  Office  Report  for  1857.  It 
bears  white  flowers,  in  July  and  August,  like  those  of  the  oxeye  daisy, 
(chrysanthemum  leucanthemum,)  and  is  propagated  by  the  division 
of  its  root  and  by  seeds.  It  is  a  herbaceous  perennial,  and  flowers  the 
first  year. 

Achillea  rosea,  200  plants:  A  pretty  border  plant,  with  beautiful 
red  flewer,  having  an  aromatic,  agreeable  smell,  and  bitter,  pungent 


14  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

taste.  It  is  a  variety  of  tlie  common  pereniiial_,  (achillea  millefoliumj) 
in  the  dry  pastures  and  on  the  steep  banks  of  rivers  in  Great  Britain, 
known  as  millfoil,  or  yarrow,  which  has  been  used  medicinally  as  a 
narcotic,  and  applied  to  the  manufacture  of  beer.  The  usual  height 
of  the  achillea  rosea  is  six  inches,  but  the  flower  stem  ascends  twelve 
inches  above  it.  The  flowering  season  is  in  June,  July,  and  August, 
the  brilliant  hues  becoming  pale  as  the  season  advances. 

The  corJc  tree,  (quercus  suher,)  250  plants:  This  tree  is  fully  de- 
scribed in  the  Patent  Office  Keport  for  1858_,  and  has  been  partially 
introduced  to  the  country  by  means  of  the  distribution  of  a  large 
quantity  of  its  acorns;  yet,  so  general  has  been  the  neglect  or  want  of 
knowledge  respecting  their  culture,  that  the  successful  propagation 
froni  acorns  at  this  garden  is  deemed  essential  to  the  success  of  the  ex- 
periment. The  habitat  of  the  cork  tree  does  not,  probably,  extend 
north  of  Maryland. 

The  mahonia,  5,000  plants:  This  is  an  evergreen  shrub,  four  feet 
Mgh,  having  yellow  flowers,  succeeded  by  brilliant  red  berries.  It  is 
known  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States,  whence,  indeed,  it  was  intro- 
duced to  Europe.  It  is,  probably,  the  mahonia  fascicularis ;  natural 
€rder^  berberide^. 

Seedling  straivherries,  1,000  plants. 

Virgilia  lutea,  200  plants:  This  is  a  deciduous  shrub.  It  attains  a 
lieight  of  fifteen  feet,  and,  in  Europe,  flowers  in  June  and  July.  It  is 
.a  native  of  North  America,  and  is  well  known  in  Tennessee.  The 
wood  is  yellow,  and  dyes  a  beautiful  saffron  color. 

The  camphor  tree,  21  plants :  There  are  already  a  few  specimens  of 
this  tree  in  botanical  collections  in  the  United  States.  It  is  a  native 
of  Japan.  The  roots,  wood,  and  leaves  have  a  strong  odor  of  cam- 
|)hor,  which  is  found  everywhere  in  the  interstices  of  the  fibers  of  the 
wood  and  in  the  pith,  but  most  abundantly  in  the  crevices  and  knots. 
The  camphor  of  commerce  is  obtained  not  only  from  this  tree,  (laurus 
€amphora,)  but  also  from  the  dryobalanops  camphora,  a  native  of 
Sumatra,  which  yields  a  harder,  more  brittle,  and  more  highly-valued 
gum.  The  camphor  tree  is  tall  and  divided  into  many  branches,  cov-. 
ered  with  smooth  greenish  bark.  It  may  be  propagated  from  seeds  or 
from  cuttings. 

Finns  edulis,  100  plants:  This  tree  is  from  Oregon.  It  is  of  rapid 
growth,  and  very  ornamental.  The  Indians  esteem  the  seeds  a  great 
'delicacy. 

Sycamore  Jig,  50  plants :  The  platanus  occidentalis  of  Linnasus, 
commonly  called  button- wood  or  cotton  tree,  is  erroneously  called  syca- 
more also.  The  true  sycamore,  in  size  and  appearance,  resembles  a 
mulberry  tree,  but  bears  a  species  of  fig.  It  is  found  in  Palestine, 
and  is  believed  to  be  the  tree  mentioned  in  Luke  xvii :  6,  and  else- 
where in  the  New  Testament. 

Arbor  vitoi,  (species,  thuja,)  1,500  plants:  The  arbor  vitas  of  the 
United  States,  (thuja  occidentalis,)  is  a  well-known  evergreen  shrub, 
-assuming  the  form  and  height  of  a  tree  in  Canada,  its  native  locality, 
and  growing  best  in  swamps  and  marshes.  That  now  introduced  very 
nearly  resembles  the  American  species ;  but  Mr.  Fortune  states  that, 
in  China,  it  is  the  most  ornamental  of  the  species  he  has  seen. 

Tihus  succedanea,  {loax   plant,)  150  plants :  An  evergreen  shrub, 


EXPERIMENTAL  AND  PROPAGATING  GARDEN.   .      15 

ten  feet  liigli.  It  is  half-hardy,  and  flowers  in  June.  It  was  first  in- 
troduced into  England,  from  Cliina,  in  1768.  The  plants  now  under 
cultivation  are  from  seeds  obtained  in  Japan.  The  seeds  yield  an  oil, 
by  expression,  of  the  consistence  of  suet,  which  is  used  in  China  and 
Japan  for  making  candles.  Its  sap  is  resinous,  and  might  be  used  as 
varnish. 

Tung  oil  tree,  50  plants :  Also  from  Japan. 

Oodung,  and  other  ornamental  trees  from  Japan. 

Olea  fi'agrans,  or  fragrant  olive,  called  Lan-hoa  by  the  Chinese, 
who  use  the  leaves  and  blossoms  in  scenting  their  teas. 

Ilex  vomitoria :  This  plant,  according  to  Burnett,  is  known  as 
yopon  and  emetic  holly.  It  is  indigenous  to  North  Carolina,  and 
found  along  the  coast  thence  to  Florida.  Its  properties  were  known 
to  the  Indians,  who  used  an  infusion  of  its  leaves  as  an  agreeable  bev- 
erage, and  at  a  certain  time  in  the  year  purified  themselves  by  drink- 
ing it  very  strong,  and  in  copious  drafts,  for  two  or  three  days, 
throughout  which  period  it  operated  as  an  emetic.  Though  it  is  not 
pleasing  to  the  uneducated  taste,  poor  people  in  the  eastern  portions 
of  North  Carolina  use  it  as  a  substitute  for  tea  ;  and  the  captains  of 
many  vessels  take  supplies  of  it  to  sea,  because,  as  they  believe^  the 
sailors  are  in  better  condition  while  using  it  than  when  supplied  with 
coffee.  It  usually  grows  Avild,  but,  when  brought  under  cultivation 
and  training,  it  becomes  a  beautiful  tree,  though  not  often  more  than 
fifteen  feet  high. 

It  is  the  popular  belief  in  the  United  States  that  this  plant  is  iden- 
tical with  the  Ilex  Paraguayensis,  Yerba  mate,  or  Jesuits'  tea,  of 
Paraguay  ;  but  this  is  an  error.  Nor  is  the  Ilex  gongonha,  of  Brazil, 
identical  with  either.  The  tree  of  Paraguay  is  greatly  superior,  and 
possesses  an  importance  in  that  country  little  appreciated  elsewhere. 
In  1854,  the  president  of  the  province  of  Parana  alluded,  in  his  annual 
message,  to  the  fact  that  wheat  had  been  an  article  of  export,  but  had 
been  abandoned  because  "a  large  portion  of  the  population,  eschewing 
the  labor  required  in  the  production  of  the  cereals,  rush  to  the  virgin 
forests,  and  there,  stripping  the  evergreen  leaves  and  the  tender 
branches  of  the  Ilex  Paraguayensis,  easily  convert  them  into  the  pop- 
ular South  American  beverage  knov/n  as  the  yerba  mate,  or  hewa  Par- 
aguaya,  and  thus  amass  fortunes,  or  obtain  a  livelihood  without  the 
intervention  of  persevering  industry  or  great  exertion."  Large  quan- 
tities of  this  kind  of  tea  were  annually  exported  from  the  province  of 
Parana  until  interdicted  by  the  government. 

"Whilein  Paranagua,"  says  an  authority  already  quoted,  (Kidder 
and  Fletcher's  Brazil,)  "I  observed  many  raw-hide  cases,  which  the 
blacks  were  unloading  from  mules,  or  conveying  to  the  ships  riding  at 
anchor  in  the  beautiful  bay.  Upon  inquiry,  I  learned  that  these  pack- 
ages, weighing  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  each,  consisted 
of  mate.  This  substance,  so  little  known  out  of  South  America,  forms 
truly  the  principal  refreshing  beverage  of  the  Spanish-Americans 
south  of  the  equator,  and  millions  of  dollars  are  annually  expended  in 
Buenos  Ayres,  Bolivia,  Peru,  and  Chili,  in  its  consumption.  This 
town  of  Paranagua,  containing  about  three  thousand  inhabitants,  ex- 
ports every  year  nearly  a  million  dollars'  worth  of-mate. 

''It  can  be  gathered  during  the  whole  year.     Parties  go  into  the 


16  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

forest,  or  places  where  it  abounds,  and  break  off  the  branches  with  the 
leaves.  A  process  of  kiln-drying  is  resorted  to  in  the  woods^  and 
afterward  the  branches  and  leaves  are  transported  to  some  rude  mill, 
and  there  they  are,  by  water-power,  pounded  in  mortars. 

"The  substance,  after  this  operation,  is  almost  a  powder,  though 
small  stems,  denuded  of  their  bark,  are  always  permitted  to  remain. 
By  this  simple  process  the  mate  is  prepared  for  market.  Its  prepara- 
tion for  drinking  is  equally  simple.  A  small  quantity  of  the  leaf, 
either  with  or  without  sugar,  is  placed  in  a  common  bowl,  upon  which 
cold  water  is  poured.  After  standing  a  short  time  boiling  water  is 
added,  and  it  is  at  once  ready  for  use.  Americans  who  have  visited 
Buenos  Ayres  or  Montevideo,  may  remember  to  have  seen,  on  a  fine 
summer  evening,  the  denizens  of  that  portion  of  the  world  engaged  in 
sipping,  through  long  tubes  inserted  into  highly-ornamented  cocoanut 
bowls,  a  liquid  which,  though  not  so  palatable  as  iced  juleps,  is  cer- 
tainly far  less  harmful.  These  citizens  of  Montevideo  and  Buenos 
Ayreswereenjoying,  with  their  bombil  has,  a  refreshing  draught  of  mate. 
It  must  be  imbibed  through  a  tube,  on  account  of  the  particles  of  leaf 
and  stem  which  float  upon  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  This  tube  has  a 
fine  globular  strainer  at  the  end. 

"  Great  virtues  are  ascribed  to  this  tea.  It  supplies  the  place  of 
meat  and  drink.  Indians,  who  have  been  laboring  at  the  oar  all  day, 
feel  immediately  refreshed  by  a  cup  ®f  the  herb,  mixed  simply  with 
river  water.  In  Chili  and  Peru,  the  people  believe  that  they  could 
not  exist  without  it,  and  many  persons  take  it  every  hour  of  the  day. 
Its  use  was  learned  from  the  natives ;  but,  having  been  adopted,  it 
spread  among  the  Spaniards  and 'Portuguese,  until  the  demand  became 
so  great  as  to  render  the  herb  of  Paraguay  almost  as  fatal  to  the  In- 
dians of  this  part  of  America  as  mines  and  pearl  fisheries  had  been 
elsewhere. 

"It  grows  wild,  and  never  has  been  successfully  cultivated,  although 
attempts  were  made  by  the  Jesuits  of  Paraguay  to  transplant  it  from 
the  forests  to  their  plantations.  These  attempts  have  been  considered 
by  many  without  result;  still,  there  are  others  who  consider  that  the 
experiment  justifies  further  efforts,  and  are  urging  this  day  the  do- 
mestication, so  to  speak,  and  the  cultivation  of  mate  under  a  regular 
system." 

Don  states  ("System  of  Gardening  and  Botany")  that  "there  are 
three  kinds  of  Paraguay  tea,  but  all  procured  from  the  same  plant. 
These  go  under  the  names  of  caa-cuys,  caa-mini,  and  caa-guazu.  The 
first  is  prepared  from  the  buds,  when  the  leaves  are  scarcely  expanded ; 
the  seconcl  of  the  membrane  of  the  leaves  strij)ped  off  the  ribs  before 
roasting ;  and  the  third  consists  of  the  leaves  roasted  entire,  without 
any  selection.  The  caa-cuys  does  not  keep,  and  is  consequently  all  used 
in  Paraguay;  and  the  aromatic  bitterness  even  of  the  others  is  less- 
ened by  time  and  partly  dissipated  by  carriage.  The  principal  har- 
vests of  this  herb  are  reaped  in  the  eastern  parts  of  Paraguay,  and 
about  the  mountains  of  Maracaya;  but  it  is  also  cultivated  in  the 
marshy  valleys  between  the  hills.  The  natives  boast  of  the  innumer- 
able qualities  the  tea  possesses,  and  in  the  mining  countries  its  use  is 
almost  universal,  from  the  opinion  that  prevails  among  the  Spaniards- 


EXPERIMENTAL  AND  PROPAGATING  GARDEN.        17 

that  the  wines  arc  there  prcjodicial  to  health.  Like  opiiira,  it  pro- 
duces some  singular  effects;  it  gives  sleep  to  the  restless  and  spirits  to 
the  torpid.  Persons  who  have  once  contracted  the  habit  of  taking 
it  do  not  tind  it  an  easy  matter  to  leave  it  off,  or  even  to  use  it  in  mod- 
eration, although,  when  drank  to  excess,  it  brings  on  disorders  similar 
to  those  which  are  produced  by  the  immoderate  use  of  spiritous 
liquors." 

Grape  vines,  2o, 000  plcmts :  These  embrace  seedlings  and  rooted 
cuttings  irom  not  less  than  fifty  varieties  of  native  and  foreign  grapes, 
among  which  may  be  named: 

Hungarian,  ibur  varieties. 

El  Paso,  seedlings  and  cuttings,  two  varieties,  the  blue  and  the 
white. 

Hartford  prolific,  Connecticut. 

Clinton,  New  York. 

Diana,  Massachusetts. 

Concord,  Massacliusetts. 

Seedling,  Massachusetts. 

Union  Village,  Ohio. 

Delaware.  Ohio. 

Kebecca,  New  York. 

Saluda,  South  Carolina. 

Scuppernong,  North  Carolina  and  Virginia. 

Washita,  v/hite,  Arkansas. 

Devereaux,  South  Carolina. 

Herbemont's  Madeira,  Georgia. 

Lenoir,  the  Carolinas. 

Anna,  Ohio. 

Logan,  New  York. 

Catawba,  southern. 

Isabella,  North  Carolina. 

Wyoming,  Pennsylvania. 

Red  Venango,  Tennessee. 

Canby's  August,  southern. 

Black  July, "France. 

Minor,  Massachusetts. 

Clara,  Pennsylvania. 

Elbling,  northern. 

Lincoln  Downer,  northern. 

Trarainer,  Germany. 

Trollinger,  northern. 

Chasselas  de  Fontainebleau,  France. 

Sweet  water,  foreign. 

Black  Hamburg,  foreign. 

Seedless,  (large,)  Egypt. 

Lady's  finger,  (berries  three  inches  long,  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  delicious  flavor,)  Egypt. 

Grahami i ,  northern . 

Fran  ken  tb  al ,  foreign . 

Dracot  amber,  Massachusetts. 

Grevadulv,  Massachusetts. 


-A 


18  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

Hensliaw,  Pennsylvania. 
Franklin,  (fruit  black,)  Pennsylvania. 
Burgundy,  (fruit  black,)  foreign. 
Black  prince,  (fruit  black,)  foreign. 
Harris,  (fruit  black,)  northern. 
To-kalon,  (fruit  red,)  New  York. 
Emily,  (fruit  red,)  northern. 
Garrigues,  (fruit  dark  purple,)  Delaware, 
Cassady,  (fruit  white,)  northern. 

In  view  of  the  generally  received  opinion  that  the  native  vines  alone 
are  adapted  to  the  production  of  good  wine  in  the  United  States,  it  is 
proper  to  explain  that  the  object  in  introducing  foreign  varieties  into 
this  collection  is  to  jDroduce  such  hybrids  as.  may  inherit  the  better 
qualities  of  both  originals.  It  is  believed  that  salutary  and  important 
results  may  be  realized  from  the  skillful,  careful,  and  persistent  pros- 
ecution of  experiments  of  this  character. 

SEEDS   FOR   DISTRIBUTION. 

In  the  fulfillment  of  orders  made  previous  to  the  appropriation  of 
March,  1859,  an  assortment  of  seeds  has  been  imported  from  Europe, 
and  portions  of  them  distributed  among  the  State  and  local  agricul- 
tural societies  in  those  sections  of  the  Union  to  which  they  are  believed 
to  be  applicable  respectively,  while  an  adequate  quantity  of  each  has 
been  retained  for  propagation  at  this  garden.  Among  those  possessing 
novelty  or  merit  may  be  named  the  following  : 

Early  Washington  peas :  An  excellent  pea  of  American  origin, 
though  produced  from  European  varieties  ;  known  as  the  extra-early. 

Gliautong  yelloiv  oil  pea :  From  China  ;  it  abounds  in  oil,  but  is  not 
suitable  for  edible  uses. 

Gliautong  green  oil  pea :  Same  origin,  and  varying  but  little  from 
the  above. 

Matchless  marroio  2)ea :  An  excellent  variety,  the  merits  of  which 
are  well  known  in  the  United  States. 

Ice  drum  lettuce :  A  fine  variety. 

White  Paris  cos  lettuce :    Also  a  good  and  well-known  variety. 

White  solid  celery :  An  admirable  variety. 

Neio  Yorhpyurple  egg-plant. 

Early  Winningstadt  cabbage :  English  ;  one  of  the  best  varieties, 
of  easy  culture  and  delicious  flavor. 

Dutch  horn  carrot :  An  excellent  and  well-known  variety. 

Onion,  (Bassel:)  From  Egypt ;  not  equal  to  varieties  now  cultivated 
in  the  United  States. 

Melochia,  {Gorchorus  olitorius :)  A  novel  plant,  the  leaves  of  which 
afibrd  a  mucilage  relished  in  soup. 

Ice-cream  loatermelon, 

Neiu  hybrid  Marvel  of  Peru :  A  pretty  flowering  border  plant,  bloom- 
ing from  June  to  September  ;  adapted  to  light  soils. 

Trifolium  incarnatum :  A  good  flowering  variety,  but  tender ; 
adapted  to  lawns. 


EXPERIMENTAL  AND  PROPAGATING  GARDEN.        19 

Pyretlirum  caucasicum :  A  fine  flowering  herbaceous  perennial  plant, 
already  described.     It  is  in  character  like  the  feverfew. 

Linum  grandijlorum  rubi-um :  Grand  red  flowered  flax ;  height, 
eighteen  inches  ;  blooms  from  May  to  September. 

TrifoUum  Alexandrimim :  From  Egpyt ;  a  poor  variety  of  clover, 
like  liicern. 

Broughton  early  seed  lolieat:  Has  been  highly  commended  wherever 
it  has  been  fairly  tried.  Mr.  Peter  Gorman,  of  Howard  county,  Mary- 
land, says  of  it :  "I  received  from  the  Patent  Office,  in  the  autumn  of 
1858,  a  half  bushel  of  '  Tappahannock  wheat,'  which  I  sowed  broad- 
cast, with  the  aid  of  a  small  plough  to  cover  it  suitably,  tlie  16th  of 
October,  1858.  On  the  17th  June,  1859,  it  was  ripe  and  fit  for  har- 
vest, but  I  did  not  cut  it  until  the  21st.  In  August,  I  had  it  threshed 
by  a  machine,  and  found  the  yield  to  be  sixteen  bushels  and  two  quarts 
merchantable  wheat,  weighing  sixty-three  pounds  to  the  bushel,  and 
a  half  bushel  of  small,  light  wheat.  It  ripens  sixteen  days  sooner  than 
other  wheat,  and  thus  escapes  various  diseases  and  casualties." 

Orzomondo  barley :  European  ;  very  fine. 

Sotv-tow :  China  cotton  seed  ;  not  known  to  have  germinated.  The 
specimens  of  the  fiber  are  very  white. 

PLANTS   FROM   PALESTINE. 

On  the  12th  of  April,  1859,  the  Kev.  J.  T.  Barclay,  a  Christian 
missionary  from  the  United  States  to  Jerusalem,  in  compliance  with  a 
request  of  the  Patent  Office,  shipped  at  Jaffa  (the  ancient  port  of 
Joppa,  thirty-one  miles  northwest  of  Jerusalem)  a  quantity  of  the 
seeds  named  in  the  following  list ;  but,  in  consequence  of  unexpected 
delays  in  their  transmission,  they  were  not  received  at  Washington 
until  the  25th  of  October,  when  many  df  them  were  found  apparently 
damaged  from  their  protracted  exposure.  A  portion  of  each  variety 
has  been  retained  for  experiment  and  propagation,  and  the  rest  dis- 
tributed among  the  State  and  local  agricultural  societies  in  the  regions 
of  the  country  to  which  they  are  believed  to  be  adapted  respectively. 
Minute  descriptions  of  these  plants  had  not  been  received  from  Mr. 
Barclay  at  the  date  of  this  report ;  and  their  classification  and  charac- 
teristics have  in  some  cases  been  sought  with  no  better  guide  than  the 
local  Arab  names  afford  : 

Carol)  tree,  {Ceratonia  siliqua:)  This  name  is  derived  from  Kepat;,  a 
horn,  which  was  givQn  to  this  tree  because  of  its  long,  horn-like  pods, 
containing  a  sweet  fecula,  and  known  in  commerce  as  Algaroba  beans. 
The  Arabic  name  is  kharub.  It  is  generally  considered  the  locust  tree 
of  Scripture,  and  its  fruit  has  been  called  St.  John's  bread,  while  the 
shells  of  the  pods  are  supposed  to  be  the  husks  of  which  the  prodigal 
son  desired  to  partake  with  the  swine.  The  tree  is  common  in  the 
south  of  Spain.  Its  quality  improves  the  further  south  it  is  found. 
In  the  south  of  Italy  and  of  Greece  it  prospers  well,  and  affords  abund- 
ant fodder  for  swine  and  sheep.  In  Syria  it  is  still  more  valuable,  and 
in  Egypt  the  pods  are  so  thick,  and  so  charged  with  sugar,  as  to  be 
regarded  as  a  delicacy  by  the  common  people,  the  dry  pulp  in  which 
the  seeds  are  buried  being  remarkably  nutritious.     It  is  said  that 


20  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

singers  have  derived  benefit  from  chewing  this  fruit,  their  voices  being 
thereb}''  rendered  more  flexible.  The  carat  weight  of  four  grains  is  be- 
lieved to  have  originated  in  the  adoption  of  the  seed,  of  this  tree  as  a 
standard. 

Foosduch,  or  foostuk,  (Pisiacia  vera:)  This  tree  is  common  in  the 
valley  of  Jericho,  and  elsewhere  in  Syria.  It  also  abounds  in  Sicily,, 
where  it  is  cultivated  for  its  nuts.  The  flowers  come  forth  in  clusters, 
and  of  herbaceous  color,  in  April  and  May. 

Senaichcr,  or  snoivher :  This  also  is  a  pistacia,  (terebinthus,)  but  is 
ranked  by  Arab  v/riters  among  the  pine  or  turpentine  trees.  Its  nuts 
are  shaped  like  the  filbert,  long  and  pointed,  the  kernel  being  pale, 
greenish,  sweet,  and  more  oily  than  that  of  the  almond.  It  grows  in 
Syria,  Arabia,  Persia,  and  the  island  of  Cyprus.  The  Cyprus  tur- 
pentine is  ])rocured  Irom  the  trunk,  by  wounding  the  bark  in  several 
places,  in  the  month  of  July.  From  these  wounds  the  turpentine 
flows  upon  receptacles  arranged  for  the  purpose,  and,  becoming  con- 
densed in  the  night,  is  scraped  off  in  the  morning,  but  is  again  liqui- 
fied in  the  sun  and  strained  for  use.  It  is  obtained  in  small  quanti- 
ties, however,  four  large  trees  yielding  but  tv/o  pounds,  nine  ounces, 
and  six  drachms.     It  is  hence  often  adulterated  in  commerce. 

Doura-esh-shamy ,  or  Syrian  maize:  A  hardy  plant  in  Syria  and 
Egypt.  In  Egypt  there  is  also  a  variety  called  Doora-neely,  which 
groAvs  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  high,  bearing,  sometimes,  from  fifteen 
hundred  to  two  thousand  kernels  of  small  corn  in  a  single  head  or  top. 
It  [)ropagates  itself  by  new  shoots  from  the  old  roots  in  the  spring. 
There  is  also  in  Syria  a  Doora-es-seify,  which  is  millet.  Several 
varieties  of  it  are  now  well  known  in  the  United  Spates.  The  Doora- 
neely  affords  a  very  coarse  meal,  of  which  bread  is  made  by  the  labor- 
ing people  of  Egypt,  but  it  is  more  suitable  for  their  horses  and 
cattle. 

liclheh :  A  variety  of  clover,  abundant  in  Egypt.  ■  Its  stalks, 
shaded  by  the  tops,  are  bleached,  and  are  eaten  as  celery  by  the  poorer 
classes.  It  is  spoken  of  in  Numbers,  chapter  xi,  in  connection  with  the 
cucumbers,  the  melons,  the  onions,  and  the  garlic  of  Egypt  ;  though 
the  translators,  unacquainted  with  this  plant,  have  rendered  the  word 
leeks  in  the  English  version. 

Fool :  This  is  the  Arabic  name  of  a  leguminous  plant  grown  in  tho 
delta  oi  the  Nile,  on  the  flat  lands  throughout  Syria,  and  in  small 
tracts  in  the  deep  valleys  of  the  mountain  ranges  of  the  desert  of 
Sinai.  The  peas  or  beans  are  sold  in  immense  quantities  to  the  desert 
Arabs,  who  feed  their  camels  upon  them.  They  are  said  to  be  sown 
broadcast,  but  this  mode  of  culture  is  not  commended  to  imitation  In 
this  country.  The  stalks  attain  the  height  of  eighteen  or  twenty 
inches,  standing  thick  and  upright,  bearing  twenty  or  more  round  and 
slender  pods,  of  from  four  to  six  peas  each,  of  the  size  and  shape  of 
the  marrow-fat  pea.  They  become  dark  brown  and  somewhat  shriv- 
eled when  dry.  The  Arabs,  as  they  pass  along  the  immense  fields,  are 
fond  of  plucking  and  eating  them  green  ;  but  v,^lien  dry,  they  are 
better  suited  to  the  lowej-  animals.  They  are  preferred  to  maize, 
or  Indian  corn,  for  the  camels,  being  an  exceedingly  grateful  and  nu- 
tritious food.     But  little  labor  is  requisite  in  planting,  cultivating, 


EXPERIMENTAL   x\ND   TROPAGATIXG   GARDEN.  21 

and  gathering  them,  yet  the  yield  is  large.  Doubtless  they  may  ho 
cultivated  to  great  advantage  in  the  southern  portions  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  believed  that  Moll,  in  his  work  on  agriculture  in  Alge- 
ria, has  reference  to  this  pea  when  he  says:  "The  gray  pea  [pois 
gris]  is  preferred  for  forage,  the  yellow  and  green  as  food  for  man." 

■  Semsem : .This  is  the  Sesamum  Indicura  of  botany,  belonging  to  the 
family  pedaliace^e,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  brought  originally 
from  India,  though  it  is  now  cultivated  in  Arabia  and  Syria.  It  is  an 
annual,  grows  eighteen  inches  high^  and  bears  a  pale  purple  flower  in 
July.  The  seeds  are  used  for  bread.  They  are  more  oily  than  any 
of  the  cereals.  This  plant  is  abundantly  cultivated  in  the  valleys  and 
on  the  plains  of  Syria ;  and  one  of  the  finest  valleys  in  the  western 
part  of  the  hill  country  of  Judea,  about  equidistant  from  Jerusalem 
and  Gaza,  and  from  Joppa  and  Hebron,  is  named  Wady-Scmscm,  be- 
cause of  its  producing  this  grain.  Semsem  is  found  in  the  Levant  also, 
and  in  Africa,  where  it  is  grown  as  a  pulse.  An  oil  extracted  from 
the  seeds,  Loudon  asserts,  will  keep  many  years,  at  the  end  of  two 
years  becoming  so  mild  as  to  supply  the  place  of  olive  oil  in  making 
salads,  and  for  other  purposes.  Puddings  are  made  of  the  seeds,  as 
of  millet  or  rice.  A  pound  of  oil  is  obtained  from  four  or  five  pounds 
of  the  seeds.  The  name  of  this  plant  has  been  preserved  in  the  "open 
sesame"  of  the  Arabian  Nights.  The  bene  plant,  valued  in  the  United 
States  for  its  medicinal  qualities,  is  a  variety  of  this  species. 

Kirsenneli,  or  kersenna:  This  is  a  species  of  vetch,  which  ripens 
with  the  barley,  and  is  beaten  out  in  like  manner.  It  is  extensively 
cultivated  in  Syria,  and,  like  lentils  and  barley,  is  consumed  by  the 
camels. 

Luhia,  or  lubyeJi :  A  species  of  pea  or  bean.  El-Lubyeh,  a  large 
village  Avest  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  having  a  deep  valley  on  the  east 
and  north,  and  by  which  passes  the  road  from  Nazareth  to  Tiberias,  is 
named  after  this  plant. 

Hummas,  or  hummus:  A  species  of  vetch,  growing  abundantly  on 
the  northern  side  of  Syria,  on  the  undulating  lands  back  of  Tyre,  and 
elsewhere . 

Addas,  or  adas:  The  lentil  spoken  of  in  Genesis  xxv,  34.  The  lentil 
of  Europe  and  of  this  country  is  an  annual  plant,  growing  about 
eighteen  inches  high,  and  its  seeds,  contained  in  pods,  are  round,  flat, 
and  a  little  convex  in  the  middle.  The  lentil  of  Syria  is  pinkish  red 
when  ripe,  and  is  excellent  in  soups,  or  Vv^hen  parched  over  the  fire, 
prepared  in  which  manner  it  is  sold  in  the  shops,  being  considered  by 
the  natives  the  best  food  to  be  taken  on  long  journeys  ;  but  it  is  chiefly 
cultivated  as  food  ibr  cattle.  It  is  often  sown  broadcast,  but  prospers 
better  in  drills.  March  is  the  time  for  planting,  or  as  soon  as  the 
ground  is  dry  enough  for  cultivation.  A  warm,  sandy  soil  is  adapted 
to  this  plant.  It  ripens  sooner  than  the  pea,  and  is  harvested  in  like 
manner.     The  straw  is  delicate  and  nourishing. 

Bariiya,  or  hurmyeh,  (species,  Meloclda :)  It  is  much  like  the  okra, 
now  common  in  the  United  States.  The  pods  are  six-sided,  and  grow 
on  a  bush  from  three  to  five  ieet  high.  When  green  they  make  ex- 
cellent soup. 

Khoosa  and  Khyar  :    These  are  two  varieties  of  squash  adapted  to 


22  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

ta"ble  use.      Syria  and  Egypt  abound  in   excellent  varieties  of  this 
vegetable. 

Kliumbers :  An  excellent  species  of  flax. 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AGEI- 
CULTURAL  SOCIETY. 

This  society^  as  its  name  imports^  is  a  national  institution,  and  was 
created  in  its  present  form  by  a  convention  or  congress  of  farmers, 
composed  of  delegates  from  the  several  State  societies,  many  of  which 
are  not  only  incorporated,  but  endowed  as  permanent  State  institu- 
tions. 

Its  organization  was,  therefore,  in  strict  conformity  with  that  of  the 
general  government,  whilst  its  position  is  similar  to  that  of  the  na- 
tional societies  in  foreign  countries,  such  as  the  Koyal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England  and  the  Imperial  Agricultural  Society  of  France. 

It  resembles  the  government,  also,  in  being  the  result  or  consequence 
of  several  unsuccessful  experiments,  dating  almost  from  the  com- 
mencement of  our  national  existence. 

The  records  of  these  efforts  constitute,  therefore,  a  part  of  the  com- 
plete history  of  the  present  society,  and  have  been  carefully  preserved 
among  its  archives. 

As  early  as  1794,  the  formation  of  a  National  Agricultural  Society 
appears  to  have  occupied  the  attention  of  Washington,  then  President 
of  the  United  States. 

A  letter  addressed  by  him  to  Sir  John  Sinclair,  on  the  20th  of  July, 
1*794,  contains  the  following  reference  to  this  subject:  ''It  will  be 
sometime,  I  fear,  before  an  agricultural  society,  with  congressional  aid, 
will  be  established  in  this  country.  We  must  walk,  as  other  countries 
have,  before  we  can  run ;  smaller  societies  must  prepare  the  way  for 
greater ;  but,  with  the  lights  before  us,  I  hope  we  shall  not  be  so  slow 
in  maturation  as  older  nations  have  been.  An  attempt,  as  you  will 
perceive  by  the  inclosed  outlines  of  a  plan,  is  making  to  establish  a 
State  society  in  Pennsylvania  for  agricultural  improvements.  If  it 
succeeds,  it  will  be  a  step  in  the  ladder ;  at  present,  it  is  too  much  in 
embryo  to  decide  upon  the  result." 

The  first  proposition  for  the  establishment  of  such  an  institution 
was  made  by  Washington,  in  his  annual  speech,  delivered  on  the  7th 
of  December,  1796,  when  he  met  the  two  Houses  of  Congress  for  the 
last  time.  He  said:  ''It  will  not  be  doubted  that,  with  reference  to 
either  individual  or  national  welfare,  agriculture  is  of  primary  impor- 
tance. In  proportion  as  nations  advance  in  population,  and  other  cir- 
cumstances of  maturity,  this  truth  becomes  more  apparent,  and  renders 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil  more  and  more  an  object  of  public  patronage. 
Institutions  for  promoting  it  grow  up,  supported  by  the  jmblic  purse; 
and  to  what  object  can  it  be  dedicated  with  greater  j^ropriety?  Among 
the  means  which  have  been  employed  to  this  end,  none  have  been  at- 
tended with  greater  success  than  the  establishment  of  boards,  composed 
of  proper  characters,  charged  with  collecting  and  diffusing  informa- 


UNITED    STATES    AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETY.  23 

tion,  and  enabled,  by  premiums  and  small  pecuniary  aids,  to  encourage 
and  assist  a  spirit  of  discovery  and  improvement. 

"  This  species  of  establishment  contributes  doubly  to  the  increase  of 
improvement,  by  stimulating  to  enterprise  and  experiment,  and  by 
drawing  to  a  common  center  the  results,  everywhere,  of  individual 
skill  and  observation,  and  spreading  them  thence  over  the  whole  nation. 
Experience,  accordingly,  has  shown  that  they  are  very  cheap  instru- 
ments of  immense  national  benefits." 

The  Senate,  in  an  address  in  answer  to  this  speech,  drawn  up  by 
Senator  Bead,  of  South  Carolina,  and  adopted,  after  having  been  dis- 
cussed and  amended,  said:  "The  necessity  of  accelerating  the' estab- 
lishment of  certain  useful  manufactures  by  the  intervention  of  the 
legislative  aid  and  protection,  and  the  encouragement  due  to  agricul- 
ture by  the  creation  of  boards,  (composed  of  intelligent  individuals,) 
to  patronize  this  primary  pursuit  of  society,  are  subjects  which  will 
readily  engage  our  most  serious  attention." 

A  committee  of  the  House  of  Kepresentatives,  composed  of  Messrs. 
Swift,  of  Connecticut,  Gregg,  of  Pennsylvania,  and  Brent,  of  Maryland, 
made  a  report,  on  the  11th  of  January,  recommending  the  institution 
of  a  society  for  that  purpose,  under  the  patronage  of  government, 
which  might  act  as  a  common  center  to  all  other  societies  of  a  similar 
kind  throughout  the  United  States.  The  report  is  accompanied  by  a 
plan,  the  principal  articles  of  which  are  that  a  society  shall  be  estab- 
lished at  the  seat  of  government ;  that  it  shall  comprehend  the  Legis- 
lature of  the  United  States,  the  Judges,  the  Secretary  of  State,  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  the  Secretary  of  War,  the  Attorney  General, 
and  such  other  persons  as  may  choose  to  become  members,  according 
to  the  rules  prescribed  ;  that  an  annual,  meeting  shall  be  held  at  the 
seat  of  government,  at  which  are  to  be  elected  the  president,  secretary, 
&c.,  and  a  board,  to  consist  of  not  more  than  thirty  persons,  which 
shall  be  called  the  "  Board  of  Agriculture;"  that  the  society  shall  be 
a  body  corporate;  that  a  report  shall  be  made  annually,  &c.  The 
rejjort  concluded  with  a  resolution  in  these  words  : 

'■'Resolved,  That  a  society  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture  ought  to 
be  established  at  the  seat  of  government  of  the  United  States." 

The  first  national  association  of  this  description  was  the  "  Columhian 
Agricultural  Society  for  the  jrromotion  of  Rural  and  Domestic  Economy," 
which  was  organized  by  a  convention  held  in  Georgetown,  District  of 
Columbia,  on  the  28th  of  ISTovember,  1809,  at  which  a  constitution  was 
reported  by  General  John  Mason.  Osborne  Sprigg,  Esq. ,  of  Maryland, 
was  chosen  president,  Thompson  Mason,  Esq:,  of  Virginia,  vice  presi- 
dent, and  David  Wiley,  Esq.,  of  Georgetown,  secretary. 

The  first  agricidturcd  exhibition  in  Amei-ica.  was  the  nationcd  fair 
held  by  this  society  at  the  Union  Hotel,  in  Georgetown,  District  of 
Columbia,  on  the  10th  of  May,  1810.  Among  other  premiums  awarded 
were  three,  of  |100,  $80,  and  $60,  respectively,  for  "two-toothed  ram 
lambs,"  showing  the  great  importance  attached  at  that  early  day  to 
improving  the  breed  of  sheep. 

President  Madison  wore  his  inauguration  coat,  made  from  the  merino 
wool  of  Colonel  Humphrey's  flock,  and  waistcoat  and  small  clothes 
made  from  the  wool  of  the  Livingston  flock,  at  Clermont. 


24  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

The./?r.s^  field  trial  of  implements  in  America  was  the  plowing  matcli 
at  the  filth  semi-annual  exhibition  of  the  Columbian  Society,  on  the 
20th  of  May,  1812.  The  war  with  England,  which  occnrred  at  that 
time,  overshadowed  everything  else  ;  and,  after  holding  a  sixth  suc- 
cessful exhibition,  on  the  18th  of  November,  1812,  the  time  for  which 
the  society  liad  been  organized  (three  years)  having  expired,  it  was 
dissolved  at  the  close  of  that  year.  Its  successful  exertions  in  av/aken- 
ing  a  more  genial  interest  in  the  various  departments  of  husbandry, 
not  only  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  its  exhibitions,  but  in  the  adja- 
cent States,  merit  a  grateful  remembrance  by  the  agriculturists  of 
America. 

In  1840,  Solon  Kobinson,  Esq.,  and  other  gentlemen,  anxious  "to 
elevate  the  character  and  standing  of  the  cultivators  of  the  American 
soil,"  called  a  convention,  which  met  at  the  city  of  Washington  in 
1841,  and  organized  the  "United  States  Agricultural  Society."  A 
constitution  was  adopted,  and  eiforts  were  made  to  secure  "that 
sj)lendid  donation  of  a  munificent  foreigner,  with  which  to  establish  a 
great  school  and  library  of  agricultural  science  and  experiment,  with 
a  garden  that  should  bear  and  be  worthy  of  the  name  of  Smithson." 
The  establishment  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  prostrating  the  hopes 
of  those  who  had  expected  to  base  a  national  agricultural  institution 
upon  his  endowment,  the  United  States  Society  never  held  a  meeting 
after  its  organization.  Such  were  the  stages  through  v^'hich  this  un- 
dertaking wa.s  destined  to  pass  before  attaining  its  mature  development 
in  the  United  States  Agricultural  Society. 

On  the  14th  of  June,  J 852,  a  National  Agricultural  Convention  was 
held  at  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  in  the  city  of  Washington,  under 
a  call  issued  by  the  following  agricultural  societies,  at  the  instance  of 
the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Agriculture :  The  Massachusetts  State 
Board  of  Agriculture;  Pennsylvania  State  Agricultural  Society;  Mary- 
land State  Agricultural  Society;  New  York  State  Agricultural  Society; 
Southern  Central  Agricultural  Society;  Ohio  State  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture; American  Institute,  New  York;  Massachusetts  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Agriculture;  Indiana  State  Board  of  Agriculture;  New 
Hampshire  Agricultural  Society;  Vermont  Agricultural  Society;  and 
the  Ehode  Island  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  American  In- 
dustry. 

The  convention  was  composed  of  153  delegates,  representing  23 
States  and  Territories.  Among  those  who  were  present  during  its 
sessions  were  the  Hon.  Millard  Fillmore,  President  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  Hon.  Daniel  Webster,  Secretary  of  State. 

The  following  gentlemen  composed  the  committee  who  drafted  the 
constitution  of  the  United  States  A  gricultural  Society :  Messrs.  Hol- 
comb,  of  Delaware;  Douglas^  of  Illinois;  J.  A.  King,  of  Nev/  York; 
Steele,  of  New  Hampshire;  Thurston,  of  Ehode  Island;  Hubbard,  of 
Connecticut;  Stevens,  of  Vermont;  Elv/yn,  of  Pennsylvania ;  Calvert, 
of  Maryland;  Campbell,  of  Ohio;  Hancock,  of  New  Jersey;  Callan, 
of  the  District  of  Columbia;  Gr.  W.  P.  Custis,  of  Virginia;  Burgwyn, 
of  North  Carolina;  Taylor,  of  Alabama;  DeBow,  of  Louisiana;  Spencer, 
of  Indiana;  Mallory,  of  Kentucky;  Bell,  of  Tennessee;  Weston,  of 
Wisconsin;  McLane,  of  California;  Pickljard,  of  Maine;  Dawson,  of 
Georgia;  French,  of  Massachusetts ;  and  Seaman,  of  Michigan. 


UNITED    STATES    AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETY.  25 

The  objects  of  the  society,  as  declared  by  the  preamble  to  its  consti- 
tution, are :  to  "improve  the  agriculture  of  the  country,  by  attracting 
attention,  eliciting  the  views,  and  confirming  the  efforts  of  that  great 
class  composing  the  agricultural  community,  and  to  secure  the  advan- 
tages of  a  better  organization,  and  more  extended  usefulness  among 
all  State,  county,  and  other  agricultural  societies." 

Its  officers  consist  of  a  president,  one  vice-president  for  each  State 
and  Territory,  a  treasurer,  and  secretary.  Colonel  Marshall  P.  Wilder, 
of  Massachusetts,  was  elected  president.  On  the  list  of  its  members 
are  to  be  found  the  names  of  many  of  the  most  distinguished  men  in 
the  nation,  and  it  will  compare  favorably,  in  this  respect,  with  any 
institution  in  the  country. 

The  first  annual  meeting  took  place  at  Washington,  on  the  2d  of 
February,  1853,  since  which  they  liave  been  regularly  held  on  the 
second  Wednesday  of  January,  constituting,  in  reality,  the  "Board  of 
Agriculture,"  recommended  by  the  Farmer  of  Mount  Vernon.  The 
annual  meetings  have  been  attended  by  the  Presidents  of  the  United 
States,  heads  of  departments,  and  many  of  the  most  distinguished 
members  of  the  houses  of  Congress.  Gentlemen  from  almost  every 
State  in  the  Union  (many  of  them  delegates  from  agricultural  asso- 
ciations) have  annually  assembled  to  discuss  such  topics  as  have  been 
presented,  calculated  to  advance  the  cause  of  agricultural  improve- 
ment ;  interesting  and  valuable  lectures  have  been  delivered,  and  essays 
read  by  practical  and  scientific  farmers;  reports  have  been  submitted 
by  committees  specially  appointed  to  examine  new  inventions  and 
theories,  and  by  delegates  who  have  been  accredited  to  the  agricul- 
turists of  other  lands,  and  there  has  been  a  general  interchange  of 
opinion. 

At  the  sixtb  annual  meeting,  the  first  change  took  place  in  the 
executive  department,  by  the  voluntary  retirement  of  Colonel  Wilder, 
whose  energetic  participation  in  the  formation  of  the  society,  and  whose 
enlightened  administration  of  its  affairs  have  contributed  so  largely 
to  its  usefulness  and  success.  He  Avas  succeeded  by  General  Tench 
Tilghman,  of  Maryland,  the  present  incumbent;  thus  establishing  the 
precedent  of  rotation  between  the  different  sections  of  the  Union. 

At  this  meeting,  a  report  of  extended  experiments  in  the  culture 
of  Chinesfe  sugar-cane  in  this  country  was  made,  by  a  committee 
of  the  society,  througb  its  chairman,  Mr.  D.  J.  Browne,  (then  super- 
intendent of  the  Agricultural  Division  of  the  Patent  Ofiice,)  and 
subsequently  published  in  the  Agricultural  Report  of  the  Patent  Ofiice, 
for  1857.*  In  this  report,  Mr.  Browne  says:  "Conformably  to  the 
resolutions  adopted  by  the  United  States  Agricultural  Society,  at  the 
city  of  Washington,  in  January,  1857,"  the  committee  appointed  to 
investigate  and  experiment  upon  the  sorgho  sucre,  or  Chinese  sugar- 
cane, with  the  view  of  determining  its  value,  for  the  purpose  of  syrup 
and  sugar-making,  soiling  cattle,  use  of  the  seed  for  feeding  stock,  for 
bread-making,  and  for  the  manufacture  of  paper  and  alcoholic  liquors, 
beg  leave  to  report  as  follows  : 

*  It  will  be  seen  by  the  Agjricultural  Report  for  tlio  year  1856  that  the  first  purchase  of 
sorghum  seed  made  by  the  Patent  Ofiice  was  in  the  autumn  of  1854,  and  the  second  in  1855. 


26  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

''Agreeably  to  the  requirements,  there  was  imported  from  France 
sufficient  sorgho  seed  to  plant  one  hundred  acres  of  land.  This  seed 
wais  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  number  of  individuals,  in  different  sections 
of  the  country,  who  cultivated  it  under  various  conditions  of  soil, 
climate,  &c. 

"From  the  results  of  their  experiments,  in  ninety  localities,  between 
New  Brunswick,  in  the  British  Dominions,  and  Mexico  on  the  one  hand, 
and  between  Florida  and  Washington  Territory  on  the  other,  the 
committee  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  sorgho  sucre  possesses  qualities 
which  commend  it  to  the  especial  attention  of  the  agriculturists  of  all 
parts  of  the  country." 

Annual  exliihitions  have  been  held  at  the  following  places:  Spring- 
field, Massachusetts,  (1853;)  Springfield,  Ohio,  (1854;)  Boston,  Massa- 
chusetts, (1855 ;)  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  (1856 ;)  Louisville, 
Kentucky,  (1857  ;)  Eichmond,  Virginia,  (1858  ;)  and  Chicago,  Illinois, 
(1859.) 

In  July,  185*7,  a  national  trial,  in  the  field,  of  reapers  and  mowers, 
was  held  at  Syracuse,  New  York,  unequaled  by  any  similar  exhibition. 

The  illustrated  rej3ort  of  this  trial,  published  by  the  society,  is  the 
most  elaborate  treatise  that  has  ever  been  issued  on  this  important 
and  strictly  American  implement. 

The  exhibitions  have  been  self-sustaining,  the  receipts  meeting  the 
disbursements  of  upwards  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  dollars 
for  premiums  and  expenses,  whilst  they  have  been  strictly  confined  to 
legitimate  objects,  and  avoided  all  extraneous  attractions  for  the  pur- 
pose of  augmenting  their  receipts. 

They  have  not  only  increased  the  efficiency  of  the  State  and  local 
associations,  but  have  elevated  the  standard  of  excellence  in  agricul- 
tural productions  and  processes,  and  extended  the  amount  of  agricul- 
tural information  in  the  various  parts  of  the  country,  by  carrying  into 
each,  successively,  articles  of  a  superior  quality,  and,  in  many  instances_, 
of  a  different  kind  from  those  previously  exhibited  at  the  local  fairs. 
They  have  called  together  larger  assemblages  of  people  than  have 
ever  been  convened  upon  other  occasions,  embracing  not  only  our  most 
intelligent  yeomanry,  but  members  of  every  art  and  profession,  from 
all  portions  of  the  wide-spread  Union,  and  thus  disseminated  correct 
information  in  regard  to  the  institutions  of  each  portion  of  the  country 
among  the  people  of  the  other  portions. 

At  these  national  jubilees,  gentlemen  have  met  upon  the  broad  plat- 
form of  good  citizenship,  merging  all  sectional  jealousies  and  party 
distinctions  in  a  general  desire  to  improve  and  to  elevate  that  great 
calling  which  gives  independence  and  strength  to  our  nation. 

Agricultural  discussions  and  addresses,  both  at  the  "evening  meet- 
ings," the  banquets,  and  on  the  grounds,  have  formed  a  prominent 
feature  in  the  proceedings. 

The  recent  exhibition  at  Chicago,  whether  we  regard  its  magnitude 
or  excellence,  was  eminently  worthy  of  a  great  agricultural  nation. 

The  number  of  articles  entered  for  exhibition  was  2,549,  classified 
under  123  separate  departments,  beside  that  of  miscellaneous  articles, 
and  coming  from  the  following  States :  California,  Georgia,  Connecticut, 
Illinois,    Indiana^   Iowa,  Kansas,    Kentucky,   Louisiana,    Maryland, 


UNITED    STATES    AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETY.  27 

Massachusetts,  Micliigan, Minnesota,  NewHampsliire,  New  York,  Ohio, 
Pennsylvania,  Texas,  Virginia,  Vermont^  and  Wisconsin,  and  the 
Province  of  Canada.  Delegations  were  in  attendance  from  eighty-one 
societies,  embracing  twenty-seven  States  and  Territories. 

The  leading  feature  of  the  exhibition  was  the  trial  of  steam  plows, 
for  which  the  society  had  offered  its  highest  prize — the  grand  gold 
medal  of  honor. 

The  large  premiums  offered  by  the  Illinois  State  Society,  and  the 
Illinois  Central  Railroad  Company,  were  also  awarded  at  this  fair,  and 
the  trial  was  conducted  by  committees  appointed  by  each. 

Tlie  report  contains  an  able  review  of  the  trials  in  England  and 
America,  and  shows  the  superiority  of  the  American  plow  invented 
by  J.  W.  Fawkes,  of  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania. 

During  the  entire  week  both  the  city  and  extensiv.e  fair  grounds 
were  crowded  to  their  utmost  capacity. 

It  was  truly  a  national  gathering,  and  a  fitting  occasion  for  the  com- 
mencement of  official  courtesies  between  the  national  societies  of  England 
and  America.  In  reply  to  an  invitation  from  President  Tilghman,  on 
behalf  of  the  United  States  Agricultural  Society,  the  following  letter 
was  received  from  the  Hon.  Thomas  de  Gray,  Baron  Walsingham, 
President  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England : 

'''Sm:  I  beg  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  letter  containing  an 
invitation  to  the  exhibition  of  the  United  States  Agricultural  Society, 
to  take  place  at  Chicago. 

''I  regret  much  that,  your  letter  having  only  just  reached  me,  the 
great  distance  will  prevent  my  being  present  at  a  meeting  in  which  I 
should  feel  the  greatest  interest. 

"I  shall  report  your  obliging  communication  to  the  council  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  and  feel  certain  they  will  feel, 
as  I  do  personally,  much  gratified  by  the  honor  you  have  done  them 
in  inviting  their  President  to  your  exhibition. 

"I  have  the  honor  to  be,  sir,  your  obliged  and  obedient  servant, 

''WALSINGHAM, 
^'■President  of  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England. 

'^General  Tench  Tilghman, 

^^ President  United  States  Agricultural  Society." 

It  is  an  interesting  incident  in  the  history  of  these  two  great  agricul- 
tural nations,  that  the  present  mode  of  conducting  their  national  fairs 
was  commenced  almost  at  the  same  period,  and  has  been  attended  with 
results  which  evince  a  remarkable  degree  of  coincidence. 

'The  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  however,  had  been  in 
successful  operation  for  many  years,  sustained  by  the  wealth  and 
enterprise  of  that  powerful  and  enlightened  nation,  before  it  ventured 
upon  the  experiment  of  migration  in  its  fairs,  which  has  since  been 
found  to  be  so  highly  beneficial  in  its  results. 

It  is  still  regarded  as  an  undertaking  of  no  ordinary  magnitude ;  and 
yet  the  actual  extent  of  their  migrations  is  less  than  those  of  the  State 
Agricultural  Society  of  New  York,  whilst  the  shortest  distance  between 
the  locations  of  any  two  consecutive  fairs  of  the  United  States  Agri- 


28  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

cultural  Society  lias  been  greater  than  tlie  entire  extent  of  tlie  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain. 

Tne  principal  difficulty  encountered  in  both  countries  lias  been  in 
securing  the  attendance  of  competent  and  experienced  judges,  especially 
in  the  machine  and  implement  departments.  This  has  been  obviated 
in  England  by  the  payment  of  their  expenses,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the 
United  States  Agricultural  Society  will  soon  have  sufficient  capital  to 
enable  it  to  adopt  a  similar  course. 

Seven  volumes  of  transactions  have  been  published,  containing  re- 
ports of  the  annual  meetings,  exhibitions,  and  operations  of  the  society, 
with  a  general  statement  of  the  position  of  agricultural  affairs  at  the 
metropolis,  (including  such  information  as  is  furnished  by  the  Agri- 
cultural Division,  and  by  the  examiner  of  implements  in  the  Patent 
Office,)  and  reports  of  the  operations  of  State  boards  and  societies, 
agricultural  colleges,  and  of  all  legislative  recognition  of  the  predomi- 
nant interest  of  the  country. 

This  publication  is  now  issued  in  four  numbers,  as  the  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Agriculture,  and  edited  by  the  secretary  of  the  society. 

Avoiding  all  intrusion  upon  the  legitimate  sphere  of  the  various 
agricultural  periodicals,  it  affords  an  opportunity  for  those  most  deeply 
versed  in  the  arcana  of  nature  to  discuss  those  abstruse  principles  from 
which  the  most  important  results  are  often  found  to  proceed. 

A  secretary's  office,  library,  and  reading-room  have  been  established 
at  Washington  city,  where  the  members  of  the  society,  and  others  in- 
terested in  agricultural  improvement,  meet  as  brothers  at  a  common 
home,  and  find  a  collection  of  objects  in  which  they  have  a  common 
interest. 

Many  State  and  county  societies  have  contributed  their  published 
transactions,  premium  lists,  the  names  of  their  officers,  and  other  in- 
formation, which  has  been  duly  registered,  and  they  have  received  the 
publications  of  the  society  in  return. 

A  majority  of  the  agricultural  and  numerous  other  publishers  have 
contributed  their  periodicals  and  newspapers,  and  thus  aided  in  form- 
ing a  free  agricultural  library. 

As  soon  as  sufficient  means  can  be  obtained,  either  by  endowment, 
appropriation,  or  otherwise,  it  is  proposed  to  establish  at  Washington, 
an  experimental  farm,  where  every  species  of  culture,  all  the  products 
of  the  soil,  and  the  different  varieties  of  domestic  animals,  may  be  seen 
by  every  one  who  visits  the  national  metropolis. 

The  society  is  supported  by  fees  for  membership,  and  by  the  pro- 
ceeds of  its  exhibitions. 

Life-members  receive  an  elegant  diploma,  all  the  publications,  free 
tickets  of  admission  to  all  exhibitions,  and  their  share  of  such  seeds 
and  cuttings  as  may  be  procured  for  distribution,  without  any  ad- 
ditional assessment  or  payment  beyond  the  admission  fee  of  ten 
dollars. 

Annual  members  receive  the  publications  of  the  society,  paying  a  fee 
of  two  dollars. 

County  or  town  societies  have  the  privilege  of  making  their  presi- 
dent, secretary,  or  treasurer,  ex  officio,  a  life-member,  in  which  case 
the  society  will  receive  the  publications,  &c. 


UNITED    STATES   AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETY.  29 

The  increased  interest  in  the  annual  meetings  and  exhibitions  of 
the  society,  and  the  constant  additions  to  its  roll  of  members,  furnish 
evidence  of  its  growing  prosperity  and  usefulness. 

Its  prepcnt  officers  are  as  follows : 

President — Tench  Tilghman,  Ox^'ord,  Maryland. 

Vice  Presidents — N.  B.  Cloud,  Alabama;  S.  Mo\vrey,  Arizona;  H. 
A.  Dyer,  Connecticut;  A.  W.  McKec,  Caliibrnia;  John  Jones,  Dela- 
ware ;  W.  W.  Corcoran,  District  of  Columbia  ;  A.  G.  Fuller,  Dacotah; 
S.  R.  Mallory,  Florida;  Puchard  Peters,  Georgia;  D.  P.  Holloway, 
Indiana ;  J.  A.  Kennicot,  Illinois  ;  Legrand  Byington,  Iowa  ;  W.  L. 
Underwood,  Kentucky ;  W.  F.  M.  Arny,  Kansas;  J.  D.  B.  DeBow, 
Louisiana  ;  John  Brooks,  Massachusetts  ;  N.  N.  Harrison,  Mississippi ; 
A.  Kimmcl,  Maryland;  II.  Ledyard,  Michigan;  E.  Holmes,  Maine; 
II.  M.  Rice,  Minnesota;  J.  R.  Barrett,  Missouri;  H.  F.  French,  New 
Hampshire;  J.  II.  Frazee,  New  York;  B.  P.  Johnston,  New  York; 
Miguel  A.  Otero,  New  Mexico  ;  W.  T.  Brown,  Nebraska  ;  H.  K.  Bur- 
gwyn.  North  Carolina  ;  F.  G.  Cary,  Ohio  ;  Joseph  Lane,  Oregon  ;  A. 
Clements,  Pennsylvania  ;  E.  Dyer,  Rhode  Island  ;  F.  W.  Alston, 
youth  Carolina  ;  Thomas  AtBeck,  Texas;  D.  R.  Eckels,  Utah  ;  Fred- 
erick Holbrook,  Vermont;  W.  A.  Spence,  Virginia;  D.  S.  Curtis, 
Wisconsin  ;  I.  I.  Stevens,  Washington  Territory, 

Executive  Committee — T.  Tilghman,  ex  officio,  Maryland;  Marshall 
P.  Wilder,  Massachusetts;  H.  Wa^^er,  New  York ;  J.  McGowan,  Penn- 
sylvania; Frederick  Smyth,  New  Hampshire;  J.  W.  Ware,  Virginia; 
J.  Merryman,  Maryland;  Horace  Caprou,  Illinois;  J.  M.  Cannon, 
lov/a;  B.  Perley  Poorc,  Massachusetts. 

Treasurer — Benjamin  B.  French,  Washington,  District  of  Columbia. 

Secretary — Ben.  Perley  Poore,  Newburyport,  Massachusetts. 

During  the  first  five  years  of  the  existence  oi  the  socletj'',  the  vener- 
able George  Washington  Parke  Custis,  the  vice-president  lor  Virginia, 
and  the  last  surviving  member  of  the  family  of  Washington,  was  a 
regular  attendant  at  its  annual  meetings. 

He  had  been  among  the  earliest  and  most  steadfast  advocates  of  a 
national  agricultural  society,  having,  as  early  as  1810,  published  in 
the  National  Intelligencer,  and  also  in  pamphlet  form,  a  jjrojet  for  a 
national  agricultural  organization,  to  be  incorporated  with  the  govern- 
ment and  attached  to  a  national  university. 

He  had  always  been  requested  by  President  Wilder  to  conclude  the  pro- 
ceedings ;  and  his  valedictory  at  the  fifth  annual  meeting  (the  last  before 
his  death)  is  replete  with  sentiments  which  are  worthy  of  one  who  was 
so  nearly  connected  with  the  author  of  the  farewell  address.  It  termi- 
nates with  the  ibllowing  patriotic  appeal : 

"The  time  has  come  for  me  to  sayfareiueU!  And  when  a  man  on 
whose  head  rest  the  snows  of  seventy -six  winters  bids  you  farewell,, 
the  probabilities  are  that  it  will  be  a  long  farewell. 

''You  will  now  return  to  your  homes,  with  hearts  cheered  and  hands 
strengthened  by  this  mutual  communion,  and  this  brotherhood  of 
farmers  from  all  parts  of  our  great  country. 

"  And  as  you  come  up  from  all  portions  of  the  country,  from  these 
classic  grounds  where  our  fathers  died,  let  your  hearts  be  invigorated 
by  their  patriotism,  and  your  hands  labor  for  the  prosperity  of  the 
country  they  bought  with  their  bbod.  * 


30  .      AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

"And  now,  gentlemen  of  the  United  States  Agricultural  Society, 
farewell!  Go  back  to  your  liomes,  and  tell  your  friends  what  has  been 
done  at  this  meeting  for  the  cause  of  agriculture,  and  encourage  them 
as  you  have  been  encouraged. 

' '  Continue  your  devotion  to  this  bulwark  of  our  country ;  continue 
inviolate  our  great  Constitution ;  obey  our  self-imposed  laws ;  preserve 
our  blessed  Union,  and  our  republic  will  be  immortal." 


MTIYE  GRAPES  OF  ARKANSAS  AND  TEXAS. 


BY  n.  C.  WILLIAMS,  OF  JEFFERSOISr,  CASS  COUNTY,  TEXAS. 


The  Patent  Office  having  decided  to  ''make  a  thorough  experiment 
with  our  native  grapes,"  to  test  their  merits  for  wine  and  table  use,  I 
received  instructions,  dated  July  1,  1857,  directing  me  to  proceed  to 
Arkansas,  and  explore  portions  of  that  State,  Texas,  and  the  adjacent 
Indian  territory,  as  far  as  practicable,  to  inspect  the  vines  while  in 
fruit,  and  to  obtain  certain  information  connected  ''with  their  growth 
and  locality,  to  be  employed  in  carrying  out  said  experiment."  After 
making  those  observations,  and  at  the  j^roper  time,  I  was  directed  to 
collect  cuttings  of  the  vines,  to  be  forwarded  to  such  points  as  might 
be  designated  in  future  instructions. 

Accordingly,  I  left  the  city  of  Washington  on  the  1st  of  August  fol- 
lowing, and  proceeded  by  the  most  direct  route  to  the  Hot  Springs,  in 
Arkansas^  the  first  point  where  the  wild  grapes  are  found  in  such 
abundance  as  to  invite  attention.  At  that  place,  with  so  many  attrac- 
tions to  the  naturalist,  I  spent  several  days,  and  made  frequent  short 
excursions  in  the  mountain  ridges  and  hills  of  the  neighborhood. 
From  the  foot  to  the  summit  of  those  ridges,  some  of  which  are  beds 
oinovaculite,  or  the  celebrated  Arkansas  oil-stone,  two  varieties  of  wilds 
grapes  are  found  in  .abundance.  I  was  disappointed  in  one  of  the 
objects  of  the  mission,  that  of  observing  the  "fruit  on  the  vines,"  for 
the  frosts  of  the  preceding  April  had  almost  entirely  destroyed  the 
crop,  wild  and  cultivated,  throughout  the  State,  A  few  chance  branches 
had  escaped,  and  I  found  a  native  vine  in  the  garden  of  Mr.  Fullerton, 
with  fruit  on  it,  which  enabled  me  to  ascertain  the  varieties.  These 
will  be  hereafter  designated. 

While  at  the  Hot  Springs,  I  learned  from  Mr.  Whittington,  a 
resident  of  the  village,  that  he  had  some  years  previously  collected  a 
quantity  of  the  wild  grapes  "from  the  hills,"  and  expressed  the  juice 
with  the  view  of  making  vinegar  for  family  use.  The  following  spring, 
finding  the  wine  of  such  fine  quality,  he  drew  ofi"  about  five  gallons 
and  set  away  the  vessel  containing  it  in  a  garret  room  in  his  house. 
There  it  remained  undisturbed  for  two  or  three  years.  A  guest  from 
Little  Eock,  who  had  been  a  dealer  in  wines,  being  informed  of  the 
experiment,  requested  an  examination,  and  decided  that  the  wine  was 
a  first-rate  claret. 


NATIVE    GRAPES    OF   ARKANSAS   AND    TEXAS.  31 

Eesiiming  my  journey,  I  proceeded  to  Hempstead  county,  where  I 
learned  that  the  frosts  of  the  preceding  spring  had  heen  more  severe 
than  in  any  portion  of  the  country  I  had  traveled  over.  Not  only  was 
the  fruit  crop  entirely  destroyed,  but  the  ornamental  trees,  in  many 
instances,  were  killed  to  the  ground.  The  forest  trees,  especially  the 
oaks^  had  suffered  severely.  As  it  would  have  served  no  beneficial 
object  to  continue  explorations,  I  determined  to  proceed  no  further,  but 
devote  the  interval  of  time,  before  commencing  to  take  off  cuttings,  to 
an  examination  of  the  portions  of  the  counties  of  Hempstead  and 
Sevier  in  which  the  native  grapes  are  found,  and  to  collect  such  in- 
formation regarding  them  as  the  Office  desired.  Other  obstacles  pre- 
sented themselves;  a  long-continued  rainy  season  had  set  in;  the 
streams  became  impassable ;  the  mail  failed  in  many  of  its  trips ;  and 
nearly  all  travel  was  suspended,  until  the  time  of  the  ripening  of  the 
grapes  was  over.  Beside,  I  had  an  attack  of  chills  and  fever,  which 
were  more  prevalent  then  than  they  had  been  for  many  years  previous. 

Having  waited  until  the  first  of  November,  I  set  out  with  a  light 
two-horse  wagon,  in  which  boxes  were  placed  to  contain  cuttings,  and 
took  a  northerly  direction,  expecting  that  the  first  frosts  of  the  season 
would  be  met  in  the  mountains.  The  8th  of  that  month  there  was  a 
killing  frost,  when  I  was  in  the  Washita  cove;  and,  in  a  day  or  two 
after,  the  vines  were  in  a  condition  to  admit  of  cuttings  being  taken. 
As  I  had  anticipated,  the  roads  in  the  mountainous  country  were  not 
much  traveled,  and  their  conditioH  was  but  indifferent.  I  performed 
most  of  the  journey  on  foot,  and  had  ample  time  to  select  cuttings  from 
the  vines  oh  the  way-side^  and  keep  up  with  the  wagon.  In  this  way 
I  passed  through  the  counties  of  Sevier^  Polk,  Scott,  and  Franklin,  as 
far  as  Mulberry  river,  where  high  waters  prevented  further  progress. 
The  country  over  which  I  traveled  was  generally  mountainous,  the 
spurs  or  ridges  rising  about  eight  hundred  or  a  thousand  feet  above  the 
plain ;  and,  in  one  or  two  places,  the  boiling  point  of  water  indicated 
an  altitude  of  eighteen  hundred  feet.  This  elevation  can  only  be  re- 
garded as  approximately  ascertained.  The  prevailing  rocks  of  the 
mountain  ranges  were  sand-stones,  and  the  soils  resulting  from  them, 
of  course,  very  silicious.  The  valleys  are  generally  narrow,  washed 
by  the  rivers  and  mountain  streams.  The  prairie  lands  of  Franklin 
county  seemed  to  be  connected  with  the  sand-stone  of  the  coal  forma- 
tion. Bituminous  coal,  of  excellent  quality,  is  mined  in  many  places. 
The  timber  on  the  sandy  soils  is  generally  post  oak,  black  jack,  and 
nutmeg  hickory ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  special  remark  that  the  most  ex- 
tensive grape  thickets  are  always  associated  with  sandy  soils  wheie 
those  trees  are  abundant.  On  high  lands,  termed  the  black-jack  ridges, 
and  distant  from  the  settlements,  where  the  woods  are  seldom  burnt, 
the  grape  vines  flourish  with  greatest  luxuriance.  Before  leaving 
Washington,  I  had  been  informed  by  a  gentleman  who  had  resided  in 
Arkansas,  that  I  should  be  certain  to  find  the  white  grape  near  Plea- 
sant Hill  post  office,  in  Franklin  county.  Of  this  grape  I  could  gain 
but  little  reliable  information  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State,  where 
the  citizens  are  mostly  engaged  in  cotton  planting,  and  scarcely  cul- 
tivate fruit  of  any  kind.  This  variety  was  first  obtained  in  Scott 
county,  where  its  singular  appearance,  in  contrast  with  other  vines, 


dZ  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

attracted  notice ;  Init  the  larger  portion  was  procured  on  the  farm  of 
Mr.  Bryant,  near  Mulberry  river. 

Finishing  the  collection  at  this  point,  I  returned  to  the  town  of 
Ozark,  recrossed  the  Arkansas  river,  and  proceeded  to  the  west,  to 
reach  a  point  of  the  Grand  Prairie,  where  I  v/as  informed  that  I  should 
find  the  white  grape  vines  in  abundance.  In  this  I  Avas  disappointed. 
After  passing  Waldron,  I  took  the  road  which  led  to  the  Hot  (Springs, 
passing  near  the  town  of  Mount  Ida,  in  Montgomery  county.  Through 
the  whole  distance,  the  same  general  features  marked  the  soil  and  pro- 
ductions which  had  been  observed  on  the  journey  to  the  Arkansas,  with 
the  difference  of  occasionally  presenting  large  groves  of  pine  on  the  sum- 
mit of  t!ie  hills-,  with  v/hich  the  native  grapes  were  closely  associated. 

After  having  made  a  collection  at  the  Hot  Springs,  I  took  the  road 
through  the  Caddo  Cove,  passing  into  Pike  county,  and  through  it  to  the 
starting  point  in  Hempstead  county,  vvhich  was  reached  on  the  14th 
day  of  December,  As  on  the  previous  part  of  the  route,  I  continued 
to  make  collections  along  the  roadside,  with  a  view  of  procuring  all 
the  varieties  of  native  grapes.  That  course  only  was  left  open  to  me, 
as  I  had  been  disappointed  in  seeing  the  fruit  on  the  vines;  and  to  be 
certain  of  getting  all,  I  determined  to  make  as  extensive  explorations 
a.s  the  season  would  permit. 

In  the  collection  thus  made  at  random  it  cannot  be  pretended  that 
any  accuracy  'Could  be  observed  in  designating  varieties  by  labels.  No 
reliable  inibrmation  could  be  obtaiaed  irora  the  inhabitants,  and  the 
most  careful  observers  among  them  would  only  say  ''in  a  grape  year  tho 
fruit  could  be  gathered  by  the  wagon  load;  that  the  grapes  wei-e  the 
best  they  had  ever  seen,  and  were  as  large  as  the  end  of  their  linger 
or  thumb."  Therefore,  in  packing  the  cuttings  I  designated  the  col- 
lection as  "Mountain,"  "Red  River,"  and  "Washita,"  from  the 
circumstance  that  these  varieties,  growing  together,  are,  nevertheless, 
more  numerously  multiplied  in  those  localities.  When  they  pro- 
duce fruit  they  will  be  easily  distinguished,  and  I  propose  that  the 
names  be  continued. 

The  variety  to  be  called  the  "Mountain"  is  found  most  abundantly 
on  the  silicious  soils  of  the  elevated  country;  though,  in  some  portions 
of  Sevier  and  Pike  counties,  it  is  often  met  in  the  light,  loose,  dry  soils 
of  the  tertiary  formation.  As  we  approach  Red  river  it  becomes  scarce, 
and  is  apparently  superseded  by  the  variety  proposed  to  be  called  by 
that  name.  Allied  to  the  species  known  to  botanists  as  the  vitis  cesti- 
valls,  it  is  probably  a  sub-species.  The  growth  is  strong  and  vigorous, 
often  short-jointed,  with  deeply  colored  bark  near  the  joints.  The 
brandies  are  short,  thick,  very  compact;  and  the  berries  as  hirge  as  a 
medium  size  Catawba,  covered  with  a  bloom.  The  color  is  black.  It 
begins  to  ripen  about  the  middle  of  September,  but  the  bunches  will 
hang  on  the  vines  till  winter.  The  skin  is  about  the  thickness  of  the 
Catawba,  and  the  pulp  reddish.  In  Arkansas,  I  learn  that  raisins  of 
goo'd  qiuillty  had  been  made  from  it.  Witli  the  amelioration  v/hich 
cultivation  will  doubtless  produce,  this  vv^ill  be  a  valuable  grape  in 
southern  locations. 

Tiie  "Red  River"  is  also  allied  to  vitis  cesiivalis.  In  its  charac'eris- 
liCiS  there  is  some  resemblance  to  the  preceding,  but  in  general  the 


NATIVE    GRAPES   OF   ARKANSAS   AND    TEXAS.  33 

vine  is  not  so  vigorous  in  its  growtli;,  the  bark  a  paler  red  and  brown, 
and  tbe  fruit  inclining  to  black,  but  not  so  deeply  colored.  The 
bunches  are  open,  loose,  and  shouldered;  skin  thin,  pulp  reddish 
and  more  juicy  than  the  "Mountain,"  Its  flavor  is  sweet  and  sugary. 
From  these  grapes  Mr,  Whittington  made  the  wine  before  alluded  to 

When  these  varieties  grow  in  shaded  positions  the  extremities  of  the 
vines  do  not  thoroughly  ripen  the  wood  for  several  joints  back  from 
the  extremities,  and  the  following  season  the  buds  on  the  ripened 
wood  vegetate  and  take  the  same  course  as  the  growth  of  the  former 
year.  This  condition  in  the  growth  for  a  few  years  gives  the  vine  a 
bush  form;  and  hence  the  common  expression  in  Arkansas  of  the 
"bush  grapes,"  or  that  the  grapes  grow  on  low  bushes.  The  vines 
are,  however,  runners,  where  there  is  anything  for  them  to  clamber 
upon ;  but  they  never  attain  the  large  growth  of  the  common  summer 
grape-vine. 

The  "Washita"  was  occasionally  found  on  the  road  from  the 
Arkansas  river  to  Hempstead  county.  It  was  first  discovered  on  the 
Washita  river,  hence  its  name.  Probably  it  is  a  species  of  fox  grape, 
the  vitis  lohrusca  of  the  botanists.  The  vine  is  a  vigorous  grower,  of 
a  rusty-brown  color,  and  the  wood  more  soft  and  spongy  than  any 
other  variety  of  grape.  Having  never  seen  the  fruit,  I  can  only  give 
such  description  as  I  received  from  various  sources,  selecting  those 
points  on  which  there  is  no  disagreement.  All  unite  in  assigning  it 
high  merit  as  a  juicy,  sweet  grape,  with  a  foxy  aroma.  The  skin  is 
thin,  and  the  berries  large.  When  fully  ripe  it  varies  in  color,  but 
is  generally  a  light  brown,  or  tinged  with  brown:  while  growing  it  is 
remarkably  transparent  and  of  a  light  greenish  hue.  Its  period  of 
ripening  is  earlier  than  other  wild  grapes,  and  so  eagerly  is  it  sought 
Dy  birds,  that  it  is  exhausted  before  the  neighboring  planter  is  aware 
that  it  is  ripe.  Hence,  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  persons  who  have 
resided  in  its  midst  for  many  years,  yet  who  have  no  knowledge  of 
its  existence.  Besides,  it  grows  on  the  richer  soils  bordering  the 
streams,  and  is,  therefore,  more  likely  to  be  destroyed  as  the  lands  are 
cleared  and  put  under  cultivation.  Though  preferring  a  rich,  deep, 
alluvial  soil,  it  is  not  a  tenant  of  low,  damp  grounds. 

Believing  this  to  be  a  new  and  superior  variety,  and  one  that  would 
be  an  acquisition  to  the  wine-maker,  I  determined  to  spare  no  exertions 
to  obtain  it.  This  was  the  reason  of  my  making  such  an  extensive 
excursion.  As  far  back  as  the  year  1842,  which  I  spent  in  Arkansas, 
my  attention  had  been  called  to  this  variety  by  the  late  General  Tow- 
son,  United  States  army,  though  all  my  efforts  to  procure  cuttings  for 
him  were  unsuccessful.  He  was  of  opinion  that  it  was  the  grape  to 
which  Colonel  Long  alludes  in  his  expedition  to  the  Eocky  Mountains. 
It  is  said  that  the  late  Mr.  Audubon  had  seen  it  on  the  KedKiver,  and  had 
pronounced  it  equal  to  any  French  variety.  While  on  my  excursion, 
I  met  the  late  Hon.  Shelton  Watson,  judge  of  the  circuit  court,  who 
assured  me  that  this  grape  had  been  taken  to  France,  and  there  had 
established  a  reputation  for  the  highest  excellence.  In  the  town  of 
Ozark,  a  very  intelligent  gentleman,  the  treasurer  of  the  county^  in- 
formed me  that  he  was  from  the  Khine,  was  acquainted  with  the  grapes 
grown  in  the  Avine  countries,  and  "he  did  not  believe  a  finer  grape  than 
3 A 


34  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

the  Wasliita  could  be  found  in  tlie  United  States  or  Europe."  Per- 
haps his  encomium  may  appear  extravagant,  but  still  his  intelligence 
and  powers  of  observation  entitle  his  opinions  to  high  regard. 

I  learned  that  several  experiments  in  making  wine  had  been  at- 
tempted in  Arkansas.  Some  years  since,  a  prominent  member  of  a 
temperance  society  made  a  barrel  of  wine,  which  act  being  considered 
a  breach  of  its  rules,  he  was  cited  to  trial,  convicted,  and  sentenced  to 
make  two  barrels  more  the  next  season.  Whether  he  complied  with 
the  sentence  I  am  not  able  to  state ;  but  this  much  I  feel  bound  to  say, 
that  if  more  attention  were  paid  to  the  cultivation  of  the  grape  in  Ar- 
kansas, much  of  its  soil,  unsuitable  for  cotton  or  grain  crops,  and  re- 
garded as  comparatively  valueless,  would  be  as  productive  as  the  best 
cotton  lands.  So  many  varieties  of  fine  grapes  were  not  placed  there 
by  Nature  without  some  beneficent  object,  and  but  energy  and  skill  are 
required  to  bring  out  that  object,  and  open  new  avenues  to  industry 
and  wealth. 

The  mountainous  region  is  proverbial  for  its  health,  the  atmosphere 
pure,  streams  of  water  abundant,  and  the  scenery,  for  beauty  and  sub- 
limity, unrivaled.  Sheep  raising,  where  there  are  so  many  nutritious 
grasses,  affording  good  grazing  nearly  the  whole  year,  could  be  made 
a  profitable  business,  and  might  be  connected  with  vine  culture.. 

In  this  place  it  may  be  proper  to  mention,  that  on  the  streams  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  State,  the  bottom  lands  are  literally  covered  with 
muscadine  vines,  (vitis  vulpina.)  They  vary  in  quality,  and  some  of 
them,  no  doubt,  would  prove  as  good  for  wine  as  the  Scuppernong  of 
North  Carolina.  I  did  not  learn  that  any  experiments  in  wine-making 
from  them  had  ever  been  made,  but  as  an  inducement  to  the  trial,  I 
will  state  that  Mr.  Longworth  informed  me  that  he  would  purchase,  at 
a  fair  price,  as  much  wine  of  those  grapes  as  might  be  sent  to  him. 
He  wished  to  obtain  it  to  be  used  in  flavoring  his  Catawba.  The  de- 
sideratum of  American  wine  grapes,  in  his  opinion,  consists  in  their 
imparting  the  foxy  aroma  to  the  wine,  a  realization  of  which  I  entertain 
the  most  sanguine  hopes  in  the  successful  cultivation  of  the  Washita. 

Having  laid  away  the  cuttings  in  sand,  to  preserve  them  until  the 
collection  should  be  complete,  and  having  rested  the  team,  I  again  set 
out,  on  the  30th  of  December,  1857,  with  a  view  of  ascending  the  Bed 
Eiver  as  far  as  the  Cross  Timbers.  In  the  condition  of  the  roads  at  that 
season  it  was  thought  advisable  to  proceed  through  the  Choctaw  Na- 
tion, by  Fort  Towson,  cross  the  river  near  the  mouth  of  the  Kiamechi, 
take  the  main  road  leading  through  Paris,  Bonham,  and  Kentucky 
Town,  and  strike  the  Cross  Timbers  south  of  Preston.  A  great  por- 
tion of  this  journey  was  through  a  prairie  country,  of  a  rich,  black, 
calcareous  soil,  in  which  grape-vines  are  very  seldom  seen.  In  the 
pine  lands,  from  the  Arkansas  line  to  Wheelock  Academy,  where  the 
prairie  is  reached,  similar  grapes  to  those  already  collected  are  found ; 
and  likewise,  in  the  red-oak  lands,  from  the  ferry  on  Bed  Eiver  to  the 
town  of  Paris,  there  is  great  abundance  of  that  variety  proposed  to  be 
called  "Ked  Eiver."  On  my  return  by  another  route,  through  the 
timbered  lands  adjoining  the  prairies,  it  was  of  frequent  occurrence, 
and  very  abundant  in  the  Cross  Timbers,  where  the  soil  is  arenacious, 
and  the  prevailing  rock  a  sandstone,  probably  belonging  to  a  coal 


NATIVE   GRAPES   OF   ARKANSAS   AND    TEXAS.  35 

formation  subsequent  to  the  carboniferous  period.  The  collection  at 
that  point  was  marked  for  the  locality,  in  hopes  that  the  varieties 
would  be  established  when  the  cuttings  produced  fruit.  A  gentleman 
long  resident  in  the  Cross  Timbers  informed  me  that  three  varieties 
were  common  there. 

Near  the  Cross  Timbers,  a  Mr.  Simcoe  politely  conducted  me  to  a 
place  where  I  obtained  all  the  cuttings  designated  as  the  "Mustang." 
The  general  appearance  of  this  vine  resembles  the  muscadine,  except 
the  bark  of  the  old  wood  inclines  to  detach  itself  in  strips,  like  Catawba 
and  other  vines.  It  was  described  to  me  as  a  great  runner,  reaching 
the  tops  of  thetallest  trees,  and  to  beaprofuse  bearer.  In  some  portions 
of  Texas  it  is  multiplied  to  an  extent  almost  incredible  to  a  person  who 
has  never  visited  that  State  and  who  knows  but  little,  except  by 
report,  of  its  extraordinary  natural  productions.  I  hazard  nothing  in 
saying,  that  if  all  the  mustang  grapes  were  made  into  wine,  and  sold 
at  one  dollar  a  gallon,  the  product  would  greatly  exceed  the  value  of 
a  cotton  crop.  The  chief  excellence  of  this  grape  consists  in  its  quali- 
ties for  making  wine,  as  the  skin  contains  such  acrid  matter  that  the 
fruit  cannot  be  eaten,  without  producing  painful  sensations  to  the 
inner  coats  of  the  mouth,  and  sometimes  swelling.  The  skin  must  be 
broken,  and  the  pulp  withdrawn,  which  is  said  to  be  exceedingly  sweet 
and  juicy. 

On  my  return  from  the  Eio  Grande,  in  March  last.  Dr.  J.  H.  Lyons, 
of  San  Antonio,  presented  me  with  ten  bottles  of  mustang  wine,  made 
the  previous  season  from  the  wild  grapes.  Those  bottles  were  dis- 
tributed among  the  friends  of  native  grape  culture,  by  some  of  whom 
it  was  pronounced  a  good  claret,  wanting  only  age  to  bring  out  its 
qualities.  One  gentleman,  not  less  distinguished  as  an  agriculturist 
and  friend  to  native  vine  culture  than  for  his  eminent  talents  and 
public  services,  remarked,  in  relation  to  the  bottle  sent  him,  that  "the 
mustang  wine  has  had  so  bad  a  chance  from  traveling  so  far  and  so 
recently  that  a  proper  judgment  cannot  now  be  passed  on  it.  I  regret 
that  I  did  not  let  it  rest  two  or  three  months,  which  is  little  time 
enough  for  it  to  settle  after  its  travels.  It  would  be  pronounced  common 
claret,  a  little  pricked,  by  most  persons.  I  still  think,  however,  that 
I  perceive  in  it  the  elements  of  a  rich  and  highly-flavored  claret ;  but  as 
to  its  delicacy,  whether  it  turns  out  Pineau  or  Gamay,  no  opinion  can 
be  formed  from  this  bottle,  under  the  circumstances." 

It  was  not  until  the  8th  of  February  that  I  returned  from  this  trip, 
and  immediately  commenced  arrangements  for  leaving  the  country 
with  the  collection.  Being  delayed  in  the  means  of  transportation,  I 
did  not  reach  New  Orleans  until  the  4th  of  March,  and  proceeding  up 
the  river  to  Memphis,  I  then  forwarded  suits  of  the  cuttings  to  the 
different  points  designated  in  my  instructions. 

EL   PASO    GRAPES,    OR    GRAPES    CULTIVATED    ON   THE     RIO    GRANDE. 

The  Patent  Office  having  determined  to  continue  the  collection  of 
American  grapes,  and  wishing  to  obtain  seeds  and  cuttings  of  those 
cultivated  at  Paso  del  Norte,  in  the  department  of  Chihuahua,  I 
engaged  to  make  the  collection  in  the  manner  agreed  upon,  and  set 


36  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

forth  in  instructions,  dated  July  1,  1858.  By  those  instructions,  I 
was  directed  "to  proceed  to  Santa  Fe,  in  New  Mexico,  via  Indepen- 
dence, Missouri,  and  explore  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  as  far  below 
El  Paso  (in  Texas)  as  the  grape  season  would  admit."  On  my  arrival 
in  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande,  I  was  to  "take  the  requisite  steps  to 
procure  cuttings  preparatory  to  their  removal,"  "noting  the  character 
of  the  fruit_,  the  local  names,  their  period  of  maturity,  the  nature  of 
the  soil,"  and  any  "information  connected  with  the  climate,  which 
would  have  a  bearing  on  the  case."  I  v\^as  also  required  "to  collect 
small  quantities  of  grape  seeds,  and  forward  them  to  the  office  by 
mail."  In  case  I  "met  with  ripened  seeds  of  any  other  valuable 
native  wild  fruits,  forest  trees,  or  shrubs,  or  any  important  vegetables, 
which  could  be  conveniently  collected,"  I  was  instructed  "to  put  them 
up  in  a  proper  manner,  and  forward  them  to  the  Office."  It  was  stipu- 
lated that  this  duty  should  be  performed  in  a  "period  of  nine  or  ten 
months,  commencing  the  1st  day  of  July,  1858,"  and  for  which  I  was 
to  receive  a  fixed  compensation. 

Having  made  the  necessary  preparation  for  the  journey,  I  left 
Washington  city  on  the  14th  day  of  July,  and  proceeded  directly  to 
Independence,  Missouri,  arriving  there  in  time  to  secure  a  passage  in 
the  mail  train,  which  left  on  the  19th,  for  Santa  Fe,  The  journey  over 
the  plains  was  accomplished  without  delay  or  accident,  and  I  reached 
Santa  Fe  on  the  8th  of  August.  As  the  grape  season  did  not,  as  I 
then  learned,  commence  before  the  last  of  August,  I  did  not  think  it 
necessary  to  proceed  to  El  Paso  by  the  mail  stage  which  left  for  that 
place  on  the  11th  of  August,  but  remained  there  until  the  departure 
of  the  mail  on  the  25th,  and  reached  El  Paso  on  the  1st  day  of  Sep- 
tember, 

In  the  market  of  Santa  Fe  I  found  excellent  plums.  They  resem- 
bled the  wild  variety  known  in  the  southern  States  as  the  Chickasaw, 
though  more  sweet  and  delicious  than  southern  plums.  Apricots,  also, 
were  in  season.  In  comparison  to  our  improved  sorts,  they  were  small 
in  size,  but  in  richness  of  flavor  are  not  surpassed.  Seeds  of  these 
fruits  were  collected  and  sent  to  the  Office.  So  far  as  I  could  learn,  these 
fruits  are  grown  in  a  natural  way,  the  art  of  budding  and  ingrafting 
being  unknown  to  the  natives,  or  not  practised.  The  trees  are  chance 
seedlings,  or  transplanted  suckers,  and  thrive  most  when  in  proximity 
to  the  acequias,  or  irrigating  canals,  from  which  the  roots  derive  a 
constant  and  regular  supply  of  moisture.  I  saw  no  orchard  in  New 
Mexico,  though  with  irrigation,  apples,  pears,  and  peaches  could  be 
successfully  cultivated.  I  did  not  see  any  of  those  fruits  which  would 
be  considered  valuable  where  our  varieties  are  known. 

Descending  the  Rio  Grande,  the  vineyards  are  first  seen  at  Berna- 
lilla.  At  Albuquerque,  I  learned  that  the  grape  was  extensively 
cultivated.  I  was  told  that  the  fruit  from  cuttings  procured  in  Paso 
d(>,l  Norte  was  of  inferior  quality,  but  that  another  generation  of  vines 
produced  grapes  equal  to  those  grown  three  hundred  miles  south. 
How  far  this  is  to  be  received  as  correct,  I  ha,d  no  means  of  ascertain- 
ing, but,  as  it  seems  to  favor  the  idea  that  the  habituation  of  these 
grapes  to  a  northern  latitude  is  gradual  and  progressive,  I  deem  the 
statement  necessary,  leaving  future  experiment  to  test  the  principlo. 


NATIVE    GRAPES   OF   ARKANSAS   AND    TEXAS.  37 

The  grapes  wliicli  I  saw  in  Albuquerque  were  of  sucli  excellent  qual- 
ity that  every  inducement  is  held  out  to  increased  cultivation. 

The  vine  is  cultivated  in  many  if  not  all  the  villages  on  the  Rio 
Grande,  though  not  so  extensively  as  at  Paso  del  Norte.  The  vine- 
yards there  are  scattered  through  the  town,  wherever  water  can  he 
procured  for  irrigation.  They  are  generally  small,  inclosed  by  adobe 
walls,  and  resemble  in  appearance  the  inclosures  devoted  to  the  growth 
of  culinary  vegetables  in  the  lesser  towns  of  the  United  States.  Great 
quantities  of  the  fruit  are  exposed  in  the  market  places,  and  much  is 
dried  for  winter  use. 

As  yet  there  are  but  few  vineyards  in  El  Paso  valley,  on  the  east- 
ern or  Texas  side  of  the  river,  but  the  market  was  abundantly  supplied 
from  the  vineyards  in  Paso  del  Norte.  There  are  but  two  varieties, 
the  loldte  and  the  blue,  though  some  of  the  proprietors  of  the  vineyards 
will  say  that  there  avejlve  or  six  classes.  Their  distinctions,  however, 
are  founded  merely  on  variations  in  color,  caused  by  difierent  exposures 
to  light,  and  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  two  or  more  classes  are 
taken  from  the  same  vine. 

The  white  grape  was  nearly  out  of  season  when  I  arrived  at  El  Paso. 
The  bunches  are  large,  loose,  and  shouldered.  The  berries  are  about 
the  size  of  the  Catawba ;  they  have  scarcely  any  pulp,  very  sweet 
and  juicy,  with  a  slight  and  not  unpleasant  musky  aroma,  which  is 
imparted  to  the  wine.  This  is  of  a  pale  straw  color,  slightly  acid. 
The  vine  is  vigorous,  but  does  not  seem  to  be  hardy. 

The  hlue  grape,  which  this  year  was  in  season  from  the  25th  of 
August  till  the  15th  of  September,  is  more  extensively  cultivated  in 
Paso  del  Norte.  The  bunches  are  large,  loose,  and  branching,  some- 
times weighing  three  pounds  ;  and  as  many  as  thirty  bunches  have 
been  picked  from  a  single  vine.  Such  a  yield  is,  however,  unusual, 
though  with  better  cultivation  than  is  now  given  the  product  would 
be  augmented.  The  berries  are  generally  larger  than  the  Catawba 
grapes  of  our  vineyard,  thin-skinned,  very  juicy,  and  exceedingly 
sweet.  The  vine  is  short-jointed,  and  a  strong  and  vigorous  grower. 
When  in  the  vicinity  of  fruit-trees  on  which  they  can  climb  the  vines 
will  sometimes  grow  twenty  feet  in  a  season.  Such  vines  are,  however, 
not  productive,  and  it  is  probable  that  if  they  were  trained  on  frames 
they  would  not  be  so  fruitful  nor  of  such  fine  quality  as  cultivated  by 
the  present  mode. 

The  vineyards  of  Paso  del  Norte  are  planted  in  rows,  five  or  six  feet 
apart  each  way.  Most  of  the  labor  of  the  vineyard  is  performed  with 
the  hoe,  while  the  ground  is  kept  loose  by  frequent  irrigations.  If  the 
ground  were  to  receive  stirring  once  or  twice  by  the  plow,  it  would 
.certainly  be  attended  by  beneficial  results.  It  would  have  a  tendency 
to  lessen  irrigation^  which,  in  my  opinion,  is  overdone,  and,  as  a  con- 
sequence, the  energies  of  the  vine  are  expended  in  the  production  of 
wood.  The  vines  are  lopped  off  in  a  very  careless  manner,  and  a  stump 
two  or  three  feet  high  is  formed.  The  bearing  branches  emerge  from 
the  buds  near  the  top  of  the  stump ;  these  are  annually  cut  back  to 
three  or  four  buds,  every  spring ;  but  it  is  often  done  so  late  in  the 
season  that  the  flow  of  sap  kills  the  spurs,  and  suckers  are  thrown  out 
from  the  roots.     Early  in  winter,  the  branches  are  drawn  together  and 


38  AGEICULTURAL   REPORT. 

bound ;  tlie  earth  is  tlien  heaped  around  the  vines  with  a  hoe,  in  which 
condition  they  remain  till  the  following  spring,  when  danger  from 
frosts  is  supposed  to  be  past,  and  the  vines  are  headed  back,  and  the 
earth  leveled.  It  would  no  doubt  be  an  improvement  on  the  present 
system  if  the  vines  were  pruned  before  the  winter  protection  is  given 
them,  and  the  spurs  covered  with  earth.  Great  injury  is  done  by 
straining  the  vines  and  rupturing  the  sap-vessels  in  the  operation  of 
gathering  up  and  pruning  in  the  spring.  The  pruning  should  always 
be  done  with  hand  shears.  An  impression  prevails  among  the  vine- 
yardists  that  pruning  in  early  winter  is  prejudicial  to  the  vines. 
Nothing  can  be  more  absurd ;  for  the  drying  of  the  end  of  the  vine 
where  pruned  off  would  prevent  ''bleeding"  when  the  sap  is  in  motion 
the  following  spring.  From  this  notion  being  generally  entertained, 
I  had  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  cuttings. 

Major  Emory,  in  his  able  ' '  Keport  on  the  Mexican  Boundary  Survey, ' ' 
says : 

"Southern  California,  the  whole  of  the  upper  valley  of  the  Grila, 
and  the  upper  valley  of  the  Del  Norte,  as  far  down  as  the  Presidio  del 
Norte,  are  eminently  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  grape.  In  no 
part  of  the  world  does  this  luscious  fruit  flourish  with  greater  luxu- 
riance than  in  these  regions,  when  properly  cultivated.  Those  versed 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  represent  that  all  the  conditions  of  soil, 
humidity,  and  temperature,  are  united  in  these  regions,  to  produce  the 
grape  in  the  greatest  perfection.  The  soil,  composed  of  the  disinte- 
grated matter  of  the  older  rocks  and  volcanic  ashes,  is  light,  porous, 
and  rich.  The  frosts  in  winter  are  just  sufficiently  severe  to  destroy 
the  insects  without  injuring  the  plant,  and  the  rain  seldom  falls  in 
the  season  when  the  plant  is  flowering,  or  when  the  fruit  is  coming 
into  maturity  and  liable  to  rot  from  exposure  to  humidity.  As  a  con- 
sequence of  this  condition  of  things,  the  fruit,  when  ripe,  has  a  thin 
skin,  scarcely  any  pulp,  and  is  devoid  of  the  musky  taste  usual  with 
American  grapes."  (I  differ  with  Major  Emory,  it  will  be  seen,  in 
regard  to  the  musky  aroma  of  the  white  or  muscatel  grape,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called.  He  doubtless  refers  to  the  hlue  grape,  of  which  most 
of  the  El  Paso  wine  k  made.) 

"The  manufacture  of  wine  from  this  grape  is  still  in  a  crude  state. 
Although  wine  has  been  made  for  upward  of  a  century  in  El  Paso,  and 
is  a  very  considerable  article  of  commerce,  no  one  of  sufficient  intelli- 
gence and  capital  to  do  justice  to  the  magnificent  fruit  of  the  country 
has  yet  undertaken  its  manufacture.  As  at  present  made,  there  is  no 
system  followed,  no  ingenuity  in  mechanical  contrivance  practised, 
and  none  of  those  facilities  exist  which  are  usual  and  necessary  in  the 
manufacture  of  wine  on  a  large  scale ;  indeed,  there  seems  to  be  no 
great  desire  beyond  that  of  producing  as  much  alcoholic  matter  as 
possible.  The  demand  for  strong  alcoholic  drinks  has  much  increased 
with  the  advent  of  the  Americans  ;  and  in  proportion  as  this  demand 
has  increased,  the  wine  has  decreased  in  quality.  On  one  occasion, 
I  drank  wine  in  El  Paso  which  compared  favorably  with  the  richest 
burgundy.  The  production  of  this  wine  must  have  been  purely  acci- 
dental, for  other  wine  made  of  the  same  grape  and  grown  in  the  same 
year  was  scarcely  fit  to  drink." 


NATIVE    GRAPES    OF   ARKANSAS   AND    TEXAS.  39 

The  process  of  making  wine  is  quite  primitive.  The  great  scarcity 
of  timber  in  that  country  compels  a  resort  to  various  means  to  supply 
its  place,  and  none  is  more  likely  to  arrest  attention  than  that  which, 
takes  the  place  of  the  wine-press.  An  ox  hide  is  formed  into  a  pouch, 
which  is  attached  to  two  pieces  of  timber  and  laid  on  two  poles  sup- 
ported by  forks  planted  in  the  ground-floor  of  the  room  in  which  the 
vintage  takes  place.  The  grapes  are  gathered  in  a  very  careless  man- 
ner, and  placed  in  the  pouch  until  it  is  filled.  They  are  then  mashed 
by  trampling  with  the  feet.  In  this  condition  the  mashed  fruit,  stems, 
and  some  leaves  remain  until  fermentation  takes  place,  which  requires 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  days.  An  incision  is  made  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  pouch,  through  which  the  wine  drips ;  it  is  transferred  to  barrels. 
The  wine  now  has  a  flat,  sourish  taste.  Should  it  be  desired  to  make 
sweet  wine,  grape  syrup,  made  by  evaporating  fresh  juice,  is  added 
until  the  wine  has  the  desired  sweetness.  It  is  not  afterwards  fined, 
or  racked  off,  but  remains  in  the  cask  until  used.  Perchance  a  few 
bottles  may  be  filled  and  set  away  for  particular  occasions,  but  a  very 
small  quantity  remains  on  hand  six  months  after  it  is  made.  The 
scarcity  of  suitable  casks,  and  the  high  price  of  bottles,  may  be  a  reason 
of  so  little  old  wine  being  in  the  country.  I  was  told  that  the  wine 
never  underwent  a  second  active  fermentation.  The  room  in  which 
the  wine  is  made  and  afterwards  kept  resembles  a  cellar,  except  that 
it  is  above  ground,  always  dry,  and  an  evenness  of  temperature  pre- 
served by  thick  adobe  walls  and  a  covering  of  earth. 

For  the  last  several  years  there  has  been  a  falling  off  in  the  product 
of  the  vineyards.  The  estimate  is  from  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three 
hundred  gallons  to  the  acre,  but  with  American  skill  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  vineyards,  and  American  appliances  in  making  wine,  the 
product  might  be  more  than  doubled.  The  El  Paso  valley,  on  the 
Texas  side  of  the  Eio  Grande^  is  about  eighty  miles  long,  and  has  an 
average  width  of  seven  or  eight  miles.  This,  in  my  opinion,  is  the 
Eden  of  the  grape  in  the  United  States.  The  whole  of  this  tract  of 
country  is  adapted  to  vine  culture.  In  some  portions  of  California 
the  same  grapes  which  are  cultivated  on  the  Eio  Grande  may  be  pro- 
duced in  greater  quantities  to  the  acre,  and  the  bunches  and  fruit  may 
be  larger ;  but  it  should  be  recollected  that  the  grapes  of  California  are 
cultivated  with  superior  skill,  and  perhaps  the  soil  of  the  vineyards  in 
that  State  has  not  been  so  long  under  cultivation  as  that  at  Paso  del 
Norte.  Still,  I  think,  in  the  quantity  of  grapes  produced,  and  their 
qualities  for  wine,  the  El  Paso  valley  will  not,  when  it  has  a  fair  trial, 
be  excelled  by  any  district  in  California.  As  yet,  lands  in  the  valley 
are  cheap  ;  the  town  of  San  Elizario,  the  seat  of  justice  of  El  Paso 
-county,  has  a  large  body  of  land,  which  it  will  part  with  at  a  nominal 
price  to  actual  settlers.  The  village  of  El  Paso,  near  the  upper  end 
of  the  valley,  has  in  a  few  years  become  a  place  of  considerable  trade. 
That  point  may  now  be  said  to  be  the  key  to  the  trade  of  Arizona  and 
northern  Chihuahua.  It  is  the  point  where  the  two  great  overland 
mails  have  to  pass,  and  is  near  the  place  which  Nature  has  marked  out 
as  the  most  eligible  for  a  railroad  to  the  Pacific,  to  cross  the  Kio 
Grande. 

The  soil  of  the  El  Paso  valley  is  an  alluvial  deposit,  obviously  de- 


40  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

rived  from  tlie  volcanic  and  older  rocks  of  tlie  mountain  ranges.  It  is 
of  a  brownish  color,  absorbs  water  freely,  and  wlien  duly  saturated,  is 
open  and  porous.  The  roots  of  vegetables  penetrate  it  very  easily. 
Beneath  the  surface  there  are  thin  beds,  or  strata,  in  which  clay 
predominates.  These  beds  contain  a  substance  called  ^'salitre,"  proba- 
bly a  mixture  of  alkaline  matters.  Salitre  is  often  found  on  the  surface, 
in  thin  efflorescence,  especially  in  places  from  which  water  has  subsided. 
The  water  of  the  Kio  G-rande,  no  doubt,  holds  it  in  solution,  more 
especially  after  the  rainy  seasons,  and  as  long  as  it  is  used  for  pur- 
poses of  irrigation,  the  alkalies  cannot  be  exhausted  from  the  soil. 
The  presence  of  the  alkalies  must,  doubtless,  be  very  energetic  in  sup- 
porting the  luxuriant  vegetation  of  the  valley,  as  well  as  the  principal 
means  of  continuing  its  wonderful  fertility  without  apparent  exhaustion. 
It  may  be  proper  in  this  place  to  remark,  that  the  grape  evinces  a 
preference  for  the  soils  which  are  inclined  to  be  sandy,  and  the  most 
flourishing  vineyards  in  Paso  del  Norte  are  those  on  the  sites  where 
the  sand  has  been  settled  by  the  winds.  The  soil  is  admirably  suited 
to  the  growth  of  corn,  wheat,  cotton,  and  tobacco ;  garden  vegetables 
are  raised  in  profusion. 

The  El  Paso  valley  is  remarkable  for  the  production  of  various  kinds 
of  fruits.  The  apple,  pear,  quince,  peach,  almond,  fig,  pomegranate, 
and  Persian  walnut_,  also  the  apricot  and  plum,  though  not  extensively 
cultivated,  succeed  well ;  but  as  the  late  improved  sorts  of  our  gardens 
and  orchards  have  not  reached  that  country,  their  fruits  cannot  be 
compared  to  ours.  'Exceptions  can  be  made  only  of  the  grape,  the  fig, 
and  the  quince,  which  in  quality  are  not  excelled  in  the  Atlantic  States. 
Advantage  is  taken  of  the  facilities  for  drying  fruits,  and  immense 
quantities  are  thus  preserved  every  year.  In  making  pasas,  or  Mex- 
ican raisins,  the  largest  and  best  bunches  are  taken  from  the  vines 
when  fully  ripe  and  hung  up  in  the  houses.  The  grape  gradually 
shrinks  away  until  it  becomes  skin  and  seeds,  with  a  small  honied 
consistence  surrounding  the  seeds.  Fearing  that  a  quantity  of  seeds 
which  I  had  purchased  might  have  their  vitality  injured  by  the  dryness 
of  the  atmosphere  before  I  could  send  them  to  Washington,  and  believ- 
ing that  the  honied  consistence  round  the  seeds  would  serve  as  a  pro- 
tection, I  purchased  about  fifty  pounds  of  the  dried  grapes,  and  reported 
the  fact  to  the  Office.  I  regret  that  the  letter  approving  my  course, 
and  directing  a  further  purchase,  did  not  reach  me  in  time  to  comply 
with  the  order  to  the  desired  extent,  but  through  the  exertion  of  my 
obliging  friend,  Mr.  Lightner,  an  American  merchant  residing  in  Paso 
del  Norte,  I  obtained  an  additional  ahno  and  a  half.  Seiior  Don 
Joachin  Sabo,  of  Paso  del  Norte,  presented  me  with  a  gallon  of  seeds, 
and  I  also  sent  some  of  those  I  had  purchased,  and  am  gratified  to 
learn  that,  with  all,  the  success  has  been  most  complete,  and  the  crop 
raised  in  the  propagating  gardens  is  worth  a  far  greater  sum  than  was 
expended  in  introducing  them.  Of  the  ultimate  success  of  these  grapes, 
especially  in  the  southern  States,  I  have  not  the  least  doubt,  and  I  do 
not  think  experimenters  should  be  discouraged  if  the  first  results  do 
not  equal  their  expectations.  Dr.  Lyons,  of  San  Antonio,  Texas, 
informed  me  that  he  had  a  vineyard  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  vines  of 
the  El  Paso  grapes,  which  would  come  int©  bearing  next  or  the  follow- 


NATIVE   GRAPES   OP   ARKANSAS   AND    TEXAS.  41 

tng  year.  From  his  intelligence  and  skill,  and  tlie  lively  interest  he 
takes  in  grape  culture,  the  friends  of  "the  cause"  may  look  for  most 
favorable  results.  The  San  Antonio  river  will  afford  water  for  irriga- 
tion, and  the  flourishing  city  of  that  name  on  its  banks  will  furnish 
every  convenience  and  facility  for  making  and  storing  wine.  The 
country  round  that  city  holds  out  inducements  to  grape  culture,  and 
the  vine  will  no  doubt  succeed  well  on  the  Picos  and  other  streams 
between  that  point  and  the  Kio  Grande,  where  water  can  be  had  for 
irrigation.  On  Devil's  river  I  was  told  that  wild  grapes  are  found 
of  such  excellence  that  some  persons  maintain  that  they  are  indentical 
with  the  El  Paso  grapes,  but  that  is  a  mistake,  for  those  grapes  are 
of  European  origin. 

There  was  no  frost  last  year  until  about  the  middle  of  November, 
and  then  so  slight  that  the  vines  were  not  in  a  condition  for  cuttings 
to  be  taken  off  until  the  last  of  the  month.  From  the  objections  before 
alluded  to,  I  experienced  much  difficulty  in  procuring  cuttings,  and 
for  those  obtained  I  am  indebted  to  the  politeness  of  Seiior  Don  GJ-uad- 
alupe  Mirandi,  Seiior  de  Oranga,  and  Mr.  Lightner.  On  the  10th  of 
January  I  had  the  collection  packed  and  ready  for  conveyance  to 
Washington,  but  was  detained  till  the  8th  of  February  before  a  train 
passed  down  to  San  Antonio.  We  were  thirty  days  making  the  jour- 
ney to  that  place,  a  distance  of  six  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  The 
collection  reached  New  Orleans,  and  was  sent  on  to  Washington  the 
28th  of  March,  1859.  The  journey  was  accomplished  without  loss  or 
injury  to  the  collection,  except  that,  in  following  my  instructions  to 
pack  the  collection  in  barrels  made  air-tight,  I  found  one  barrel  of 
cuttings  so  much  injured,  on  reaching  New  Orleans,  that  they  had  to 
be  thrown  away. 

I  did  not  explore  the  country  below  El  Paso  during  the  grape 
season,  for  the  reason  that  the  vine  is  cultivated  to  a  limited  extent 
east  of  the  Eio  Grande,  and  I  should  not  have  met  with  any  native 
varieties  until  reaching  Devil's  river,  by  the  mail,  which  then  made 
but  semi-monthly  trips.  That  place  is  in  an  uninhabited  part  of  the 
country,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  Apache  Indians.  Such  was  then  the 
condition  of  affairs  on  the  border  that  the  government  established  ad- 
ditional military  posts,  one  of  which  is  in  the  El  Paso  valley.  I 
collected  seeds  of  the  pinon,  or  Finns  edulis,  mezquit  tree,  tornillo, 
sapindus,  seeds  of  several  vegetables,  and  some  superior  wheat,  culti- 
vated by  the  Pimos  Indians,  which  were  forwarded  by  mail. 


42  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

EEPOET  ON  THE  SACCHARINE  CONTENTS  OE  NA- 
TIVE AMERICAN  GRAPES  IN  RELATION  TO  WINE- 
MAKING. 


BY  CHARLES  T.  JACKSON,  M.  D. 


Wine  is  properly  tlie  fermented  juice  of  grapes,  and  contains  alco- 
hol, variable  proportions  of  grape  sugar,  bi-tartrate  of  potash,  and 
some  tartrate  of  lime,  with  a  very  little  malic  and  tannic  acids,  and 
some  mucilagenous  matters,  besides  oenanthic  acid,  and  in  old  times 
oenanthic  ether  and  some  volatile  oils,  derived  from  the  grapes  or  pro- 
duced by  fermentation. 

The  tartrates  are  characteristic  of  the  wines  produced  from  the 
grape,  and  do  not  characterize  fermented  currant,  gooseberry,  or  apple 
juices;  citric  acid  being  contained  as  the  chief  acid  of  the  currant  and 
gooseberry  juice,  while  malic  acid  is  that  of  the  juice  of  the  apple. 
Currant  and  gooseberry  juices,  therefore,  are  not  wines,  but  are  similar 
to  punch  made  of  lemon  juice  and  alcohol,  sweetened.  Fermented 
apple  juice  is  not  a  wine,  for  it  does  not  contain  the  tartrates,  nor  any 
tartaric  acid,  but  does  contain  malic,  acetic,  and  tannic  acids.  If  we 
intend  to  produce  wine  we  must  resort  to  the  juice  of  grapes  exclu- 
sively, and  it  therefore  becomes  important  to  inquire  if  the  native 
American  grapes  will  produce  good  wines.  The  object  in  the  present 
analysis  is  to  ascertain  the  most  important  facts  bearing  upon  this  sub- 
ject, and  although  the  limited  researches,  extending  only  through  one 
season,  may  not  fully  settle  the  question,  we  trust  that  they  may  throw 
some  light  on  the  subject,  and  open  the  way  to  more  extended  re- 
searches. 

It  was  obvious  at  the  outset  that  we  must  find  out  the  proportion  of 
saccharine  or  alcohol-producing  matter  in  the  American  grapes ;  for  if 
they  will  not  produce  alcohol  in  sufficient  proportions  to  keep  the  wine 
from  souring,  we  should  have  to  add  saccharine  matter  in  some  other 
form  to  make  a  sound  wine  If  the  acids  in  our  grapes  are  not  the 
same  as  those  in  foreign  wine  grapes  then  the  task  would  be  more 
difficult.  It  was,  therefore,  desirable  to  determine  this  point ;  for  it 
has  been  supposed  by  many  that  malic,  and  not  tartaric  acid  was  char- 
acteristic of  the  native  American  grapes. 

I  have,  therefore,  paid  especial  attention  to  the  proportions  of  sac- 
charine matter^  and  to  the  nature  of  the  acids  in  the  grapes  submitted 
to  me  for  analysis,  and  have  found  that,  although  many  of  our  grapes 
are  too  poor  in  saccharine  matter  to  produce  sufficient  alcohol  for  the 
preservation  of  the  wine,  without  the  addition  of  sugar  to  form  more 
alcohol,  or  of  ready  formed  spirits,  that  there  are  some  grapes  rich 
enough  in  saccharine  matter  to  produce,  without  these  additions,  ex- 
cellent light  wines,  similar  to  those  of  France.  I  have  ascertained 
that  malic  acid  exists  in  grape  juice,  in  the  proportion  of  nearly  one 
grain  to  the  ounce  of  grape  juice.     This  acid  was  found  by  Mulder  in 


SACCHARINE  CONTENTS   OF   AMERICAN   GRAPES.  43 

Bordeaux  wines,  but  lie  does  not  state  in  what  proportions,  thougli  lie 
says  it  exists  in  small  quantity. 

Tartaric  acid  and  tlie  bi-tartrates,  have  been  found  to  characterize 
all  the  native  American  grapes  which  I  have  analyzed  ;  this  acid  ex- 
isting in  rather  too  large  proportions  for  the  saccharine  matter  in  most 
of  our  grapes. 

Cultivation  appears  to  increase  somewhat  the  proportion  of  sacchar- 
ine matter,  and  to  diminish  that  of  the  tartaric  acid ;  but  we  have  not 
carried  this  experiment  of  cultivation  far  enough  to  determine  its  full 
effects  on  the  character  of  the  grapes.  When  we  reflect  on  the  fact 
that  all  the  wine  grapes  of  Europe  are  the  products  of  cultivation  of 
some  very  small  and  not  very  j^alatable  wild  grapes  of  Asia,  and  when 
we  see  how  various  are  the  kinds  of  grapes  thus  produced,  we  cannot 
fail  to  perceive  that  similar  experiments  with  our  native  grapes  may 
reward  us  with  new  and  valuable  varieties  not  yet  known. 

A  northern  grape  transferred  to  a  more  genial  climate  at  the  south 
will,  without  doubt,  yield  a  sweeter  fruit.  This  may  not  be  effected 
at  once,  but  will  come  about  gradually.  Perhaps  we  may  have  to 
resort  to  seedling  vines,  and  gradually  to  acclimate  the  grapes  we 
would  cultivate. 

The  Catawba,  Isabella,  and  Concord  grapes  are  examples  of  the 
great  improvement  we  can  bring  about  by  cultivation  of  grape  vines,  for 
all  these  were  native  American  wild  grapes,  much  inferior  to  those  at 
present  cultivated  for  wine-making  and  for  table  use. 

On  examination  of  the  tabular  statement  accompanying  this  report, 
the  reader  will  see  that  there  are  many  grapes  which  promise  to  repay 
for  cultivation.  The  Henshaw  grape  will  make  a  good  light  wine,  like 
the  French  clarets ;  and  the  Amber  grape,  of  Dracut,  Massachusetts, 
by  cultivation,  will  doubtless  become  much  sweeter,  and  will  produce 
a  highly-flavored  wine,  with  a  rich  bouquet. 

The  Catawba,  Isabella,  and  Scuppernong  grapes  have  already 
proved  to  be  excellent  wine  grapes,  and  are  extensively  cultivated  for 
that  purpose.  The  Clinton,  Bartlett,  Petit  Noir,  and  Hartford  Prolific, 
will  all  make  good  wines. 

Those  grapes  which  contain  less  than  15  per  cent,  of  saccharine 
matter,  will  require  sugar  or  alcoholic  spirit  to  be  added  to  them  in 
order  to  make  a  wine  that  will  keep.  The  celebrated  Scuppernong 
wine  will  not  keep  without  the  addition  of  spirit  or  sugar,  since  the 
grape  juice  will  not  produce  more  than  four  and  nine-tenths  per  cent, 
of  alcohol.  The  rich  flavor  of  this  grape  renders  it  particularly  valu- 
able, the  wine  having  the  flavor  and  bouquet  of  the  celebrated  Tokay 
wine  of  Hungary.  This  grape,  however,  cannot  be  cultivated  in  the 
open  air  north  of  Virginia,  and  is  a  native  of  North  Carolina.  It  is 
desirable  that  extensive  vineyards  should  be  established  in  that  State 
expressly  for  the  cultivation  of  this  grape,  which  will  make  a  wine  that 
will  be  most  eagerly  sought  for  as  the  best  of  American  native  wines. 

The  Catawba  grape  has  already  acquired  a  just  reputation  as  a  wine 
grape,  and  is  extensively  cultivated  in  Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  the  middle 
States.  It  ripens  very  late  in  the  latitude  of  the  New  England  States, 
and  is  apt  to  suffer  from  early  frosts.  We  must,  therefore,  select  some 
more  hardy  or  earlier  grape  for  the  northern  States.     The  Concord, 


44  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Bartlett,  Sage,  Amber,  sugar  grape  of  Plymoutli  and  Cape  Cod,  are 
all  good  grapes  for  the  northern  regions.  The  Clinton,  already  culti- 
vated, is  one  of  the  best  of  our  hardy  grapes,  and  is  rich  in  saccharine 
contents,  though  this  season  it  has  not  shown  its  sweetness  to  so  much 
advantage  as  usual. 

The  grapes  of  Connecticut  have,  this  year,  failed  to  do  justice  to 
themselves;  but  it  will  be  seen,  by  the  analysis  of  last  year's  growth, 
that  they  are  generally  much  richer  in  saccharine  matter  than  the 
samples  of  the  present  season  have  proved. 

Some  object  to  the  peculiar  flavor  and  bouquet  of  the  new  wines  made 
from  native  v/ild  grapes  of  the  north,  and  are  not  aware  that  the  wine, 
by  age  and  proper  sulphuring,  loses  the  "foxy"  flavor.  Mr.  E.  Paige 
has  proved  this  in  his  extensive. operations  in  making  wines  from  our 
native  northern  grapes. 

The  effect  of  mixing  the  juices  of  several  different  kinds  of  grapes 
together,  before  fermentation,  has  not  yet  been  properly  tried;  and  I 
have  no  doubt  that  great  improvements  in  the  flavor  of  the  wines  may 
be  effected  by  such  a  method  of  operating.  Within  a  few  years,  the 
manufacture  of  wines  from  our  native  grapes  has  made  great  pro- 
gress ;  and  the  wines  made  in  Ashburnham,  by  Messrs.  Glasier  &  Flint, 
and  in  Boston,  by  Mr.  E.  Paige,  have  acquired  a  wide-spread  reputa- 
tion, and  the  demand  has  for  some  time  been  beyond  the  supply. 

Native  American  wines  have  not  only  become  common  in  household 
use,  but  have  taken  their  place  on  the  communion-tables  of  our  churches, 
to  the  exclusion  of  foreign  wines ;  and  the  time  will  come  when  Amer- 
ica will  be  able  to  produce  most  of  the  wines  her  people  may  need. 
California  is,  perhaps,  the  best  wine-growing  region,  but  the  middle 
and  southern  States,  without  doubt,  can  do  nearly  as  well  in  this  busi- 
ness ;  and  the  north  is  not  so  cold  that  New  England  cannot  produce 
good,  wholesome,  and  fine-flavored  wines  from  native  grapes.  We 
have  yet  to  learn  much  in  the  business  of  manufacturing  wines,  and 
this  we  can  learn  readily  from  the  wine-makers  of  Europe,  and  from 
those  who  have  had  some  experience  in  Ohio.  As  much  depends  on 
the  processes  of  manufacturing  as  on  the  nature  of  the  grapes  ope- 
rated with,  as  is  obvious  from  the  numerous  varieties  of  wines  made 
from  the  same  kinds  of  grapes  in  Europe.  This  art  we  have  still  to 
acquire. 

CHEMICAL    EXAMINATION    OP    THE   JUICE    OP    GRAPES   FROM   VARIOUS 
LOCALITIES    IN    THE   UNITED    STATES. 

No.  1.     Henshaw  grapes,  from  Martinsburg,  Virginia.     Sent  to  me 
from  the  United  States  Patent  Office,  September  1,  1859. 

One  pound  of  the  grapes  when  pressed  yielded  8  fluid  ounces  of 
rich,  dark-purple  juice,  which  weighed  9  ounces  avoirdupois.  The 
specific  gravity  of  the  strained  juice  was  1.0700.  Saccharine  matter, 
by  Evans's  tables,  17  per  cent. 

By  the  copper  grape-sugar  test,  the  fluid  yields  15.52  per  cent,  of 
grape  sugar,  which  will  make  7.76  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol.  On 
fermenting  a  portion  of  the  juice  and  distilling  it,  I  obtained  7.5  per 
cent,  of  absolute  alcohol  from  the  wine. 


"SACCHAEINE   CONTENTS   OP  AMERICAN   GRAPES.  45 

The  coloring  matter  and  the  tartaric  acid  used  were  precipitated  by 
means  of  acetate  of  lead,  which,  gave  a  fine  blue-colored  precipitate. 

The  wine,  after  fermentation,  changed  from  a  deep  purple  to  a  deep, 
rich  red  color,  and  was  in  appearance  and  taste  much  like  the  red 
wines  of  Burgundy,  in  France,  but  more  acid.  To  diminish  the  acid 
taste,  and  to  increase  the  proportion  of  alcohol,  I  took  a  portion  of  the 
grape  juice  and  added  water  and  sugar,  and  allowed  fermentation  to 
take  place.     It  produced  an  agreeable  light  wine. 

No.  2.     Traminer  grapes,   No.   18,  of  Weber's  list.     Eeceived  Sep- 
tember 16,  1859. 

These  grapes  were  obtained  in  Dorchester,  Massachusetts.  They 
are  of  a  pale  mahogany-red  color.     I  do  not  think  they  were  fully  ripe. 

One  pound  of  these  grapes  yields  7  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  on  pressure, 
and  the  specific  gravity  of  the  strained  grape  juice  was  1.0485.  This 
will  indicate,  by  the  saccharometric  tables  in  Evans's  book,  nearly  12 
per  cent,  of  saccharine  matter.  By  the  copper  test,  the  proportion  of 
grape  sugar  was  found  to  be  11  per  cent.,  which  indicates  the  pei-- 
centage  of  alcohol  would  be  5.5  per  cent,  in  the  wine. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  character  of  the  juices  of  the  hard  pulps, 
and  of  that  portion  which  is  contained  next  to  the  skins,  when  the 
pulp  is  snapped  out  from  the  grapes,  I  took  8  ounces  of  the  grapes, 
and  separated  the  pulp  from  them,  and  found  the  pulps  by  themselves 
weighed  4^  ounces,  and  the  skins,  with  what  adhered  to  them,  3| 
ounces.  On  pressure,  the  pulps  gave  2^  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  and  the 
skins  2|-  fluid  ounces.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  juice  from  the  pulps 
was  1.052,  and  from  the  skins,  1.046.  The  juice  from  the  pulps 
yielded  10  per  cent,  of  grape  sugar,  and  that  from  the  skins,  9.5  per 
cent. 

This  was  an  unexpected  result,  for  the  juice  next  the  skins  tastes 
sweetest.  Undoubtedly,  there  is  more  tartaric  acid  in  the  hard  pulp, 
and  hence  the  sour  taste  of  the  juice  therefrom ;  for  the  tartaric  acid 
covers  the  sweet  taste. 

No.  3.  Catawba  grapes,  from  the  District  of  Columbia.   Eeceived  from 
United  States  Patent  Oflice,  September  19,  1859. 

These  grapes  were  quite  ripe.  One  pound  of  the  grapes^  on  pressure, 
yielded  11  fluid  ounces  of  juice_,  which  had  the  specific  gravity  of  1.0715, 
and,  by  the  tables,  this  should  contain  between  17  and  18  per  cent,  of 
grape  sugar.  By  the  copper  test,  however,  the  proportion  was  found 
to  be  21.3  per  cent. 

The  experiment  was  repeated,  and  21.4  per  cent,  was  obtained  as  the 
largest  yield  of  grape  sugar. 

The  grape  juice  was  allowed  to  ferment,  and  the  wine  to  become  clear 
and  fine.  The  acids  were  then  separated  and  examined,  and  tartaric 
acid,  bi-tartrate  of  potash,  and  tartrate  of  lime  were  obtained,  and 
less  than  one  grain  per  ounce  of  malic  acid. 

In  searching  for  malic  acid,  the  process  recommended  by  Mulder  was 
employed. 

The  wine  was  saturated  fully  with  lime,  by  simmering  it  upon  an 


46  AGRICULTURAL  REPORT. 

excess  of  pulverized  clialk  until  all  tlie  tartaric  acid  was  converted  into 
insoluble  tartrate  of  lime,  and  the  malic  acid,  if  present,  should  be 
converted  into  the  soluble  malate  of  lime.  When  cold,  the  solution 
so  saturated  by  the  chalk  was  filtered,  and  the  malate  of  lime,  with  a 
large  quantity  of  flocculent  mucilage,  was  thrown  down.  This  precip- 
itate, after  being  washed  with  alcohol,  was  dissolved  in  water,  and 
acetate  of  lead  was  added  so  long  as  any  precipitate  fell.  This  pre- 
cipitate was  collected  on  a  filter,  washed,  and  then  was  removed  and 
mingled  with  water  saturated  with  sulphide  of  hydrogen,  which  con- 
verted all  the  lead  into  a  sulphide  of  lead,  and  set  free  the  malic  acid. 
This  was  then  filtered,  and  the  solution  was  evaporated  to  near  dryness, 
and  then  pure  alcohol  was  added,  which  took  up  all  the  malic  acid  and  ^ 
left  the  mucilage  insoluble. 

This  alcoholic  solution  being  evaporated,  yielded  a  small  quantity 
of  malic  acid,  which,  on  100  cubic  centimeters,  about  3|-  ounces  of  the 
wine,  Avas  only  3  grains  of  dry  malic  acid. 

The  nature  of  this  acid  was  then  proved  by  experiments  on  its  lime- 
salt,  and  by  nitrate  of  silver  and  sub-nitrate  of  mercury.  It  responded 
to  all  these  tests  as  malic  acid. 

I  am  not  aware  that  the  proportion  of  malic  acid  existing  in  Euro- 
pean wine  grapes  has  been  determined,  though  Mulder  says  he  found 
a  small  portion  of  it  in  French  Bordeaux  wines. 

I  am  satisfied  that  it  is  not  the  characteristic  acid  of  American  grapes, 
which  yield  an  abundance  of  tartrates,  like  the  European  wine  grapes, 
the  wine  casks  being  incrusted  with  the  argals,  or  cream  of  tartar. 

So,  likewise,  our  tests  indicate  that  tartaric  acid  predominates  in  the 
American,  as  in  the  European  grapes. 

No.  4.  Grapes  ^' from  Fairfax  county,  Virginia."   Keceived  from  United 
States  Patent  Office,  September  20,  1859. 

These  grapes  are  a  large,  red  variety.  The  name  of  them  is  not 
known  to  me. 

One  pound  of  them,  on  pressure,  yielded  10  fluid  ounces  of  juice, 
which  had  the  specific  gravity=1.0410,  and,  by  saccharometric  tables, 
should  yield  10  per  cent,  of  grape  sugar.  By  the  copper  test,  the  pro- 
portion obtained  was  10.9  per  cent.  This  will  give  5.45  per  cent,  of 
absolute  alcohol,  which  is  too  little  alcohol  to  preserve  the  wine,  and 
therefore  more  sugar  must  be  added  when  the  juice  is  set  to  ferment, 
or  alcohol  may  be  added  to  the  wine  Avhen  made. 

No.  5.  Mahogany-colored  grape,  vitis  labrusca,  No.  17  of  Weber's  list. 
From  Gr.  W.  Clarke,  of  Maiden,  Massachusetts.  Eeceived  Septem- 
ber 21,  1859. 

This  is  a  large,  red  grape,  quite  ripe,  and  sweet  to  the  taste. 

One  pound  of  the  grapes  yielded  10|  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  which 
had  specific  gravity  =iz  1.050,  and  when  boiled  and  filtel'ed,  specific 
gravity  of  1.045.  By  the  tables  this  should  give  11  to  12  per  cent,  of 
saccharine  matter. 

By  the  grape-sugar  copper  test_,  it  yields  10.7  per  cent,  of  grape  sugar, 


SACCHARINE    CONTENTS    OP   AMERICAN    GRAPES.  47 

or  5.35  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol.     This  is  too  small  a  proportion 
to  preserve  the  wine,  without  the  addition  of  sugar  or  spirits. 

Some  of  the  juice  fermented  made  a  pleasant-flavored  wine,  hut  it 
soon  soured. 

No.  6.  Sweet-water  grape.     A  naturalized  foreign  species_,  much  used 

as  a  table  grape. 

It  was  desirable  to  know  if  this  grape  would  yield  juice  of  sufficient 
Bweetuess  to  add  to  our  sourer  native  grape  juice.  Mr.  Weber  there- 
fore obtained  from  Mr.  Newell  JEEarding,  of  Boston,  some  samples  of 
these  grapes — No.  19,  Weber's  list. 

One  pound  of  these  grapes  yielded  12  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  which  had 
specific  gravity  =  1.0525,  and  should,  by  the  tables,  yield  nearly  13 
per  cent,  of  saccharine  matter.  By  the  grape-sugar  test  it  gave  only 
9.53  per  cent,  of  grape  sugar.  , 

Since,  however,  there  is  very  little  tartaric  or  any  other  acid  in  any 
quantity  present,  the  juice  of  these  grapes  may  be  advantageously 
mingled  with  that  of  our  sourer  varieties ;  but  still  it  will  be  necessary 
to  add  some  pure  loaf-sugar  or  clarified  syrup,  in  order  to  keep  the 
wine  sound,  and  to  produce  more  alcohol  by  its  fermentation,  the  alcohol 
which  the  sweet-water  grape  produces  being  only  4.76  per  cent. 

No.  (T.  Concord  grape.     Yitis  labrusca,  No.  22  Weber's  list. 

This  is  a  medium-sized,  purple  grape,  native  in  Concord  woods. 
One  pound  of  the  grapes  yielded  12  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  which  had  specific 
gravity  =r:1.0510_,  and,  by  the  tables,  should  contain  13  per  cent,  of 
saccharine  matter,  while  by  the  copper  test  it  yielded  15  |)er  cent.,  and 
will  give  by  fermentation  7|  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 

No.  8.  A  large  dark-red  grape,  from  Concord,  Massachusetts.     Vitis 
labrusca.  No  20  of  Weber's  list. 

One  pound  of  these  grapes  yielded  10-|  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  which  had 
specific  gravity  =  1.0570,  and,  by  tables,  should  contain  14  per  cent, 
of  saccharine  matter.  By  the  grape-sugar  test,  the  juice  yielded  11.7 
per  cent.^  which  would  produce  5.85  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  add  sugar  or  alcohol  to  this  wine  to  make  it 
keep  sweet. 

« 
No.  9.  Concord  seedling,  from  Mr.  Bull's  estate.  No.  24  of  Weber's 

list. 

This  is  a  purple  grape,  of  medium  size,  and  is  an  agreeable  fruit  to 
the  taste.  It  yields  12  fluid  ounces  of  juice  per  pound  of  grapes,  and 
the  juice  has  specific  gravity  =  1.0550^  and  should,  by  the  tables,  con- 
tain 13^  per  cent,  of  grape  sugar.  By  the  copper  test  the  yield  was 
11.8  per  cent.,  and  the  alcohol  which  this  will  produce  is  5.9  per  cent. 

No.  10.  Second  seedling  Concord  grape,  (Bull's,)  color  purple,  size 
medium,  taste  sweet  and  good. 

One  pound  of  the  grapes  yielded  12  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  and  the 


48  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

specific  gavity  of  wliicli  was  1.0550 ;  saccTiarine  matter,  by  tables,  13^  ; 
grape  sugar,  by  copper  test,  11,8  ;  alcoliol  the  juice  will  produce  by 
fermentation,  5.9  per  cent. 

It  appears,  tlierefore,  that  tlie  second  seedling  is  not  in  advance  of 
tbe  first.  This  may  be  accidental  in  this  instance,  and  should  not 
discourage  the  experiments  of  cultivation  of  seedling  vines. 

No.  11.     The  Sage  grape  of  Concord — a  native  of  the  woods  of  that 
town.     Cultivated  by  E.  W.Emerson.  • 

This  is  the  largest  sized  grape  I  have  seen  in  liew  England,  three 
of  them  weighing  an  ounce.  It  is  No.  25  of  Weber's  list.  Color^ 
pale-red ;  bunches  not  very  much  crowded,  but  heavy.  A  pound  of 
these  grapes  yielded  11^  ounces  of  juice,  which  had  specific  gravity  of 
1.0465,  and,  by  the  tables,  should  contain  11^  per  cent,  of  saccharine 
matter.  • 

By  the  copper  test  I  obtained  from  the  juice  11  per  cent.,  which  is 
equivalent  to  5.5  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol.  Sugar  or  spirit  must 
be  added  to  this  juice  when  made  into  wine. 

No.  12.     Light-red  grape,  from  Bedford,  Massachusetts.     Vitis  aasti- 
valis.  No.  21  of  Weber's  list. 

A  rather  tart  grape.  Juice  pale  yellowish.  One  pound  of  the 
grapes  yields  11|  fluid  ounces  of  juice^  the  specific  gravity  of  which  is 
1.053,  and  the  saccharine  contents,  by  tables,  13  per  cent.  By  the 
grape-sugar  test,  however,  only  8.97  per  cent,  was  obtained,  equivalent 
to  4.48  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol.  Sugar  or  spirit  is  required  for 
this  wine,  and  probably  both,  with  water,  will  be  needed,  as  the  juice 
is  so  strongly  acid.  It  contains  much  tartaric  acid,  more  than  many 
of  the  other  grapes. 

No.  13.     Amber  grape,  Dracut ;  No.  26  of  Weber's  list. 

A  light-red  grape,  with  much  translucency,  very  fragrant,  bunches 
well  shouldered,  full,  and  heavy.  This  sample  was  not  quite  ripe^  and 
I  subsequently  procured  another  which  was  fully  ripe.  One  pound  of 
grapes  from  sample  26  yielded  11  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  which  had  spe- 
cific gravity  of  1.0580,  and,  by  tables,  should  contain  14  per  cent,  of 
saccharine  matter,  but  yielded  to  grape-sugar  test  only  10.97  per  cent., 
which  is  equivalent  to  5.48  per  cent,  absolute  alcohol. 

No.  14.  Amber  grape.    KeceivedfromAsa  Clenient, of  Dracut,  October 

5,  1859. 

This  lot  was  fully  ripe.  These  grapes  are  of  medium  size  and  very 
handsome.  The  variety  was  found  by  Mr.  Clement  in  the  woods  of 
Dracut,  and  has  been  cultivated  by  him  several  years. 

A  pound  of  these  grapes  yielded  11  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  having  a 
specific  gravity  of  1.0550,  and  containing,  by  tables,  14  per  cent,  of  sac- 
charine matter,  while  by  copper  test  the  yield  was  13.6  per  cent,  of 
grape  sugar,  equivalent  to  6.8  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol.  The  wine 
made  from  the  juice  of  these  grapes  will  have  to  be  reinforced  by  sugar 


SACCHARINE   CONTENTS   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPES.  49 

or  spirit  to  make  it  keep  sweet ;  probably  water  will  be  required  to 
reduce  tlie  acid  and  sugar  to  produce  more  alcobol.  The  high  aroma 
of  the  grape  makes  it  desirable  as  a  wine  grape,  since  the  wine  will 
have  a  peculiar  bouquet,  quite  strongly  marked. 

No.  15.  Isabella  grapes,  from  A.  Harshbarger,  near  Veytown,  Mifflin 
county,  Pennsylvania.  Keceived  from  United  States  Patent  Office, 
October  1,  1859. 

These  grapes  were  quite  ripe.  Color,  dark  purple ;  size,  medium; 
bunches  well  filled.  One  pound  of  these  grapes  yielded,  on  pressure, 
10^  fluid  ounces  of  the  juice,  and  the  juice  had  specific  gravity  1.064, 
from  which  the  tables  indicate  16  per  cent,  of  saccharine  matter ;  but 
the  grape-sugar  test  gives  but  14. f  per  cent,  of  grape  sugar,  equal  to 
7.03  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol. 

These  grapes  will  make  a  light  wine,  but  it  will  keep  if  well  bottled 
and  j)laced  in  a  cold  cellar.  A  little  sugar  added  during  the  fermen- 
tation will  add  to  its  strength.  I  found  about  one  grain  of  malic  acid 
to  an  ounce  of  the  grape  juice. 

No.  16.  Sugar  grape,  of  Plymouth,  Massachusetts.  A  white  grape, 
a  little  above  medium  size,  and  in  favorable  seasons  very  sweet  and 
good.     Sample  furnished  by  T.  0.  Jackson,  of  Plymouth. 

One  pound  of  the  grapes  yields  10  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  which  has 
specific  gravity  of  1.040,  and  by  tables  should  contain  10  per  cent,  of 
saccharine  matter.  By  the  grape-sugar  test,  10.33  per  cent,  of  grape 
sugar  is  indicated,  equivalent  to  5.16  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol. 

This  grape  grows  abundantly  at  Manumet,  near  Plymouth,  at  Sand- 
wich, and  in  many  places  on  and  near  Cape  Cod.  It  is  worthy  of  atten- 
tion, since  the  juice  of  these  grapes  will  make  very  delicate  white 
wine. 

No.   IT.     Yitis  labrusca,  Hartford,  Connecticut,  No.  10  of  WeW's 

list. 

A  medium-sized  grape.  One  pound  of  the  grapes  yielded  10  fluid 
ounces  of  juice,  which  had  specific  gravity  1.036,  and,  by  tables^  should 
contain  9  per  cent,  of  saccharine  matter.  The  grape-sugar  test  gives 
only  5.73  per  cent.,  equivalent  to  2.86  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 

It  is  probable  that  the  grapes  were  not  quite  ripe,  for  this  variety 
generally  yields  more  saccharine  matter  than  found  at  this  time.  The 
matters  which  would  have  formed  grape  sugar,  if  the  grape  was 
ripened,  served  to  augment  the  density  of  the  juice,  and  hence  the  dis- 
agreement between  the  tabular  estimate  and  the  actual  result  of 
analysis. 

No.  18.    A  large  white  grape,  from  near  Hartford,  Connecticut_,  No.  5 

of  Weber's  list. 

One  pound  of  the  grapes  yielded  10^  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  having  a 
specific  gravity  of  1.030,  from  which  the  tables  indicate  7^  per  cent. 
4 A 


60  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

of  saccliarine  matter,  and  the  copper  test  gives  but  4.8  per  cent.,  equiv- 
alent to  2.4  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcobol. 

The  remarks  on  No.  17  also  apply  to  this  example.  The  season 
appears  to  have  affected  the  Connecticut  grapes  more  unfavorably  than 
it  did  those  of  Massachusetts. 

No.  19.     Vitis  cordifolia,  No.  11  of  Weber's  list.    Near  Hartford,  Con- 
necticut. 

This  is  a  medium-sized  grape.  One  pound  of  the  grapes  yields  10| 
fluid  ounces  of  juice,  and  its  specific  gravity  is  1.036;  from  which  the 
tables  indicate  9  per  cent,  of  saccharine  matter.  The  copper  test  gives 
but  6.2  per  cent,  of  grape  sugar.  The  grapes  could  not  have  been 
ripe. 

No.  20.     Vitis  cordifolia,  No.  8  of  Weber's  list,  Connecticut. 

Size  of  the  grapes,  medium  ;  quantity  of  juice  per  pound,  10^  fluid 
ounces;  specific  gravity  of  the  juice,  1.036;  saccharine  matter,  by 
tables,  9  per  cent.,  and  copper  test,  6.2  per  cent.  These  grapes  could 
not  have  been  ripe. 

No.  21.     Vitis  cordifolia.  No.  7  Weber's  list. 

These  grapes  were  of  medium  size.  A  pound  of  them  yielded  10| 
fluid  ounces  of  juice,  which  had  specific  gravity  1.044,  and  the  saccha- 
rine contents,  by  tables,  would  be  11  per  cent.;  while  the  grape-sugar 
test  gave  8.7  per  cent.,  equivalent  to  4.35  of  absolute  alcohol. 

No.  22.     Vitis  cordifolia.  No.  27  Weber's  list. 

Small  black  grapes,  in  closely-packed  bunches.  One  pound  of  them 
yielded  10|  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  of  specific  gravity  1.035;  from  which, 
by  tables,  the  saccharine  matter  would  be  9  per  cent.,  but  the  copper 
test  gives  but  4.7  per  cent. 

No.  23.    Scuppernong  grapes,  from  near  Wilmington,  North  Carolina. 

These  grapes  are  more  remarkable  for  the  high  flavor  of  the  wines 
they  make  than  for  the  saccharine  matter  they  contain.  It  has  always 
been  necessary  to  add  a  portion  of  brandy  or  some  other  spirit  to  keep 
the  wine  from  souring ;  nevertheless,  the  Scuppernong  wine  is  the  best 
thus  far  produced  in  the  United  States, 

The  grapes  have  a  very  thick,  leathery  skin,  which  is  of  a  green  color, 
with  a  few  rusty  specks  on  the  surface  of  them. 

The  pulp  is  soft  and  juicy,  and  the  skins  give  a  j)eculiar  aroma  to 
the  wine,  which  is  similar  to  the  Tokay  of  Hungary.  Sometimes  1 
have  observed  a  peculiar  bitter  taste  in  the  wine,  due  to  the  crushed 
seeds  of  the  grape,  and  not  unfrequently  the  flavor  and  odor  of  whisky 
indicate  the  introduction  of  that  liquor  into  the  wine.  With  proper 
attention  and  care,  Scuppernong  wine  may  be  made  so  fine  as  to  excel 
all  other  wines  made  on  this  continent ;  and  I  would  earnestly  advise 
those  interested  to  attend  to  the  cultivation  of  this  grape,  in  regions 


SACCHARINE  CONTENTS  OF  AMERICAN  GRAPES.       51 

where  the  vine  will  grow,  and  make  use  of  more  skill  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  wine. 

The  grape  will  grow  and  ripen  its  fruit  anywhere  south  of  Washing- 
ton, but  has  thus  far  proved  more  prolific  in  the  soil  of  North  Carolina, 
especially  near  Halifax. 

The  sample  of  grapes  I  operated  upon  was  sent  to  me  from  the 
United  States  Patent  Office  on  the  3d  October,  1859. 

One  pound  of  the  grapes  when  pressed  yielded  8  fluid  ounces  of  juice, 
which  had  a  specific  gravity  1.048,  and,  by  tables,  should  contain  12 
per  cent,  of  saccharine  matter,  but,  by  the  grape-sugar  test,  yielded 
9.8  per  cent.,  equivalent  to  4.9  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol. 

If  4  or  5  per  cent,  of  sugar  is  added  during  the  fermentation  of  the 
juice,  the  proportion  of  alcohol  will  be  raised  to  that  of  sherry  wine,  if 
the  fermentation  is  allowed  to  become  complete.  Only  the  purest  white 
sugar,  sugar  candy,  or  refined  syrup  should  be  employed. 

Another  method  will  give  a  still  richer  wine.  Distil  a  portion  of 
the  wane,  and  add  the  spirit  obtained  to  the  wine  when  it  is  made  and 
fined.  This  will  keep  up  the  flavor  of  the  Scuppernong  grapes,  and 
not  vitiate  the  wine  by  any  foreign  flavors,  such  as  are  given  by  brandy 
and  whisky  so  often  put  into  this  wine. 

The  Scuppernong  grape-vines  are,  as  I  learn,  cultivated  on  trellises 
or  arbors  raised  to  some  height  above  the  ground,  as  is  practised  in 
Ischia  and  Venitian  Lombardy. 

Thus  far  the  vineyards  are  wholly  domestic  institutions  in  North 
Carolina ;  but  I  think  the  cultivation  of  this  grape  will  amply  repay 
any  one  who  will  devote  his  entire  energies  to  planting  vineyards  of 
this  vine,  and  in  manufacturing  the  wine  on  a  large  scale. 

No.  24.  Hartford  Prolific,  No.  31  of  Weber's  list.    Connecticut. 

Small  black  grapes.  A  pound  of  them  yields  10^  fluid  ounces  of 
juice,  which  has  specific  gravity  of  1.056,  and,  by  the  tables,  should 
contain  14  per  cent,  of  saccharine  matter. 

By  the  grape-sugar  test,  the  yield  is  13.8  per  cent,  grape  sugar, 
or  6.9  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol. 

On  searching  for  the  acids,  I  found  tartaric  was  the  chief  acid,  and 
it  is  in  part  combined  with  potash  as  a  bi-tartrate,  and  with  lime  as 
a  tartrate.  Malic  acid,  in  minute  proportion,  is  also  present,  but 
there  is  not  more  than  1  grain  in  1  fluid  ounce  of  the  juice  of  the 
grapes. 

This  is  a  well-known  and  good  wine  grape,  and  was  evidently  ripe 
at  the  time  I  received  the  sample. 

No.  25.  Vitis  labrusca.  No.  6  of  Weber's  list.     From  near  Hartford, 

Connecticut. 

This  grape  yields  in  one  pound  11  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  having  the 
S'pecific  gravity  1.038,  and,  by  the  tables,  should  contain  10  per  cent, 
of  saccharine  matter. 

By  the  grape-sugar  test,  the  proportion  was  8.2  per  cent.,  and  the 
alcohol  it  will  produce  is  4.05  per  cent. 


52  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

'Mo.  26.  A   small  black,  hard,  and  sour  grape.  No.  28  of  Weber's 

list.     Connecticut. 

This  grape  yields  in  one  pound  6|  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  which  has 
specific  gravity  1.032,  which  indicates,  by  tables,  8  per  cent,  of  sac- 
charine matter,  while  by  the  copper  test  we  obtained  but  5.5  per 
cent,  of  grape  sugar,  equal  to  2.'7  per  cent,  alcohol. 

No.  27.  A  large  red  grape,  No.  29  Weber's  list. 

A  pound  of  these  grapes  yield  10^  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  which  has 
specific  gravity  of  1.035,  and,  by  tables,  contains  9  per  cent,  of  saccha- 
rine matter,  while  by  grape-sugar  test  the  proportion  is  only  6.16  per 
cent.,  which  will  give  3.8  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol  in  the 
wine. 

No.  28.  Large  white  grapes.  No.  30  Weber's  list. 

A  pound  of  these  grapes  yields  10|  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  which  has 
a  density  of  1.036,  and,  by  tables,  should  contain  9  per  cent,  of  saccha- 
rine matter,  while  by  the  grape-sugar  test  it  is  5.38  and  the  alcohol 
2.69  per  cent,  in  the  wine. 

No.  29.  Black  grapes,  medium  size,  vitis  cordifolia.     No.  32  of  We- 
ber's list. 

A  pound  of  these  grapes  yields  7  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  which  has  a 
specific  gravity  of  1.047,  and,  by  the  tables,  11^  per  cent,  of  saccha- 
rine matter. 

By  the  grape-sugar  test,  it  contains  7.84  percent.,  or  3.92  per  .cent. 
of  alcohol. 

No.  30.  Large  red  grapes,  vitis  labrusca.     No.  33  of  Weber's  list. 

One  pound  of  the  grapes  yields  10  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  which  has 
the  density  of  1.051,  and  by  the  tables  contains  13  per  cent,  of  sac- 
charine matter,  and  by  grape-sugar  test,  13.3  per  cent.,  while  the 
alcohol  will  be  6.6  per  cent. 

This  is  a  good  wine  grape,  and  was  thoroughly  ripe. 

No.  32.  Vitis  sinuata,  No.  35  of  Weber's  list. 

These  are  very  small  black  grapes,  not  much  larger  than  ordinary 
cherries.    The  bunches  are  closely  packed,  well  shouldered,  and  heavy. 

A  pound  of  these  grapes  yields  8  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  which  has  a 
density  of  1.061,  from  which  we  estimate,  by  the  tables,  15  per  cent, 
of  saccharine  matter,  while  by  the  grape-sugar  test  the  proportion 
found  was  11.5  per  cent.,  which  represents  in  the  wine  5.7  per  cent,  of 
absolute  alcohol. 

This  grape  will  make  a  good  wine. 

No.  33.  Dark-red  grapes,  vitis  labrusca.     No  36  of  Weber's  list. 

A  pound  of  these  grapes  yields  10  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  and  the  den- 
sity of  the  juice  is  1.042,  whence  the  tables  indicate  10|  per  cent,  of 


SACCHARINE   CONTENTS   OF   AMERICAN     GRAPES.  53 

saccliarine  matter,  while  tlie  copper  test  gives  14.3  per  cent.,  from 
whicli  tlie  alcoliol  computed  will  be  7.15  per  cent.  This  is  a 
good  wine  grape. 

No.  34.    Catawba  grapes,  grown  at  East  Cambridge,  Massachusetts. 

These  grapes,  which  ripened  November  21,  were  among  the  last  of 
the  season,  and  it  was  a  matter  of  some  interest  to  know  what  they 
would  produce. 

A  pound  of  them  yielded  11|  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  which  had  a 
density  of  1.063,  and,  by  the  tables,  should  yield  15  per  cent,  of 
saccharine  matter.  By  the  grape-sugar  test,  the  yield  was  16.9  per 
cent,  of  grape  sugar,  equivalent  to  8.45  absolute  alcohol. 

It  appears,  then,  that  this  grape  will  make  a  good  wine  as  far  north 
as  Massachusetts.     It  is,  however,  very  late  in  ripening  here. 

No.  35.  Adelia,  or  Petit  Noir. 

A  small  black  grape,  raised  in  Orange  county.  New  Jersey.  It  is  a 
native  American,  though  named  in  its  synonym  in  French. 

The  sample  was  sent  to  me  from  the  United  States  Patent  Office, 
October  13,  1859. 

This  grape  yields  in  one  pound  10^  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  which  has 
the  density  of  1.061,  and  by  the  table  its  saccharine  matter  would 
amount  to  14^  per  cent.,  while  by  the  grape-sugar  test  it  is  15.33 
percent.,  representing  7.66  per  cent,  of  alcohol  in  the  wine.  It  is  a 
good  grape,  as  proved  by  trial. 

No.  36.  Bartlett  grape. 

This  grape  was  discovered  in  Lexington  woods,  by  the  late  Elias 
Phinney,  and  is  a  large  white  grape,  with  one  side  light-red,  which  is 
that  exposed  to  sunshine. 

The  sample  was  furnished  to  me  by  F.  Alger,  of  South  Boston. 

A  pound  of  these  grapes  yielded  lli  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  and  its 
specific  gravity  was  1.0680.  By  the  tables,  the  saccharine  matter 
would  be  17  per  cent.,  while  by  the  copper  test  the  sugar  was  12.87 
per  cent.,  representing  6.44  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 

No.  37.     Clinton  grapes,  East  Cambridge,  furnished  by  Mr.  Brackett 

October  29,  1859. 

These  grapes  are  of  a  very  dark-purple,  and  are  of  medium  size.  A 
pound  of  them  produced  11  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  which  had  the  density 
of  1.088,  which,  by  tables,  indicates  22  per  cent,  of  saccharine  matter, 
while  the  grape-sugar  test  gives  20.5  per  cent.,  equivalent  to  10.25 
per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol. 

This  is  an  excellent  wine  grape  and  needs  no  more  sugar  to  make 
a  good  light-red  wine. 

No.  38.  Last  year  I  had  occasion  to  make  an  analysis  of  some  of  the 
wild  grapes  of  Connecticut,  used  in  Boston  for  making  wine,  and  since 


54  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

the  season  was  more  favoraMe  tlian  tlie  past  I  add  this  analysis  to 
do  the  Connecticut  grapes  more  justice  than  they  have  done  themselves 
generally  this  year. 

Yitis  labrusca.     Medium-size  purple  grapes.     Sample  furnished  by 
E.  Paige,  of  Boston,  in  1858. 

A  pound  of  the  grapes  yielded  10  fluid  ounces  of  juice,  which  had 
the  density  of  1.052  and,  by  tables,  should  contain  13  percent,  saccharine 
matter.  By  the  grape-sugar  test  the  proportion  was  found  to  be  1*7.8 
per  cent.,  and  the  alcohol  8.9  per  cent. 

This  I  believe  will  be  the  average  in  good  seasons.  The  past  sum- 
mer and  the  autumn  especially  has  been  unusually  cold  in  the  New 
England  States. 

I  have  given  a  tabular  resume  of  the  principal  facts  discovered  by 
the  foregoing  analysis,  which  will  present  to  the  eye  a  ready  means  of 
comparison  of  the  products  of  the  different  grapes,  so  far  as  their  wine- 
making  properties  are  concerned. 

CHARLES  T.  JACKSON,  M.  D. 

Boston,  December  24,  1859. 


SACCHARINE    CONTENTS   OF   AMERICAN    GRAPES. 


55 


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56 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


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AMERICAN    GRAPES.  57 


EEPOET  ON  AMERICAN  GMPES. 

DETERMINATION  OP  THE  PROPORTIONS  OF  ACIDS  IN  NATIVE  AMERICAN 
GRAPE  WINES  MADE  FROM  THE  PURE  JUICE  OF  THE  GRAPES. 


BY  CHARLES  T.  JACKSON,  M.  D. 


In  this  examination  I  employed  graduated  solution  of  pure  caustic 
soda,  in  distilled  water^  and  prepared  it  so  that  every  degree  of  the 
acidimeter  corresponded  to  one  tenth  of  a  grain  of  pure  tartaric  acid. 
This  test  gives  results  sufficiently  exact,  though  a  little  of  the  acid  in 
the  wines  is  malic  acid,  as  I  had  previously  ascertained. 

In  applying  this  test,  any  acetic  acid  which  had  formed  in  the  wine 
during  the  process  of  fermentation  was  first  removed  by  evaporating 
the  wine  until  it  was  all  volatilized,  the  acetic  acid  passing  oif  in 
vapor,  while  all  the  tartaric  and  malic  acid  remained.  One  thousand 
grains  of  each  of  the  wines  was  operated  wpon  in  determining  their 
acidity.  In  the  tabular  resume  the  results  will  be  stated  in  per  cent- 
ages,  as  the  other  ingredients  have  been. 

It  may  be  observed  that  pure  grape  juice,  merely  fermented  and  not 
diluted  with  any  water,  has  been  the  subject  of  these  experiments.  In 
making  wines  from  American  grapes,  it  is  customary  to  add  a  certain 
proportion  of  water  and  of  sugar  to  the  grape  juice,  to  overcome  the 
acids,  and  to  make  the  wines  more  agreeable.  As  the  sugar  is  con- 
verted  into  alcohol,  it  gradually  precipitates  a  portion  of  the  tartaric 
acid  as  bi-tartrate  of  potassa,  or  cream  of  tartar,  thus  relieving  the 
wine  of  part  of  its  acidity. 

No.  1.  The  juice  of  the  Henshaw  grapes,  from  Martinsburg,  Vir- 
ginia, yielded,  in  1,000  grains,  11.4  of  tartaric  acid,  or  1.14  per  cent. 

No.  3.  The  Catawba  grape  juice,  Washington,  D.  C,  yielded,  in 
1,000  grains,  10  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or  1  per  cent. 

No.  6.  Sweet-water  grape,  Harding's,  tartaric  acid  in  1,000  grains, 
6  grains,  or  0.6  per  cent. 

No.  7.  Vitis  labrusca.  No.  20  of  Weber's  list,  from  Concord,  Mas- 
sachusetts, yielded,  in  1,000  grains  of  the  fermented  juice,  14.2  grains, 
or  1.42  per  cent. 

No.  9.  Concord  seedling.  Bull's,  Concord  Massachusetts,  No.  24  of 
Weber's  list,  yielded,  in  1,000  grains  of  the  fermented  juice,  6  grains 
of  tartaric  acid,  or  0.6  per  cent. 

No.  11.  Sage  grape,  of  Concord,  Massachusetts,  No.  25  of  Weber, 
yielded,  in  1,000  grains  of  the  fermented  juice,  11  grains  of  tartaric 
acid,  or  1.1  per  cent. 

No.  12.  Vitis  gestivalis,  from  Bedford,  Massachusetts,  No.  21  Weber, 
yielded  14.6  grains  of  tartaric  acid  per  1,000  grains  of  the  wine,  or 
1.46  per  cent. 

No.  13.  Amber  grape,  of  Dracut,  Asa  Clements,  yielded,  in  1,000 
grains  of  the  wine,  15  grains  of  tartaric  acid_,  or  1.5  per  cent. 


68  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

No.  16.  Sugar  grape,  of  Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  yielded,  in  1,000 
grains  of  the  wine,  14,8  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or  1.48  per  cent. 

No.  17.  Vitis  labrusca,  Connecticut,  No.  10  Weber,  yielded,  in 
1,000  grains  of  the  wine,  7.2  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or  0.72  per  cent. 

No.  18.  White  grape,  from  Connecticut,  No.  5  of  Weber,  yielded, 
in  1,000  grains,  12  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or  1.2  per  cent. 

No.  19.  Vitis  cordifolia,  Connecticut,  No.  11  Weber,  yielded,  in 
1,000  grains  of  the  wine,  14  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or  1.4  per  cent. 

No.  20.  Vitis  cordifolia.  No.  8  of  Weber's  list,  yielded,  in  1,000 
grains  of  the  wine,  13  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or  1.3  per  cent. 

No.  21.  Vitis  cordifolia,  Connecticut,  No.  7  of  WelDer'slist,  yielded, 
in  1,000  grains- of  the  wine,  15  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or  1.5  per  cent. 

No.  22.  Vitis  cordifolia,  No.  27  of  Weber,  Connecticut,  yielded, 
per  1,000  grains  of  the  wine,  18  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or  1.8  per  cent. 

No.  23.  Scuppernong  grapes,  from  near  Wilmington,  North  Caro- 
lina, yielded,  in  1,000  grains  of  the  wine,  17  grains  of  tartaric  acid, 
or  1.7  per  cent. 

No.  25.  Vitis  labrusca,  Hartford,  Connecticut,  No.  6  of  Weber, 
yielded,  in  1,000  grains  of  the  wine,  13.8  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or 
1.38  per  cent. 

No.  26.  Small  black  grape.  No.  29  of  Weber's  list,  yielded,  per 
1,000  grains  of  the  wine,  12.4  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or  1.24  percent. 

No.  27.  Large  red  grape.  No.  29  of  Weber's  list,  yielded  in  1,000 
grains  of  the  wine,  9.2  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or  0.92  per  cent. 

No.  28.  Large  white  grape.  No.  30  of  Weber's  list,  yielded  per  1,000 
grains  of  the  wine,  14  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or  1.4  per  cent. 

No.  29.  Vitis  cordifolia.  No.  32  of  Weber's  list,  yielded  per  1,000 
grains  of  the  wine,  12  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or  1.2  per  cent. 

No.  30.  Vitis  labrusca.  No.  33  of  Weber,  yielded  per  1,000  grains 
of  the  wine,  11.8  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or  1.18  per  cent. 

No.  31.  Vitis  cordifolia.  No  34  of  Weber's  list,  yielded  per  1,000 
grains  of  the  wine,  14.4  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or  1.44  per  cent. 

No.  32.  Vitis  sinuata.  No.  35  of  Weber,  yielded  per  1,000  grains 
of  the  wine,  20  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or  2  j)er  cent. 

No.  33.  Vitis  labrusca,  No.  36  of  Weber,  yielded  per  1,000  grains 
of  the  wine,  15  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or  1.5  per  cent. 

No.  34.  Catawba  grape,  from  near  Boston,  Massachusetts.  This 
wine  gave  per  1,000  grains  of  the  juice,  14  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or 
1.4  per  cent. 

No.  35.  Adelia,  or  Petit  Noir,  Oi'ange  county,  New  Jersey,  yielded 
per  1,000  grains  of  the  wine,  8  grains. of  tartaric  acid,  or  0.8  per  cent. 

No.  36.  Bartlett  grape.  South  Boston,  Massachusetts.  The  wine  of 
these  grapes  yielded,  per  1,000  grains,  19  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or 
1.9  per  cent. 

No.  37.  Clinton  grape.  East  Cambridge,  Massachusetts.  The  wine 
of  this  grape  yielded,  per  1,000  grains,  19  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or 
1.9  per  cent. 

The  other  wines  were  used  up  in  other  researches,  before  I  was  aware 
that  it  was  desired  that  I  should  determine  the  acidity  of  the  speci- 
mens. 

It  is  probable,  however,  that  there  are  here  given  a  sufficient  number 


AMERICAN   GRAPES. 


59 


of  examples  of  our  native  grapes,  including  all  tlie  species,  to  settle  tlie 
question  as  to  the  proportion  of  acids  in  tliem. 

It  will  be  remarked  that,  while  the  proportion  of  sugar  is  not  in- 
creased in  grapes  by  cultivation,  the  tartaric  acid  is  diminished  in  a 
remarkable  manner. 

Tabular  statement  of  proportion  of  tartaric  acid  per  cent. 


Per  cent,  tartaric  acid. 


Number    1 1.14 

3 1 

6 0.6 

7 1.42 

9 0.6 

11 1.1 

12 1.46 

13 1.5 

16 1.48 

17 0.72 

18 1.2 

19 1.4 

20 1.3 

21 1.5 

22 1.8 


Per  cent,  tartaric  acid. 


Number  23 1.7 

25 1.38 

26 1.24 

27 0.92 

28 1.40 

29 1.20 

30 1.18 

31 1.44 

32 2 

33 1.5 

34 1.4 

35 0.8 

36 1.9 

37 1.9 


ON  THE  PEESENCE  OE  TAHTAEIC  ACID  IN  THE  CUL- 
TIVATED GEAPE  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


BY   THOMAS   ANTISELL,    M.    D.,    PROFESSOR   OP    CHEMISTRY    IN    THE    MEDICAL 
DEPARTMENT  OF  GEORGETOWN  COLLEGE,  D.  C. 


The  assertion  has  been  frequently  made  in  publications  in  this  coun- 
try, that  the  growth  of  grape-vines  for  the  manufacture  of  wine  is  a 
project  of  doubtful  success,  since  in  the  United  States  the  grape  does 
not  form  tartaric  acid  in  the  same  large  proportion  in  which  it  is  found 
to  exist  in  the  European  plant,  its  place  being  supplied  by  the  vegetable 
acids,  which  alter  the  flavor  and  value  of  the  wine  produced. 

Inasmuch  as  the  cultivation  of  the  grape  is  now  prosecuted  with 
success  in  the  Ohio  valley,  and  extending  over  a  large  section  of  coun- 
try, and  since  the  climate  and  soil  of  the  United  States  are  eminently 
favorable  to  the  growth  and  propagation  of  the  vine,  as  shown  by  the 
abundant  woody  development,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  importance  to 
know  whether  the  juice  of  the  fruit  grown  in  the  United  States  differs 
in  any  important  particular  as  regards  the  nature  or  amount  of  acid 
from  that  of  European  grapes. 

For  the  successful  manufacture  of  wine  the  presence  of  tartaric  acid 
is  all  essential;  for,  by  its  tendency  to  unite  with  the  jDotass,  also 
present  in  the  pulp,  and  to  form  the  acid  tartrate  of  potass  (cream  of 
tartar) — a  salt  Soluble  in  the  pulp  of  the  grape,  but  not  soluble  when, 


60  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

by  fermentation,  alcoliol  is  formed  in  the  juice,  and  wMcli  is  therefore 
thrown  down  and  separated  from  the  wine  forming  the  "tartar" — 
depends  the  superiority  and  greater  healthfulness  of  true  wine  over  the 
fermented  liquors  of  other  pulpy  fruits,  whether  indigenous  or  exotic. 

In  the  pulpy  fruits  used  in  the  manufacture  of  domestic  wines  the 
acids  present  are  chiefly  malic  and  citric,  which  form  with  potash  salts 
soluble  not  only  in  the  fresh  juice  but  also  in  the  fermented  wine. 
They  are  consequently  not  thrown  down  or  separated  out  of  the  wine 
as  alcoholization  goes  on  in  the  fermenting  vats,  and  their  presence  in 
the  wine  renders  the  latter  unhealthy,  it  being  liable  to  become  acid 
in  the  stomach,  and  to  produce  derangement  of  function  in  that  organ. 
Hence,  the  real  superiority  of  the  wine  of  the  grape  above  the  fermented 
juices  of  other  fruits  depends  not  upon  fancy,  nor  an  uneducated  taste, 
but  upon  the  production  of  an  alcoholic  liquid  not  containing  within  it 
substances  injurious  to  digestion. 

Tartaric  acid  is  as  essential  as  sugar  in  the  manufacture  of  wine ;  in 
dry  wines  the  tartar  predominates  much  more  than  in  sweet,  in  which 
sugar  is  the  dominant  element.  This  acid  diminishes  as  the  fruit 
approaches  ripeness ;  and  it  is  also  diminished  in  grapes  grown  where 
the  climate  is  hot  and  dry  in  the  season  when  the  fruit  is  ripening.  In 
the  south  of  Europe,  when,  in  the  autumn,  the  African  winds  blow 
northward,  when  the  grape  is  ripening,  those  portions  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean shores  exposed  to  a  hot  and  dry  wind  do  not  produce  dry  wines, 
but  wines  that  are  always  sweet,  because  the  proportion  of  sugar  and 
tartar  are  out  of  relation  with  each  other.  Thus  the  rich,  sweet  grape 
of  Malaga  has  but  little  tartaric  acid,  and  a  sweet  wine  is  the  result, 
while  the  wine  of  Burgundy  has  more  tartar  and  less  sugar,  and 
produces  a  more  acid  wine. 

To  determine  the  presence  and  proportion  of  tartaric  acid,  I  selected 
the  Catawba  grape  as  that  most  abundantly  grown  for  wine  purposes^ 
and,  by  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Michael  Work,  of  Greene  county,  Ohio, 
who  placed  at  my  service  several  pounds  of  ripe  grapes,  and  a  sample 
of  the  tartar  produced,  I  have  been  enabled  to  furnish  the  following 
results : 

Six  pounds  of  grapes,  pressed,  yielded  56  ounces  of  a  literally  clear, 
colorless  juice  of  specific  gravity  1.074.  This  juice  was  diluted  with 
an  equal  amount  of  distilled  water,  and  the  mixed  liquid  passed  through 
a  fine  strainer  to  separate  the  cellulose  and  albuminous  matters  not 
dissolved ;  solution  of  chloride  of  calcium  with  ammonia  was  added  so 
long  as  a  precipitate  was  produced,  allowing  the  liquor  to  rest  between 
the  additions ;  the  precipitate  was  then  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  ammonia  added.  The  precipitate  was  then  collected  and  dried  at 
a  gentle  heat,  and  weighed  against  a  tared  filter.  By  this  process  the 
malic  acid  present  is  avoided,  and  the  precipitate  obtained  is  either 
wholly  tartrate  of  lime,  or,  if  not  containing  any  racemic  acid  present 
in  the  juice,  forming  a  racemate  of  lime.  As  racemic  acid  is  only  a 
modified  form  of  tartaric  acid,  and  as  it  is  not  known  to  act  in  any 
way  difierently  in  wines  from  its  congener,  it  was  not  deemed  necessary 
to  separate  them  in  this  examination. 

The  amount  of  tartrate  of  lime  attained  from  six  pounds  of  grapes, 
or  from  4f  pints  of  juice,  was  4yVo-  grammes,  (nearly  67  grains,)  which 


AMERICAN   GRAPES.  61 

represents  SOj^-g-V  grains  of  acid_,  tartrate  of  potash.,  originally  existing 
in  tlie  juice. 

This  would  give  the  quantity  of  cream  of  tartar  present  in  each  ounce 
of  juice  as  nearly  one  grain,  admitting  the  whole  of  the  tartaric  acid 
to  be  combined  with  potassa,  but  as  there  is  always  some  tartrate  of 
lime  present  in  the  juice,  the  amount  of  cream  of  tartar  is  slightly  les- 
sened. 

The  quantity  of  sugar  determined  by  Fehling's  modification  of  the 
copper  grape-sugar  test  was  19.6  per  cent. 

As  the  grapes  examined  had  ripened  very  much  in  the  interval 
between  the  gathering  and  the  examination,  the  above  proportion  of 
tartrate  of  potass  is  probably  somewhat  less  than  existed  in  the  fruit. 
The  presence  of  that  amount  shows  satisfactorily,  however,  that  tar- 
taric acid  is  the  dominating  acid  in  the  Catawba  grape,  and  that  is 
produced  abundantly  in  the  latitude  of  Cincinnati. 

The  sample  of  crude  tartar  forwarded  by  Mr.  Work  yielded,  on 
qualitative  analysis,  acid  tartrate  of  potass,  tartrate  of  lime,  sulphate 
of  potass,  sulphate  of  lime,  phosphate  ammonia,  and  magnesia.  The 
two  last-mentioned  salts  were  present  in  but  small  amount. 

Mr.  Payen,  having  stated  in  his  work  on  distillation  that  the 
cellular  tissue  of  the  pulp  contained  "tannin,"  led  to  a  repeated  ex- 
amination of  the  juice  of  the  pulp ;  and  in  every  case  where  common 
care  was  taken  that  the  skins  should  not  be  pressed,  so  that  any  of  its 
liquids  might  become  mingled  with  those  of  the  pulp,  not  a  trace  of 
tannic  acid  could  be  detected,  thus  verifying  Mulder's  statement  that 
this  acid  is  wholly  confined  to  the  skins. 


THE  NATIVE  GMPES   OF  PENNSYLVANIA,  NEW 
JEESEY,  NEW  YORK,  AND  NEW  ENGLAND. 

THEIR  WINE-PRODUCING  Q-UALITIES. 


BY  JOHN  F.  WEBER,  OF  WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 


My  examination  of  native  grapes  began  at  Orange  and  the  surround- 
ing country,  in  New  Jersey.  Some  varieties^  which  I  had  noticed 
several  years  before,  first  attracted  my  attention.  I  found  them  still 
vigorous  in  their  natural  growth,  and  capable  of  improvement.  Fol- 
lowing a  northern  direction,  I  traversed  the  greater  part  of  the  State 
of  Connecticut,  meeting,  in  the  township  of  Canton,  with  valuable 
kinds,  free  from  insects.  In  western  Massachusetts,  especially  in  East 
Hampton,  Northampton,  Florence,  and  Leeds,  I  observed  a  few 
varieties  well  worthy  of  attention,  exhibiting,  with  regard  to  the  for- 
mation of  wood  and  fruit,  all  the  qualities  sought  in  good  wine.  Such 
was  also  the  case  south  and  north  of  Boston.  I  selected  samples  of  the 
matured  fruit  of  all  those  probably  most  capable  of  improvement,  and 
transmitted  them  to  Dr.  Jackson,  of  Boston,  for  chemical  analysis. 

The  value  of  grapes,  either  for  wine-making  or  table  use,  being  de- 


62  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

termined  by  tlie  amount  of  saccliarine  matter  contained,  it  is  important 
to  know  to  what  species  a  promising  new  variety  may  belong. 

From  the  great  difference  existing  between  a  table  grape  and  a  wine 
grape,  it  becomes  necessary  that,  wherever  the  manufacture  of  wine  is 
the  object,  the  former  should  be  altogether  ignored,  its  sweet,  yet 
watery,  juice  producing  but  a  weak  wine. 

Though  the  wine  grape  has  also,,  and  should  have,  a  sweet  taste,  it 
is  a  different  one  from  that  of  the  table  grape,  as  it  is  vinous  instead 
of  watery,  and  piquant  instead  of  fiat,  attributable  to  the  amount  of 
sugar  and  acids  being  well  proportioned. 

Actuated  by  this  fundamental  view,  I  designated  the  following 
varieties  for  chemical  analysis,  desiring  to  improve  them  thoroughly 
and  systematically : 

No.  1.  Vitis  vinifera. — A  grape  extensively  grown  in  the  vicinity  of 
Paris,  for  the  market  and  wine-making;  introduced  eight  years  ago, 
and  cultivated  with  entire  success,  by  John  Charles  Savalle,  near 
Orange3  New  Jersey.  It  seems  to  be  perfectly  acclimatized.  Its  char- 
acter and  habitus  consist  in  the  following  points :  a  healthy,  vigorous 
growth;  short-jointed  light-brown  wood;  medium  sized,  roundish 
leaves,  of  dark-green  color  and  a  bluish  tinge,  a  fine  down  on  the 
upper  part,  soft  and  fine  nerves ;  bunches  and  berries  medium  sized, 
well  set,  compact,  and  well  shouldered ;  of  a  fine  dark-blue  color  ; 
ripens  toward  the  end  of  September,  and,  according  to  the  statement  of 
Mr.  Savalle,  a  fortnight  earlier  than  in  Paris.  It  is  a  regular  bearer, 
and  in  every  respect  a  first  class  grape-vine.  The  soil  where  it  grows 
is  not  favorable  to  its  full  development,  being  sandy  and  wet,  yet  por- 
ous enough  to  prevent  water  from  stagnating.  A  location  on  the  south 
side  of  a  house  would  be  more  suitable.  Mr.  Savalle  takes  down  this 
vine  every  winter,  wraps  it  in  straw,  lays  it  flat  on  the  ground,  and 
covers  it  with  a  board,  on  which  are  placed  stones  of  sufficient  weight 
to  keep  it  in  that  position. 

This  is  the  whole  secret  of  success  with  foreign  grapes.  Tender  and 
highly  improved  as  they  are,  they  cannot  bear  our  severe  winter.  In 
central  Germany,  northern  France,  and  the  greater  part  of  Hungary^ 
the  custom  is  to  lay  down  the  grape-vines  before  the  winter  sets  in, 
and  protect  them  from  the  attacks  of  high  winds  and  piercing  cold, 
otherwise  they  would  there  be  winter-killed  as  well  as  here. 

No.  2.  Vitislabrusca. — A  blue  wild  native  grape-vine,  found  in  the 
woods  near  Haydenville,  Hampshire  county,  Massachusetts,  and  trans- 
planted on  the  south  side  of  his  dwelling-house,  by  James  K.  Salomon, 
of  Leeds,  near  Florence,  Massachusetts.  Its  habitus  resembles  much 
that  of  the  Isabella.  The  wood  is,  however,  of  a  darker  shade,  short- 
jointed,  and  of  healthy  growth;  leaves  rather  large,  heart-shaped,  and 
of  a  light-green  color,  downy  on  the  lower  part;  bunches  contain  from 
ten  to  twenty-five  berries,  large  and  oval  shaped ;  thin  skin  and  juicy, 
sweet  pulp ;  ripens  about  the  15th  of  September ;  a  good  regular  bearer. 
The  soil  in  which  it  grows  is  a  sandy  loam,  rather  wet,  the  situation 
open  to  the  east  and  south,  but  well  protected  from  north  and  west 
winds  by  a  chain  of  mountains.  This  vine  would  improve  by  propa- 
gation, and  may  be  rendered  a  desirable  table  and  market  grape,  prof- 
itable to  its  cultivator. 


AMERICAN    GRAPES.  63 

No.  3.  Vitis  lahrusca. — A  blue  wild  native  grape-vine,  probably  a 
seedling  of  an  old  vine  standing  near  by;  very  prolific  and  luxuriant 
growth ;  stands  at  the  foot  of  a  hill,  well  protected  from  the  north  and 
west,  but  open  to  the  east  and  south ;  in  a  wet,  sandy  soil,  on  the  farm 
of  Solomon  Phelps,  near  Florence^  Massachusetts.  I  have  known  this 
grape  seven  years,  and  always  considered  it  possessed  of  good  points 
and  qualities  worthy  of  propagation.  The  wood  is  dark-brown,  long- 
jointed;  leaves  of  medium  size,  heart-shaped,  dark-yellow  down  on 
the  lower  side,  and  of  a  pale  yellowish-green  on  the  upper,  nerves 
fine  ;  bunches  contain  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  large  round  berries, 
of  an  agreeable  wine  taste ;  ripens  by  the  end  of  September.  It  de- 
serves improving,  and  will  be  a  desirable  acquisition  for  the  vineyard. 
The  late  frosts  in  June  destroyed  most  of  the  fruit  in  this  section, 
which,  in  favorable  seasons,  abounds  in  luscious  grapes  of  all  colors  and 
sizes. 

No.  4.  Viiis  cordifolia. — A  blue  wild  native  grape,  standing  on  a 
sandy  plain,  northwest  of  Mount  Tom,  on  the  farm  of  William 
Kntipfer,  of  East  Hampton,  Massachusetts.  Wood  light-brown, 
short-jointed,  not  so  vigorous,  but  healthy  growth  ;  leaf  medium  size, 
heart-shaped,  with  fine  nerves,  yellowish-green  on  the  upper  side  and 
bright-yellow  on  the  lower ;  clusters  compact,  with  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  round,  medium-sized  berries,  of  a  juicy,  agreeable  wine  taste; 
ripens  toward  the  end  of  September.  A  good  grape  for  red  wine^  or 
claret. 

No.  5.  Vitis  lahrusca.  Crystal  grape. — A  white  wild  native  grape, 
was  found  in  a  swamp  on  the  farm  of  Salomon  D.  Case,  Canton  Center, 
flartford  county,  Connecticut,  and  transplanted  by  Mr.  Case  on  an 
open  field,  or  rather  side-hill,  facing  southeast,  well  sheltered  from  the 
north  and  northwest  wind.  He  has  propagated  considerably  from  this 
vine,  by  making  layers,  of  which  many  are  already  bearing.  The 
wine  has  a  pleasant  taste,  much  like  the  genuine  Madeira,  and  needs 
no  sugar.  The  soil  is  gravelly  loam,  rather  strong,  but  contains  valu- 
able mineral  substances,  and  is  well  adapted  for  the  grape.  The  vine 
is  of  a  healthy,  vigorous  habit,  ripens  wood  and  fruit  well,  and  is  a 
regular  bearer.  Wood  brown,  short-jointed;  leaf  medium,  heart-shaped, 
strong  nerves,  of  a  yellowish-green  on  the  upper  side  and  light-yellow 
on  the  lower ;  clusters  medium  size ;  berries  large,  round,  flat  on  both 
ends,  of  a  green  color,  with  snowy-white  specks ;  ripens  about  the  fif- 
teenth of  September;  sweet  and  juicy.  See  analysis  and  report  of  Dr. 
Jackson,  page  49. 

No.  6.  Vitis  lahrusca. — A  blue  wild  native  grape.  Wood  reddish- 
brown^  short-jointed,  of  a  healthy  growth  ;  leaf  small,  heart-shaped, 
strong  nerves,  yellowish-green  on  the  upper  and  dark-yellow  on  the 
lower  side;  clusters,  or  bunches,  large;  berries  large,  round,  and  flat, 
very  sweet;  ripens  middle  of  September.  Soil  the  same  as  above; 
location  open  and  level.     See  analysis,  page  51. 

No.  7.  Vitis  cordifolia. — A  black  wild  native  grape;  very  old  vine, 
standing  on  the  same  farm,  in  a  wet,  stony  soil,  surrounded  by  wood. 
Wood  dark-brown,  short-jointed,  and  of  healthy  growth ;  leaf  medium 
size,  heart-shaped,  tender  nerves,  light-yellow  on  both  sides ;  bunches 
large,  of  a  fine  form;  berries  large,  round,  of  an  agreeable  wine  taste. 


64  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

best  quality;  will  make  a  good  claret ;  ripens  in  the  beginning  of  Sep- 
tember.    See  analysis,  page  50. 

No.  8.  Vitis  cordifolia. — A  blue  wild  native  grape,  on  tbe  same 
farm;  grows  on  a  dry,  stony  soil,  in  an  open,  level  situation.  Wood 
dark -brown,  sliort-jointed,  and  of  vigorous  growth  ;  leaf  medium  size, 
beart-sbaped,  fine  nerves,  yellowisb-green  on  tbe  upper  and  ligbt- 
yellow  on  tbe  lower  side ;  bunches  large ;  berries  round,  and  flat  on 
both  ends,  rather  large,  of  a  pleasant  wine  taste ;  juice  dark-colored ; 
makes  a  good  claret  wine;  ripens  middle  of  September.  See  analysis, 
page  50. 

No.  9.  Vitis  labrusca. — A  red  wild  native  grape ;  grows  in  a  swamp 
on  clay  subsoil,  among  brushes,  likewise  on  Mr.  Case's  farm.  Wood 
light-browU;,  short-jointed,  and  healthy  growth;  leaf  small,  round,  and 
strong  nerves,  yellowish  green  on  the  upper,  and  bright  yellow  on  the 
lower  side ;  bunches  compact ;  berries  round^  medium  size ;  very  sweet ; 
ripens  middle  of  September ;  a  good  table  grape. 

No.  10.  Vitis  labrusca. — A  purple  grape,  with  copper-colored  specks ; 
wild  native;  grows  in  the  same  situation  and  soil  as  the  preceding. 
Wood  light-brown,  short-jointed,  aijd  robust  growth;  leaf  medium 
size,  round,  strong  nerves,  yellowish  green  on  the  upper,  and  yellow 
on  the  lower  side ;  bunches  medium ;  berries  round ;  sweet,  juicy,  and 
spicy  taste ;  will  make  a  good  schiller  wine ;  ripens  middle  of  Septem- 
ber.    See  analysis,  page  49. 

No.  11.  Vitis  cordifolia. — A  red  wild  native  grape,  standing  on  the 
same  soil  and  location  as  the  preceding.  Wood  light-brown,  short- 
jointed^  and  strong  growth ;  leaf  medium  size,  round,  with  fine,  ten- 
der nerves,  light-yellow  on  the  upper,  and  yellow  on  the  lower  side  ; 
bunches  medium  size  ;  berries  large,  oval,  sweet,  and  spicy ;  a  good 
table  and  wine  grape ;  ripens  middle  of  September.  See  analysis, 
page  50. 

No.  12.  Vitis  labrusca.  Sugar  grape. — A  white  wild  native  grape, 
stands  on  an  elevation,  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  sea-coast,  Eocky 
Hill,  and  four  miles  north  of  Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  on  an  old  pas- 
ture, overrun  with  briars,  belonging  to  Mrs.  Mental  Peirce.  Soil  dry, 
sandy  gravel.  Wood  brown,  short-jointed,  of  healthy  but  moderate 
growth ;  leaf  medium,  heart-shaped,  strong  nerves,  yellowish-green 
on  the  upper,  and  dark  yellow  on  the  lower  side  ;  bunches  and  berries 
of  medium  size,  round  and  flat ;  very  sweet ;  ripens  by  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember ;  good  table  grape. 

No.  13.  Vitis  cordifolia. — A  mahogany-colored  wild  native  grape, 
stands  on  a  dry,  strong  soil,  on  an  old  wood  lot,  in  a  free,  high  sit- 
uation, belonging  to  James  Merrick,  South  Scituate,  Massachusetts. 
Wood  red-brown,  short-jointed,  and  vigorous  growth ;  leaf  medium, 
round,  ribs  and  nerves  fine,  and  of  a  bright  reddish  color ;  bunches 
medium;  berries,  ditto,  round,  and  of  agreeable  wine  taste  ;  ripens  mid- 
dle of  September. 

No.  14.  Vitis  cordifolia. — A  white,  grey-spotted,  wild  native  grape, 
resembles  much  the  German  Gutedel,  or  French  Chasselas  ;  stands  near 
the  preceding.  Wood  gray,  short-jointed,  and  tender  growth  ;  leaf 
small,  heart-shaped,  with  fine  nerves,  of  light  yellowish-green  color ; 
bunches  long  and  loose  ;  berries  medium  size_,  and  oval ;  ripens  the 


AMERICAN    GRAPES.  65 

end  of  September.  The  fruit  was  destroyed  by  a  sharp  frost  about  the 
middle  of  September.  I  am  of  opinion  that  this  grape  is  a  seedling  of 
the  above-named  Gutedel,  and  got  there  by  some  accident ;  but  it  may 
be  the  product  of  a  hybrid  from  white  and  colored  grapes  growing 
there  ;  it  certainly  has  more  the  character  of  a  vitis  vinifera. 

No.  15.  Vitis  cor  difolia. — Bartlett  grape.  A  pale-red  or  pink-colored 
grape ;  was  found  in  the  woods  near  Lexington,  Massachusetts,  by 
Elias  Phiney,  some  years  ago,  and  transplanted  by  Francis  Alger,  34 
South  street.  South  Boston,  into  his  garden  ;  the  soil  is  a  sandy  clay^, 
location  warm,  and  well  sheltered  by  a  tight  board-fence".  Wood  red- 
dish-brown, short-jointed,  and  of  a  robust  growth  ;  leaf  medium  size, 
heart-shaped,  fine  nerves,  light  yellowish-green  color  on  both  sides  ; 
bunches  rather  large,  compact;  berries  round,  medium,  and  sweet; 
ripens  late  ;  requires  a  warmer  climate.     See  analysis. 

No.  16  Vitis  cordifoUa. — An  amber,  or  rather  Traminer-colored  wild 
native  grape  ;  seedling  ;  has  got  by  accident  into  the  garden  of  Hon, 
Marshall  P.  Wilder,  Dorchester,  Massachusetts.  Soil  dry,  gravelly 
loam  ;  situation  warm  and  sheltered.  Wood  light-brown,  short-jointed, 
healthy  growth  ;  leaf  medium  size,  heart-shaped,  strong  nerves,  yel- 
lowish-green on  both  sides  ;  clusters  and  berries  of  medium  size,  round 
and  sweet ;  ripens  middle  of  September.  Not  fruit  enough  for  an 
analysis.    . 

No.  1*7.  Vitis  labrusca. — A  red-brown,  mahogany-colored,  wild  native 
grape,  originated  in  the  woods,  and  was  transplanted,  three  years  ago, 
into  the  garden  of  Gr.  W.  Clark,  Maiden,  Massachusetts.  Soil  stony 
clay  ;  situation  level  and  sheltered.  Wood  red-brown,  short-jointed, 
vigorous  growth  ;  leaf  medium  size,  round,  strong  nerves,  and  yellow- 
ish-green color ;  bunches  medium  ;  berries  round  and  fall ;  ripens  mid- 
dle of  September  ;  a  good  table  grape.     See  analysis,  page  46. 

No.  18.  Vitis  cor  difolia. — A  Traminer-colored  seedling  grape,  perhaps 
recently  out  of  the  woods  ;  stands  in  Mr.  Wilder 's  garden.  Soil  and  loca- 
tion like  No.  16.  Wood  red-brown,  very  short-jointed,  healthy 
growth  ;  leaf  medium  size^  heart-shaped,  fine  nerves,  and  yellowish- 
green  color  ;  bunches  medium  ;  berries  round ;  sweet  and  agreeable 
taste  ;  ripens  middle  of  September.     See  analysis,  page  45. 

No.  19.  Vitis  cestivalis — Sweetrwater. — A  white  propagated  grape, 
cultivated  eighteen  years  by  Mr.  Newell  Harding,  38  Chamber  street, 
Boston,  in  his  garden,  a  warm,  well-sheltered  situation.  Wood  golden- 
yellow,  short-jointed,  very  healthy,  vigorous  growth;  leaf  small,  heart- 
shaped,  three-lobed,  fine  tender  nerves,  green  on  both  sides ;  bunches 
large,  compact,  well  shouldered ;  berries  medium,  round,  very  juicy 
'and  sweet;  ripens  middle  of  September,  bears  regularly  every  year. 
This  grape  is  very  profitable  for  table  and  market,  and  in  a  good  shel- 
tered position,  with  proper  management,  it  will  thrive  anywhere.  It 
requires  to  be  laid  down  during  winter,  to  be  protected  from  severely 
cold  weather.     See  analysis,  page  47. 

No.  20.  Vitis  labrusca. — A  dark-brown  wild  native  grape,  from  the 
woods,  transplanted  twelve  years  ago  by  John  Butterfield,  Bedford, 
Massachusetts,  on  the  south  side  of  his  house ;  soil  dry  gravelly  loam  ; 
situation  sheltered  and  level.  Wood  brown,  short-jointed,  vigorous 
growth;  leaf  medium,  heart-shaped,   strong  nerves,  yellowish-green 


66  AaRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

on  tlie  upper,  and  yellow  on  tlie  lower  side ;  bunches  large ;  berries 
round,  large,  and  sweet ;  ripens  by  the  end  of  September ;  a  good  and 
regular  bearer.     See  analysis,  page  47. 

No.  21.  Vitis  cBstivalis. — A  red-brown,  mahogany-colored  wildnative 
grapes  grows  in  an  open  field  belonging  to  John  Wilson,  Bedford, 
Massachusetts,  running  up  on  trees ;  soil  sandy  gravel.  Wood  brown, 
rather  long-jointed,  healthy  growth  ;  leaf  round,  small  fine  nerves ; 
bunches  medium  size,  compact ;  berries  round,  medium  size,  and  of  an 
agreeable  Avine  taste  ;  regular  bearer  ;  ripens  by^  the  end  of  September. 
See  analysis,  page  48. 

No.  22.  Vitis  labrusca,  the  original  Concord  grape,  a  seedling  from 
the  Vitis  labrusca. — This  vine  is  now  fifteen  years  old,  and  has  borne 
regularly  for  seven  years.  It  is  one  of  the  best  hardy  American  varie- 
ties, ripening  its  delicious  fruit  in  the  most  northern  part  of  our  coun- 
try. It  will  improve  its  qualities  every  degree  further  south,  wherever 
cultivated  ;  in  the  South,  West,  and  even  in  California,  it  gives  gen- 
eral satisfaction.  The  wine,  in  body,  flavor,  and  taste,  resembles  the 
sherry  wine.  The  owner  and  propagator,  Hon.  E.  W.  Bull,  of  Con- 
cord, Massachusetts,  deserves  much  credit  for  the  introduction  of  this 
highly  valuable  grape.  Its  character  consists  of  the  following  points: 
Wood  brown,  medium-jointed,  very  healthy,  vigorous  growth;  ripens 
its  wood  well ;  leaf  large,  heart-shaped,  three-lobed,  strong  nerves, 
yellowish-green  on  both  sides  ;  bunches  large,  well  shouldered,  rather 
loose;  berries  over  medium  size,  oval,  of  a  dark-blue  color,  thin  skin, 
juicy,  and  of  an  agreeable  wine  taste  ;  good  for  the  table  and  wine 
making ;  it  ripens  about  the  middle  of  September ;  a  good  regular 
bearer  ;  soil  dry  sandy  loam  ;  location  open  to  the  south,  and  sheltered 
from  the  north  and  northwest  by  a  hill.     See  analysis,  page  47. 

No.  23.  Vitis  lahrusca. — A  seedling  from  the  third  generation  from  the 
original  Concord  vine.  Soil  and  location  the  same  as  above.  Wood 
light-brown,  long-jointed,  vigorous  growth ;  leaf  medium  size,  heart- 
shaped,  strong  nerves,  three-lobed,  and  green  on  both  sides  ;  bunches 
well  shouldered,  medium  size  ;  berries  medium,  dark-blue,  j-uicy, 
and  very  sweet ;  a  good  wine  and  table  grape  ;  ripens  middle  of  Sep- 
tember.    See  analysis,  page  47. 

No.  24.  Vitis  labrusca.— A  seedling  of  the  second  generation  from  the 
original  Concord  vine.  Soil  and  location  as  stated  above.  Wood  red- 
brown,  long-jointed,  healthy  moderate  growth;  leaf  medium  size, 
heart-shaped,  three-lobed,  strong  nerves,  yellowish-green  on  both  sides  ; 
bunches  well  shouldered,  a  little  above  medium  size ;  berries  the  same, 
round,  dark  blue,  sweet,  and  juicy ;  good  wine  and  table  grape,  ripens 
with  the  other  two.     See  analysis,  page  47. 

No.  25.  Vitis  labrusca. — Sage  grape,  a  red-brown  wild  native  grape, 
found  in  the  woods  some  years  ago  by  Mr.  Sage,  and  transplanted  by 
Mr.  R.  W.  Emerson,  of  Concoi'd,  Massachusetts,  on  the  south  side  of 
hishouse.  Soil  dry  sandy  loam.  Wood  red-brown,  long-jointed,  healthy 
but  moderate  growth  ;  leaf  medium  size,  round,  strong  nerves,  yel- 
lowish-green on  both  sides  ;  bunches  medium  ;  berries  of  uncommonly 
large  size,  three  berries  weighing  an  ounce  ;  round  and  tolerably  sweet ; 
ripens  early  in  September.     See  analysis,  page  48. 

No.   20.    Vitis  labrusca.     Dracut   Amber. — A   reddish-brown  wild 


AMERICAN    GRAPES.  67 

native  grape^  a  seedling  from  this  family,  found  in  the  woods,  and 
transplanted  by  Asa  Clement^  in  Dracutt,  near  Lowell,  Massachusetts, 
in  his  nursery.  Soil  a  heavy  wet  clay ;  situation  too  much  shaded  and 
obstructed  by  trees.  Wood  red-brown,  short-jointed,  and  healthy  growth ; 
leaf  medium,  heart-shaped,  strong  nerves  ;  bunches  rather  large,  com- 
pact ;  berries  large,  round,  and  sweet ;  ripens  middle  of  September. 
See  analysis,  page  48. 

No.  27.  Vitiscordifolia. — A  dark-blue  wild  native  grape  ;  grows  in  a 
swamp,  owned  by  Salomon  D.  Case,  Canton  Centre,  Connecticut.  Soil, 
wet  clay  ;  situation  much  shaded  by  young  forest  trees.  Wood  dark- 
brown,  medium-jointed,  healthy,  but  moderate  growth ;  leaf  small, 
heart-shaped,  fine  nerves,  yellowish-green  on  both  sides  ;  bunches  not 
above  medium^  compact ;  berries  round,  medium  size,  thin  skin, 
pretty  sweet ;  ripens  toward  the  end  of  September.  See  analysis  page  50. 

No.  28.  Viiis  cordifolia  j)U7ictata. — A  blue,  copper-red  speckled  wild 
native  grape ;  grows  in  the  same  swamp  ;  situation  the  same  as  above 
stated,  wet  and  shaded.  Wood  red-brown,  short-jointed,  healthy 
growth ;  leaf  medium  size,  heart-shaped,  fine  nerves,  yellowish-green 
on  both  sides ;  bunches  medium,  berries  ditto,  oval,  and  strong  wine 
taste;  ripens  in  the  beginning  of  October.     See  analysis,  page  52. 

No.  29.  Vitis  cor difolia  punctata.— A.  light-red  colored  v»^ild  native 
grape,  speckled  with  copper-red.  Soil  and  situation  like  the  preceding. 
Proprietor^  Mr.  Case,  of  Canton  Centre.  Wood  brown,  very  short- 
jointed,  vigorous  growth  ;  leaf  medium  size,  heart-shaped,  fine  nerves, 
yellowish-green  on  both  sides;  clusters  large  and  compact;  berries 
rather  large,  oval,  sweet  and  juicy  ;  ripens  in  the  beginning  of  Oc- 
tober.    See  analysis,  page  52. 

No.  30.  Vitis  cestivalis  punctata. — A  green  wild  native  grape,  dotted 
all  over  with  snow-white  specks,  standing  on  Mr.  Case's  property. 
Soil  and  situation  the  same  as  No.  29.  Wood  brown,  short-jointed, 
a  good  healthy  growth  ;  leaf  large,  heart-shaped,  strong  nerves,  yel- 
lowish-green on  both  sides  ;  bunches  and  berries  medium  size,  the 
latter  oval,  sweet,  and  of  an  agreeable  taste ;  ripens  by  the  end  of 
September.     See  analysis,  page  52. 

No.  31.  Vitis  Idbrusca,  Hartford  Prolific. — A  dark-blue  cultivated 
grape,  a  seedling  from  the  Isabella.  This  is  one  of  the  earliest  varieties, 
and  therefore  exceedingly  well  adapted  to  a  northern  climate  ;  it 
ripens  in  favorable  localities  by  the  end  of  August ;  a  good  regular 
bearer.  Wood  brown,  short-jointed,  vigorous  growth  ;  leaf  medium, 
heart-shaped,  strong  nerves,  green  on  the  upper  and  whitisli-green 
on  the  lower  side ;  bunches  above  medium  size,  compact ;  berries 
medium,  round,  and  very  sweet.  I  obtained  a  sample  from  E.  W. 
Whiting,  nurseryman,  Hartford,  Connecticut,  who  propagates  largely 
from  that  grape  for  sale.     See  analysis,  page  51. 

No.  32.  Vitis  cor  difolia  punctata. — A  dark  blue,  nearly  black,  wild 
native  grape,  speckled  with  copper-red ;  grows  in  the  woods,  in  a 
valley  near  a  small  river,  on  the  land  owned  by  John  Warner,  near 
Florence,  Massachusetts,  Soil,  sandy  gravel,  containing  some  loam. 
Wood  light  brown,  short-jointed,  and  rather  slender  growth  ;  leaf 
small,  heart-shaped,  tender  nerves,  yellowish- green  on  both  sides  ; 
bunches  medium  ;  berries,  large,  oval,  sweet,  and  vinous  ;  ripens  by 
the  end  of  September.     See  analysis,  page  52, 


68  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

No.  33.  Vitislabrusca. — A  red  Traminer-colored  wild  native  grape,  an 
old  vigorous  vine  ;  stands  in  the  garden  of  Theodore  Clark,  near  East 
Hampton,  Massachusetts,  west  of  MountTom,  on  a  level,  open  situation. 
Soil  deep,  sandy  loam.  Wood  brown,  short-jointed^,  of  moderate 
growth ;  leaf  medium  size,  heart-shaped,  fine  nerves,  yellowish-green 
on  both  sides  ;  bunches  and  berries  of  medium  size,  the  latter  round, 
and  of  a  pleasant  wine  taste ;  ripens  middle  of  September.  See  analysis, 
page  52. 

No.  34.  Vitis  cordifolia. — A  dark-blue,  almost  black,  wild  native 
grape ;  grows  on  the  western  slope  of  Mount  Tom,  on  a  wet,  cold, 
clayey  soil,  and  runs  along  a  fence,  and  on  trees  and  brushes.  The 
land  belongs  to  Frank  Clark,  near  East  Hampton,  Massachusetts. 
Wood  dark-brown,  short-jointed,  of  healthy,  but  moderate  growth ; 
leaf  small,  heart-shaped,  fine  nerves,  green  on  both  sides  ;  clusters  of 
medium  size,  very  compact,  a  little  shouldered  ;  berries  small,  round, 
and  of  an  agreeable  vinous  taste,  slightly  acid,  but  not  unpleasant ; 
ripens  in  the  early  part  of  October.     See  analysis,  page  52. 

No.  35.  Vitis  sinuata. — A  dark-blue  wild  native  grape,  one  of  the  best 
specimens  of  the  frost  grape ;  grows  near  the  one  just  described. 
Wood  brown_,  very  short-jointed,  tough,  vigorous  growth;  leaf  small, 
heart-shaped,  three-lobed,  green  on  both  sides;  bunches  long,  com- 
pact ;  berries  small,  round,  if  not  compressed,  rather  crisp,  or  acid, 
but  not  disagreeable  ;  ripens  in  the  beginning  of  October.  This  grape 
deserves  propagating  and  improving,  as  its  juice  contains  pro2Derties 
desirable  to  be  mixed  in  small  quantities  with  other  varieties  in 
making  wine,  obviating  flatness,  and  rendering  it  tenable. 

No.  36.  Vitis  lahrusca. — A  red-brown  wild  native  grape,  found  in  the 
woods,  and  transplanted,  or  set  out,  by  Mr.  Clark,  in  his  garden, 
southwest  of  Bound  Hill.  Soil,  a  good  sandy  loam  ;  situation,  warm 
and  well-sheltered  ;  grows  up  on  an  apple  tree.  Wood  brown,  medium- 
jointed,  vigorous  growth ;  leaf  medium  size,  heart-shaped,  strong 
nerves,  yellowish-green  on  both  sides ;  bunches  and  berries  of  medium 
size,  oval,  and  pretty  sweet ;  ripens  towards  the  end  of  September. 
Se§  analysis,  page  52. 

No.  37.  Vitis  cordifolia. — A  dark-blue,  nearly  black,  wild  native  grape; 
stands  on  the  edge  of  a  forest,  in  a  swamp  meadow,  at  the  top  of  the 
Orange  mountains.  Proprietor,  A.  0.  Moore,  Orange,  New  Jersey. 
Soil,  wet  clay.  Wood  dark-brown,  short-jointed_,  thrifty  growth;  leaf 
medium  size,  heart-shaped,  strong  nerves,  yellowish-green  on  both  sides; 
bunches  medium  size,  shouldered;  berries  rather  below  medium,  oval, 
and  of  an  agreeable  wine  taste;  ripens  the  first  part  of  October. 

No.  38.  Vitis  lahrusca. — A  dark-blue,  wild  native  grape,  found  in  the 
woods,  and  set  out  by  Charles  Dickinson,  of  Verona,  Essex  county, 
New  Jersey^  on  the  southeast  side  of  his  house.  An  old  vine:  no  care 
is  taken  of  it ;  is  supported  by  a  rough  frame.  Wood  greyish-brown, 
short-jointed,  healthy,  vigorous  growth;  leaf  medium  size,  heart- 
shaped,  strong  nerves,  yellowish-green  on  both  sides ;  bunches  medium, 
berries  large,  round,  sweet,  and  pleasant  wine  taste-;  ripens  in  the 
beginning  of  October.  Soil  wet  clay  and  very  stony ;  situation  high 
and  open,  on  the  top  of  the  Orange  mountain. 


AMERICAN    GRAPES.  69 

I  have  been  particular,  in  noting  these  varieties,  to  describe  their 
character  as  clearly  as  possible  with  regard  to  their  wood,  growth,  fruit, 
and  its  shape,  color,  and  taste.  I  did  not  find  much  difficulty,  but  have 
been  often  at  a  loss  how  to  make  out  the  leaves,  which  were  often  of 
different  shapes  and  colors  on  one  and  the  same  vine ;  for  instance, 
there  were  on  a  vine  large  heart-shaped  leaves,  deeply  cut,  with  three 
to  five  lobes,  long  stem,  stout  ribs  and  nerves ;  and,  again,  leaves  almost 
square,  lobes  hardly  discernible,  short  stems,  small,  tender  ribs  and 
nerves ;  and  some  round,  without  lobes,  long  stems,  fine  ribs  and  nerves; 
some  on  one  side,  heart-shaped,  with  one  or  two  pretty  sharp  cut  lobes, 
and,  on  the  other  side,  round  and  smooth.  The  same  variation  I  found 
in  the  color  of  the  leaf,  but  here  it  was  merely  the  influence  of  the  light, 
sun,  and  shade.  In  shaded  localities,  under  trees,  &c.,  where  the  sun 
and  light  were  obstructed,  the  color  would  be  a  bright  green,  as  it  ap- 
pears on  the  best  improved  European  varieties.  According  to  circum- 
stances, as  they  were  under  this  influence,  they  would  change  their 
colors,  and  the  inore  favorable  their  situation  in  this  respect,  their  color 
would  change  to  yellow,  and,  in  free,  open  situations,  would  be  for  the 
most  part  a  yellowish  green  on  the  upper  side,  and  several  shades 
deeper,  sometimes  clear,  bright  yellow,  on  the  lower  side,  which  is  in 
most  cases  their  fixed  color.  But  there  are  some  exceptions  again: 
The  most  of  the  worthless  offsprings  from  the  Vitis  cordifoUa  have 
clear,  green  leaves,  while  the  better  varieties  have  that  yellow  hue. 
There  is  only  one  family  of  which  the  leaf  is  found  invariably  green ; 
it  is  the  lowest  and  least  useful  of  all — the  frost  grape,  or  vitis  sinuata. 
On  some  of  the  seedlings  from  the  fox  grape,  vitis  labrusca,  the  white 
color  predominates,  instead  of  yellow ;  the  upper  part  of  the  leaf  will 
be  of  a  white  hue,  while  the  lower  side  presents  this  peculiar  downy 
character,  completely  white. 

According  to  my  instructions,  to  investigate  and  examine  the  wild 
native  grapes  with  a  view  of  testing  their  respective  qualities,  and  to 
note  those  which  show  good  qualities  for  wine  or  table  grapes,  in  order 
that  they  might  be  propagated  and  improved,  and  as  those  which  I 
marked  will,  in  proportion  as  they  are  submitted  to  a  systematical 
course  of  development,  change  their  original  nature  and  habitus,  so  the 
proper  time  to  record  their  character  will  be  when  they  shall  have 
attained  the  highest  point  of  improvement,  therefore,  I  concluded  not 
to  take  notice  of  the. numerous  variations  in  the  form  or  construction 
of  the  leaf,  and  difference  of  their  colors,  but  only  to  describe  their 
most  common  forms,  namely,  round,  heart-shaped,  large,  medium  size^ 
or  small,  and  the  color,  yellowish,  whitish,  or  green. 

The  quality  of  their  fruit,  as  exhibited  by  analyzing  samples,  is,  in 
all  cases,  capable  of  improvement,  the  degree  of  which  will  be  in  pro- 
portion to  the  advancement  of  the  vine  itself ;  therefore,  the  analysis 
shows  only  the  fundamental  properties  of  these  specimens,  and  the  task 
to  develop  and  progress  upon  this  basis  is  reserved  for  the  practical 
propagator  and  cenolog.  He  will  arrange  these  varieties  to  answer  his 
own  purposes  ;  by  a  thorough  system  of  rational  culture,  increase  their 
saccharine  properties,  restrict  the  predominance  of  acidity,  and  bring 
the  whole  to  a  proper  condition. 

By  due  consideration  of  the  soil,  position,  and^climate_,  a  good  esti- 


70  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

mate  will  be  obtained,  from  tlie  result  of  the  analysis,  as  to  the  capa- 
bility of  the  wine.  For  instance,  the  fruit  of  a  vine  which  grows  on  a 
wet,  cold  soil,  in  a  low,  shaded  situation,  and  in  a  severe  and  rough 
climate,  contains  eight  per  cent,  of  sugar,  the  vine  thus  possessing 
the  points  required  of  a  good  grape  ;  yet,  in  most  cases,  by  being 
translated  to  a  better  soil,  position,  &c.,  with  proper  culture,  it  will 
attain  from  twelve  to  sixteen  per  cent.,  and,  of  course,  produce  a 
superior  wine.  Analysis,  therefore-,  gives  a  surer  basis  to  judge  and 
select  wild  grapes  than  the  simple  taste,  which  is  as  various  as  decep- 
tive ;  at  the  same  time,  it  will  bring  to  notice  such  varieties  as,  differ- 
ing from  the  common  and  fashionable  sweet  grapes,  contain  precisely 
the  properties  essential  to  make  several  of  the  most  highly  esteemed 
wines. 

Late  frosts  in  the  springs  and  especially  some  sharp  visitations  in 
June,  checked  the  grape-vines,  and  totally  destroyed  those  on  level 
parts  of  the  country  ;  only  in  elevated,  sheltered  portions  was  there 
any  saved,  and  far  less  than  the  usual  crops.  My  investigation  was, 
therefore,  limited  to  such  favored  locations,  while  even  here  the  means 
allowed  were  not  sufficient  to  enable  me  to  extend  my  labors  to  a 
larger  scale.  The  result  is  highly  valuable  and  stimulating  for  the 
culture  of  the  grape.  I  found,  in  general,  a  lively  interest  among  all 
classes  for  this  noble  and  lucrative  branch  of  horticulture.  The  inten- 
tion of  the  Patent  Office  to  encourage  the  culture  of  the  vine  through 
the  whole  country,  by  collecting  and  disseminating  knowledge  relating 
to  it,  and  the  best  methods  of  wine-making,  was  well  appreciated,  and 
especially  so  on  account  of  the  direct  way  which  had  been  chosen. 
Personal  observation  and  instruction  will  often,  in  one  hour,  be  more 
beneficial  than  long  study  of  scientific  essays,  which  are,  for  the  most 
part,  written  in  too  high  a  style  to  be  clearly  understood  by  the  plain, 
practical  man.  By  those  interested  in  this  pursuit  earnest  wishes 
were  expressed  that  the  Patent  Office  might  continue  its  noble  efforts. 

In  a  country  like  ours,  blessed  with  everything  to  make  life  pleas- 
ant, and  possessing  a  proper  soil  and  climate  for  every  plant,  why, 
otherwise  so  favored,  should  man  be  deprived  of  the  real  essence  of  life, 
wine?  True,  this  incomparable  nectar  is  not  unknown  here,  for  many 
thousand  American  eagles  of  gold  cross  the  Atlantic  annually  to 
bring  it  to  us  ;  but  this  privilege  is  attainable  only  by  a  few,  while 
the  mass  of  the  people  may  not  receive  this  best  gift  of  Nature.  Sub- 
stitutes have  been  invented,  but  they  are  poor  indeed_,  compared  to 
genuine  wine,  which  makes  man  social,  contented,  and  happy,  while 
those  mixtures  and  drugs,  at  once  exciting  and  stupifying,  demoralize 
him.  As  wine  is  a  pure  beverage  which  Nature  furnishes,  its  use  should 
be  attainable  by  every  one  ;  while  it  inspirits  the  youth  to  all  that  is 
fair,  good,  moral,  and  grand,  it  stimulates  the  man  in  his  labor  and 
occupations,  makes  him  a  brave  husband,  father,  and  citizen,  and 
brightens  the  evening  of  age.  As  wine  has  so  beneficial  an  influence 
on  the  nature  and  character  of  the  individual,  it  will  likewise  exalt 
the  condition  of  a  whole  people  ;  consequently,  there  is  reason  why 
we  should  exert  ourselves  to  introduce  the  general  culture  of  tho 
grape  in  our  own  country,  as  has  been  done  for  centuries  in  other 
lands. 


AMERICAN    GRAPES.  71 

For  the  use  and  comfort  of  a  single  family,  a  small  piece  of  ground, 
by  intelligent  management,  will  produce  sufficient,  while  if  the  area 
be  extended,  the  profits  obtained  will  prove  a  liberal  encouragement. 
Many  hundred  acres^  exhausted  by  our  bad  management,  but  yet  con- 
taining enough  mineral  substances  to  support  the  grape-vine,  might, 
with  little  expense,  be  converted  into  vineyards.  Those  black  and 
barren  hills,  gloomy  as  they  look,  will,  in  many  instances,  afford 
desirable  situations  for  this  purpose,  and  can  thus  be  changed  to 
profitable  plantations,  highly  ornamental  to  the  country.  By  a  proper 
selection  of  the  position  and  of  the  varieties  adapted  to  the  climate,  the 
grape-vine  may  be  successfully  cultivated  in  every  State  of  the  Union, 
It  will  flourish  wherever  corn  will  grow.  But  before  embarking  in 
this  enterprise,  it  is  necessary  to  understand  the  principles  of  the  cul- 
ture and  management  of  the  grape,  and  the  mode  of  making  wine. 


CULTUEE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OE  THE  GEAPE,  AND 
THE  MODE  OE  MAKING  WINE. 


BY  JOHN  F.  WEBER,  of  WASHIJSTGTON,  DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  GRAPE,  BY  LAYERS,  CUTTINGS,  EYES,  AND  SEED. 

Layers. — Supposing  the  vines  are  old,  and  growing  wild  in  the  woods 
or  fences,  the  best  branches  should  be  selected,  those  which  have  made 
strong  and  well-matured  wood.  They  must  be  bent  down  to  find  where 
the  last  year's  growth  reaches  the  ground,  in  order  to  see  what  space 
they  require ;  the  length  and  number  of  the  shoots  will  give  the  best 
indication.  The  land  should  be  cleared  of  stones,  stumps,  sod,  and  roots, 
trenched  to  the  depth  of  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches,  and  enriched 
with  well-rotted  compost.  Heavy  and  stiff  soil  needs  to  be  meliorated 
with  sand,  to  the  texture  of  good  garden  earth,  after  which  small 
trenches  have  to  be  dug  for  each  single  shoot,  about  a  foot  wide  and 
six  inches  deep.  The  branch  is  now  taken  down  and  secured  to  the 
ground  by  a  strong  Avooden  peg  with  a  hook.  It  is  not  necessary  that 
the  branch  should  be  prostrated  quite  to  its  root,  but  precaution  must 
be  ta,ken  not  to  break  it  by  bending.  The  shoots  of  the  last  year's  growth 
are  then  taken  and  deposited  singly,  each  in  a  trench,  fastened  by  little 
wooden  pegs,  care  being  used  that  they  lay  close  at  the  ground.  These 
shoots  must  have  been  previously  examined,  all  dry  and  immature 
wood  cut  off,  and  only  the  sound,  well-ripened  wood  employed.  The 
best  time  for  that  operation  is  when  the  buds  have  made  two  leaves. 
They  are  left  in  this  position,  uncovered,  till  the  eyes  have  attained 
three  or  four  inches  growth,  when  a  regular  circulation  of  the  sap  will 


72  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

"be  effected ;  they  are  then  covered  with  fine,  pulverized  earth,  ahout  an 
inch.  It  is  very  interesting  now  to  observe  how  quickly  callus  is  formed 
under  each  eye,  from  which  small  roots  will  emanate  in  the  course  of  three 
or  four  days.  In  eight  or  ten  days  the  formation  of  roots  will  be  com- 
pleted, when  two  inches  more  of  earth  may  be  put  in,  and  in  a  fortnight 
after  another  inch,  which  is  the  final  covering.  In  dry,  sandy  soil, 
or  when  the  summer  is  unusually  hot  and  arid,  it  is  prudent  to  mulch, 
these  young  plants  at  once,  two  or  three  inches,  after  the  last  covering, 
with  straw,  leaves,  or  tan-bark.  This  will  keep  the  ground  moist,  and 
protect  the  young,  tender  roots  from  becoming  dry  and  burnt.  Late 
in  the  fall,  when  the  plant  is  in  a  dormant  state,  the  branches  which 
have  been  layered  are  cut  off  close  at  the  old  wood,  carefully  taken  up 
with  a  garden  fork,  so  as  not  to  break  the  roots,  and  divided.  There 
will  now  be  obtained  from  each  eye  a  strong,  well-rooted  plant.  These 
young  offsprings  are  now  taken  and  heated  in  the  ground,  where  they 
remain  through  the  winter,  or  till  they  are  wanted.  The  branch  of 
the  old  vine  remains  in  its  bent  position ;  the  next  spring  shoots  will 
grow  out  near  where  the  layers  had  been  cut  off  the  year  previous ; 
when  they  have  made  about  twelve  inches  in  growth,  the  stump  or 
basis  of  these  young  shoots  is  covered  with  good  rich  soil,  about  six 
inches,  in  order  that  roots  may  emanate  to  render  it  independent  of  the 
old  vine.  They  are  left  to  grow  during  the  season.  The  next  spring 
they  are  layered  again,  and  another  set  raised  in  the  same  manner. 
By  this  manipulation,  vigorous  plants  can  be  propagated  from  an  old 
vine  every  second  year,  and  will  bear  the  second  year  after  planting. 
In  regard  to  their  strength,  and  the  development  of  their  root  system, 
they  are  preferable  to  any  propagated  from  eyes  or  cuttings. 

Making  layers  from  vines  in  a  vineyard  is  far  more  easy,  as  the 
ground  is  already  in  a  good  condition,  and  the  vines  in  a  more  active 
state.  In  the  time  of  summer  pruning,  one  or  two  strong  shoots  are 
left,  as  close  as  possible  to  the  ground,  on  the  vines  from  which  layers 
are  desired  ;  they  remain  hanging  down  through  the  summer,  undis- 
turbed, and  the  next  spring  are  treated  as  already  described.  It  is 
important,  in  all  cases,  to  let  them  hang  loose,  till  all  the  eyes  are 
well  developed,  and  have  made  at  least  half  an  inch  growth.  This 
method  is  always  sure,  as  it  corresponds  with  the  principles  of  the 
physiology  of  the  grape-vine,  which,  like  other  young  plants,  requires 
for  its  developement  an  equal  share  of  light,  warmth  and  moisture. 

Pro2oagaiion  from  cuttings. — This  is  a  very  simple  procedure.  In 
the  fall  or  winter,  shoots  are  selected  from  the  strongest  and  best 
ripened  vines,  cut  three  or  four  eyes  long,  tied  together  in  bunches  of 
from  one  hundred  to  five  hundred  pieces,  and  either  put  in  the  ground 
and  well  covered  with  earth,  or  kept  in  a  cellar  during  winter,  covered 
with  sand.  In  the  spring,  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry,  a  partly 
shaded  spot  is  chosen  for  a  plant-bed.  The  soil  should  be  dry  and 
warm  ;  it  requires  trenching  about  two  feet  deep,  and  meliorating 
with  compost  and  sand  till  it  compares  well  with  hot-bed  earth.  This 
plat  is  laid  off  in  beds  four  feet  wide,  and  two  feet  are  left  between  for 
a  path.  There  will  be  room  in  such  a  bed  for  four  rows  of  cuttings. 
In  order  to  plant  them  at  equal  distances,  the  ground  should  be 
measured  and  a  line  drawn.     The  wood,  on  the  lower  end  of  the 


AMERICAN   GRAPES.  73 

cuttings,  should  "be  cut  off  close  to  the  eye.  To  keep  them  moist,  it  is 
well  to  wrap  them  in  a  piece  of  old  cloth,  and  take  up  only  one  bunch 
at  a  time.  There  is  an  instrument  generally  used  for  that  purpose, 
which  greatly  facilitates  planting  ;  it  is  made  of  a  piece  of  wire,  half 
an  inch  thick  and  two  feet  long,  a  cross  handle  at  one  end,  and  the 
other  flattened  and  bent  to  an  angle  of  45°.  In  the  flat  end  an  open- 
ing is  prepared  in  the  shape  of  a  V,  wide  enough  to  admit  the  cutting. 
With  this  instrument,  called  a  plant-stick,  the  cutting  is  pushed  into 
the  ground  in  a  slanting  position,  and  only  one  eye  left  out,  near  the 
surface.  It  should  never  he  inserted  deeper  than  four  or  five  inches. 
In  dry  weather,  the  plants  require  watering  every  second  night,  till 
they  have  formed  roots  and  are  established  ;  they  must  be  kept  clean, 
and  no  weeds  allowed  t©  grow  in  the  bed.  In  the  fall,  they  are  taken 
up  carefully,  with  a  garden  fork,  and  heeled  in  the  ground  again  during 
winter.  Next  spring,  they  may  be  removed  to  the  vineyard,  and  will 
bear  the  third  year.  But  if  strong-rooted  vines  are  wanted,  these 
rooted  cuttings  have  to  be  planted  once  more  in  the  bed,  but  require 
now  at  least  a  square  foot  of  space,  and  their  last  year's  growth  to  be 
cut  back  to  one  eye,  and  taken  up  again  in  the  fall  and  heeled  in. 

Propagating  from  eyes. — This  can  be  done  only  under  glass,  either 
in  a  propagating-house,  green-house^  or  hot-bed,  as  otherwise  no  good 
results  can  be  expected;  still,  if  trouble  is  not  regarded,  eyes  may 
sometimes  be  propagated  in  boxes,  or  even  in  the  open  ground. 

Strong  and  well-ripened  canes  should  be  selected.  They  may  be  cut 
eight  or  ten  eyes  long,  heeled  in  sand  till  wanted,  and  put  in  the  cellar, 
or  in  any  place  where  the  frost  cannot  reach  them.  In  order  to  get 
large  plants  the  first  season  it  is  necessary  to  begin  their  propagation 
early;  February  is  generally  the  time  when  they  are  started.  If  a 
propagating-house  with  a  sand  bed  be  at  disposal,  little  furrows  are 
made  in  the  sand  about  half  an  inch  deep,  and  two  inches  apart,  in 
which  the  eyes  are  placed  horizontally ;  they  are  then  covered  with 
sand  and  drenched  well ;  a  temperature  of  from  sixty-five  to  seventy 
degrees  must  be  maintained  till  they  have  completel}''  rooted.  In 
common  green-houses  pots  are  generally  used ;  they  may  be  of  diiferent 
sizes,  but  should  not  be  smaller  than  tAvo  pints.  After  some  broken 
pieces  of  crockery,  oyster-shells^  &c.,  have  been  put  in  the  bottom  to 
secure  a  good  drainage,  they  are  filled  to  half  an  inch  of  the  top  with 
earth,  and  four  to  six  eyes  are  stuck  in  vertically,  so  that  the  point  of 
the  eye  just  peeps  out.  They  are  well  drenched,  and  placed  in  the 
warmest  part  of  the  house.  In  hot-beds  pots  are  likewise  more  conve- 
nient than  open  beds.  They  should  be  constructed  as  usual  for  raising 
plants,  with' a  bottom  heat  of  from  fifty-five  to  sixty  degrees.  The 
pots  with  the  eyes  are  put  in  dry  saw-dust,  or  tan-bark,  and  raised 
within  six  inches  to  the  sashes.  In  order  to  preserve  an  even  temper- 
ature, constant  watching  is  necessary,  an'd  every  opportunity,  when 
the  weather  is  clear,  and  the  atmosphere  warm,  should  be  improved  to 
give  air  so  as  to  prevent  mold  and  rot.  Straw-covers  and  board-shut- 
ters must  be  provided  for  cold  nights  and  stormy  days.  In  proportion 
to  the  development  of  the  plant  must  be  the  quantity  of  air  admitted, 
and  finally  the  sashes  will  have  to  be  removed  during  the  day,  and 
only  kept  on  in  the  nights.     When  at  last  the  spring  has  fairly  opened ; 


74  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

when  night-frosts  have  ceased,  and  the  soil  has  become  warm  and  dry, 
a  shady  place  is  selected,  soil  suitable  for  the  striking  of  cuttings 
prepared,  and  the  young  vines  are  transplanted  into  the  open  ground, 
about  a  foot  apart,  care  being  taken  not  to  set  them  too  deep ;  throe 
inches  will  be  sufficient. 

It  is  well  to  mulch  them  at  once,  to  secure  an  even  temperature  and 
moisture  for  their  tender  roots.  Straw  or  leaves  are  the  best  material 
for  that  purpose.  If  properly  attended,  they  will  make  a  growth  of 
from  six  to  eight  feet,  sometimes  as  much  as  twelve  feet,  the  same 
season,  and  will  bear  the  second  year  after  transplanting.  They  may 
remain  during  winter  in  their  bed  or  nursery,  and  be  transplanted  at 
once  the  next  spring  in  the  vineyard.  This  method  applies  to  all 
young  plants  grown  in  the  propagating  house,  green-house,  or  hot-bed. 
The  best  earth  to  strike  eyes  in  is  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  well-rotten 
turf,  or  sod,  soil,  or  leaf-mold,  from  the  forest^  and  v/ashed  sand,  with 
a  little  addition  of  fine  bone  and  charcoal  dust. 

Propagation  from  seed. — The  best  ripened  bunches  should  be  selected, 
the  seeds  extracted,  and  dried  in  a  shady,  airy  place.  When  dry,  they 
should  be  put  in  a  little  bag,  and  hung  up  till  wanted.  A  spot  for  a 
seed-bed  should  be  selected  on  a  dry,  airy,  and  shady  piece  of  ground, 
prepared  as  for  cuttings,  or  eyes.  The  fall  is  the  best  time  to  sow  the 
seed.  Furrows,  half  an  inch  deep  and  one  foot  apart,  are  made,  the 
seed  dropped  in,  about  two  inches  from  each  other,  covered  with  washed 
sand,  and  finally  with  straw  or  leaves.  In  the  spring,  v/hen  the  night- 
frosts  have  ceased,  this  cover  is  removed,  and  pine  or  hemlock  boughs 
put  on  instead  till  the  seed  has  sprouted,  and  young  shoots  make  their 
appearance.  Nothing  else  is  required  through  the  summer  except 
weeding,  and  occasional  watering  at  night  in  dry  wxather.  Late  in 
the  fall  the  young  vines  are  taken  up  with  a  garden-fork,  and  heeled 
in  again.  In  the  spring  they  are  cut  back  to  one  eye,  and  replanted 
a  foot  apart,  in  which  situation  they  remain  undisturbed  during  the 
season. 

But,  as  the  grape-vine  seldom  reproduces  its  character  in  its  oif- 
spring  from  seed,  and  is  rather  changed  to  all  possible  variations, 
there  can  be  no  confidence  that  such  seedlings  will  be  of  the  same 
type ;  sometimes  they  will  be  of  a  first-rate  quality^  and  generally  of 
different  colors.  The  well-known  and  highly-esteemed  Concord  grape, 
for  instance,  is  of  a  dark  blue  color  ;  yet  from  this  Mr.  Bull  has  raised 
a  white  seedling  of  superior  quality,  and  other  seedlings  of  first-rate 
qualities,  varying  in  color  from  a  light  Amber  of  all  shades  to  a  dark 
Traminer,  while  several,  again,  presented  the  same  color  as  the  original 
vine.  Among  seedlings,  also,  are  male  plants,  which  will  not  produce 
fruit  at  all.  These  are  distinguished  by  their  small,  long  eyes.,  lying 
flat  on  the  wood,  while  fruit-eyes  may  be  recognized  by  their  short, 
thick,  shouldered  appearance.  In  order  to  find  out  what  may  be  ex- 
pected from  them,  they  should  be  closely  examined  the  second  year, 
and  those  which  promise  best  brought  in  a  bending  situation,  to  induce 
the  formation  of  fruit-buds.  They  are  taken  up  in  the  fall  and  planted 
in  pots  holding  about  six  quarts,  and  their  shoots  cut  back  to  three 
eyes.  Until  the  middle  of  February  they  are  kept  in  a  cool  place, 
when  they  should  be  put  under  glass,  either  in  a  green-house  or  h.ot- 


AMERICAN    GRAPES.  75 

bed,  to  be  started.  By  bending  tlie  cane  till  the  young  shoots  are  out 
one  inch,  and  cutting  a  ring  from  the  bark  below  the  upper  eye,  they 
will  sometimes  bear  that  season  and  show  their  true  character.  If 
there  is  no  such  convenience  as  a  green-house  or  hot-bed,  the  propa- 
gator can  only  wait  till  the  weather  becomes  warm,  and  in  the  mean- 
time may  jDlace  them  in  a  sunny,  sheltered  corner,  near  the  buildings. 
Of  course,  no  fruit  can  be  expected  that  season. 

If,  in  either  case,  no  fruit  appear,  the  canes  should  be  bent  as  soon 
as  the  wood  begins  to  ripen  on  the  lower  part,  and  kept  in  this  position 
till  fall^  when  they  are  pruned  back  to  six  eyes.  In  the  following 
spring  this  cane  is  bent  again,  and  fastened  on  a  stick,  to  remain  so 
during  the  season.  All  the  side  shoots  and  new  wood,  except  a  lead- 
ing cane,  is  pruned  off  during  the  summer,  and  only  a  single  bunch 
allowed  to  grow.  Seedlings  which  have  satisfactorily  fruited  and 
proved  of  a  generally  good  character,  may  be  set  out  and  grown  as  the 
sources  of  further  propagation ;  they  are  now  new  varieties.  Those  in 
the  seed-bed,  or  nursery,  should  be  examined  again,  and  such  as  com- 
pare well  with  the  fruited  specimens  may  be  planted  out  in  the  vine- 
yard; the  rest,  which  show  less  good  points,  should  be  grafted,  or 
budded,  at  once. 

The  object  of  taking  up  and  transplanting  these  young  propagated 
grape-vines  every  season  is  to  get  a  chance  to  regulate  their  formation 
of  roots,  to  cut  back  single  leading  roots  and  make  them  grow  more 
fibres,  which  are  less  important  to  the  rapid  and  vigorous  growth  of 
wood  than  to  the  fruit  and  its  quality. 


IMPROVING    THE    GRAPE-VINE,    BY   LAYERING,    GRAFTING,    BUDDING, 

AND    HYBRIDIZING. 


Improving  &?/  lo.yeri'ivj. — This,  in  the  beginning,  is  performed  as 
before  described.  After  the  plants  obtained  from  layering  off  have 
been  transplanted  and  gro"wn  one  year,  they  are  cut  back  in  the  fall  to 
four  eyes,  and  the  next  spring  layered  down  again,  and  treated  in  the 
manner  above  referred  to.  In  the  fall  they  are  taken  up,  heeled  in 
through  the  winter,  and  set  out  again  in  the  spring,  being  pruned 
back  to  one  eye ;  the  following  fall  they  are  cut  back  to  six  eyes,  and 
layered  down  once  more  the  next  spring. 

When  this  operation  has  been  performed  several  times,  the  character 
of  such  a  vine  will  be  greatly  changed,  and  the  quality  of  its  fruit 
improved.  By  this  manipulation,  another  system  of  roots  is  obtained, 
the  wild  nature  of  thd  vine  tamed,  and,  in  consequence  of  its  fino 
cellular  texture,  it  will  form  larger  fruit  buds,  the  cluster  will  bo 
heavier  and  more  compact,  the  stem  of  the  berry  more  tender,  and, 
acquiring  more  and  stronger  fibres  on  the  basis,  the  berries  will  not 
again  drop  off",  the  skin  will  become  thin,  and  the  pulp  soft,  juicy,  and 
more  sugary. 

This  method  has  been  practised  for  centuries  in  parts  of  Germany 
and  France,  with  the  exception  only  that  such  plants  were  allowed  to 


76  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

grow  and  bear  several  years  before  tliey  were  layered  again.  All  those 
first-class  varieties,  the  Gutedel,  or  Chasselas,  Muscats,  Traminer, 
Malvasier.  Kiesling,  &c.,  have  thus  been  brought  to  their  present  high 
state  of  perfection. 

Improving  by  grafting. — Grape-vines  which  have  good  roots,  grow- 
ing on  houses,  arbors,  or  such  places,  where  stirring  and  breaking  the 
surface-soil  is  omitted,  and  yet  better  fruit,  or  a  different  variety,  de- 
sired, and  where,  also,  shade  is  an  object,  may  be  successively  changed 
by  grafting  on  seedlings  and  other  vines  of  inferior  quality,  to  turn 
them  to  better  account  in  the  quickest  possible  time.  This  operation 
is  best  performed  in  the  spring,  when  the  buds  have  developed  to  two 
leaves,  and  when  the  sap  does  not  circulate  and  flow  so  rapidly.  How- 
ever, the  grafts  have  to  be  cut  in  the  fall,  when  the  vine  is  in  a  dormant 
state,  and  either  buried  in  the  ground,  or  kept  in  a  dry,  cool  cellar, 
through  the  winter. 

Grafting  is  performed  in  the  following  manner:  The  soil  is  removed 
about  four  inches  deep,  the  vine  sawed  off,  and  the  cut  nicely  pared 
with  a  sharp  knife,  a  cleft  is  now  made,  two  or  three  inches  deep,  into 
the  stump  or  stock,  which  is  kept  open  by  a  wedge  till  the  graft  is  set; 
the  graft  should  have  two  or  three  eyes,  and  be  cut  exactly  to  fit  the 
cleft.  The  lower  eye  should  be  close  to  the  bark  of  the  stump,  and  the 
bark  of  both  stump  and  graft  should  fit  v/ell  together.  The  wedge  is 
next  taken  out,  the  whole  wound  well  covered  with  grafting  wax,  and 
the  soil  brought  back  again,  and  mulched  with  straw  or  leaves.  All 
the  buds  are  allowed  to  grow  undisturbed  through  the  summer^  but 
the  water  shoots  from  the  stump  must  be  kept  down ;  in  the  fall  one  or 
two  canes  are  left,  and  pruned  back  to  six  eyes ;  all  other  wood  is 
cut  off. 

There  are  sometimes  cases  where  vines  cannot  be  grafted  so  low,  and 
perhaps  several  feet  above  ground  only.  If  so,  another  method  is 
adopted :  The  top  of  the  vine  is  cut  off  likewise  where  the  graft  is 
wanted ;  then  a  three-inch  vertical  cut  is  made  through  the  bark,  which 
is  lifted  up ;  the  graft,  with  two  eyes  and  three-inch  wood  below,  is  cut 
half  through  horizontally  back  of  the  lower  bud,  and  from  the  point 
below  diagonally  up  to  the  cross  cut.  This  wedge  is  pushed  down  under 
the  bark,  after  the  cross  cut  has  been  made  to  fit  the  stump  or  stock, 
that  is,  cut  in  slanting  till  the  graft  gets  a  vertical  stand.  It  is  then 
tied  up  with  bass,  covered  thickly  with  grafting-wax,  and  finally  wrapped 
in  a  piece  of  rag.  The  tying  requires  particular  attention,  as  the  air 
must  be  entirely  excluded  from  the  wound.  Another  method  is  prac- 
ticable on  young  vines,  seedlings,  &c.  The  vine  is  cut  off  diagonally, 
and  also  the  graft  or  scion;  both  cuts  should  be  at  least  three  inches 
long,  and  fit  exactly  together,  the  graft  is  laid  on,  tied  with  soft  bass, 
and  the  whole  dressed  with  grafting-wax,  as  above.  When  the  vine 
is  much  thicker  than  the  scion,  the  bark  and  some  wood  are  cut  off  on 
one  side  only ;  the  graft  is  cut  diagonally ;  both  cuts  should  match  and 
fit,  so  that  the  inner  hark  of  the  scion  may  lie  exactly  on  the  inner  harh 
of  the  stump  or  stocJc.  This  is  the  essential  part  of  grafting,  and  in  all 
cases  should  be  observed.  The  union  takes  place  first  between  the  inner 
bark  and  wood,  where  callus  is  formed  for  new  wood.    The  whole  ope- 


AMERICAN   GRAPES.  77 

ration  must  be  done  very  quickly,  so  that  the  circulation  of  the  sap  will 
not  interfere  with  putting  on  the  wax. 

Improving  hy  budding. — The  proper  season  for  budding  grape-vines 
is  the  latter  part  of  August,  when  the  huds  of  the  current  year's  growth 
are  plump  and  the  young  wood  is  becoming  firm.  If  possible,  two  or 
three  year  old  wood  should  be  chosen,  in  v/hich  to  set  the  buds. 
Thrifty  shoots  are  selected,  and  the  soft  eyes  on  the  upper  end  rejected. 
The  bud  is  cut  out  about  two  inches  long,  with  as  much  bark  as  pos- 
sible. In  taking  out  the  wood,  a  thin  slice  should  be  left  at  the  basis 
of  the  bud,  so  that  its  roots  may  not  be  injured.  Having  prepared  the 
bud,  an  upright  incision  is  made  in  the  bark  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
long ;  on  the  top  of  this  a  cross  cut  is  made,  forming  a  T,  when  the 
bark  is  raised  up,  the  bud  is  pushed  in,  tied  carefully  with  soft  bass, 
and  covered  with  grafting  w^as:,  only  the  eye  being  left  exposed  to  the 
light  and  air.  When  the  bud  has  taken,  the  old  wood  is  cut  off  above 
it  in  the  fall.  Another  mode,  for  which  the  spring  is  the  proper  sea- 
son, is  often  practised  with  good  success.  Having  ready  the  shoots, 
the  upper  and  lower  end,  from  which  buds  are  wanted,  the  eye,  with 
an  inch  of  wood  on,  is  cut  off  from  the  cane,  together  with  half  of  the 
wood  back  of  the  eye.  Then  a  similar  cut  is  made  in  the  stock  where 
the  eye  is  to  be  inserted,  so  that  it  shall  fit  exactly.  The  eye  being 
set  in,  the  whole  is  waxed  and  tied  up  as  before. 

Budding  grape-vines  is  based  on  the  same  principle  as  budding  fruit 
trees,  roses,  &c.  By  budding,  different  varieties  may  be  produced  on 
one  vine,  and,  if  chosen  with  regard  to  their  maturity,  blossoming  at 
the  same  time,  accidental  hybrids  may  be  obtained. 

Improving  hy  cross-hreeding . — This  method  requires  much  time  and 
attention,  and  cannot  be  much  depended  on,  unless  the  plants  are  grown 
in  a  green-house  or  grapery,  which  is  seldom  to  be  found  in  connection 
with  a  vineyard.  Such  experiments  are  rather  out  of  question  with 
the  practical  grape-grower,  as  he  is  generally  fully  occupied  with  the 
work  of  the  vineyard.  But  it  is  very  important  that  those  who  have 
more  leisure  and  proper  skill  should  employ  themselves  in  this  highly 
interesting  business.  Or,  still  better,  that  it  should  be  executed  at 
governmental  or  State  expense  in  experimental  gardens  and  vineyards. 
It  is  highly  appreciated,  that  the  United  States  Patent  Office  has 
already  commenced  to  carry  out  such  a  plan,  raising  and  creating  new 
varieties  of  grape-vines  for  distribution  through  the  whole  land,  which 
will  promote  and  encourage  grape  culture.  But  this  is  only  a  begin- 
ning. In  addition  to  the  propagating  houses,  a  vineyard  is  wanted, 
where  these  new  varieties  can  be  tested  and  their  character  observed, 
in  order  to  decide  what  soil  and  climate  suit  them  best. 

To  obtain  an  improvement  on  a  new  variety,  two  well-known  vines 
are  selected ;  when  they  blossom,  the  anthers  must  be  cut  out,  with 
scissors,  from  the  blossom  of  the  vine  to  be  improved  and  impregnated  ;* 
and  as  soon  as  the  blossom  is  expanded  on  the  other  from  which  a  bet- 
ter variety  is  intended,  the  pollen  is  collected  with  a  fine  brush  from  a 
well-blown  flower,  and  applied  upon  the  point  of  the  pistil  on  the  other 
vine.  The  seed  of  such  a  cross-breed  will  produce  plants  of  a  new 
variety. 


78  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


CULTURE    OF    TEE    GRAPE-VINE    IN    THE   VINEYARD. 

Proper  soil  and  position. — The  best  and  most  natural  soil  for  the 
grape-vine  is  a  dry  porous  lime-stone;  the  next  best,  a  deep,  loose, 
stony,  loamy  soil,  even  sandy,  if  it  contain  some  loam  and  marl,  and 
if  a  good  subsoil  be  practicable.  The  soils  upon  rocks  arQ  favorable 
to  the  growth  of  tVxe  vine,  as  the  roots  find  in  the  clefts  the  very 
essence  of  life — a  loamy  substance,  containing  phosphates.  The  less 
vegetable  substances  a  soil  contains,  the  better  is  it  for  the  grape-vine. 

In  regard  to  position,  a  high,  free,  vi'-ell-sheltered  one,  on  the  south- 
east slope  of  a  hill,  is  the  best;  but  level  or  rolling  land  may  be  made 
available  by  planting  groups  of  pine  trees  on  the  northern  part,  to 
break  the  cold,  strong  v/inds.  A  vineyard,  in  all  cases,  should  be  open 
to  the  south  and  east,  admit  a  free  circulation  of  air,  and  not  be  under 
the  influence  of  miasmas,  dampness,  and  stagnating  waters,,  or  exposed 
to  cold  north  winds. 

Preparation  of  the  soil. — As  there  are  many  instances  where  soil  of 
the  above  description,  in  a  naturally  good  condition,  cannot  be  found,  it 
must  be  meliorated,  if  position  and  other  circumstances  will  justify 
such  expense. 

Strong,  heavy  soils  require  loosening,  so  that  the  atmosphere  may 
have  free  action  upon  them,  and  therefore  must  be  trenched.  This  is 
done  in  the  following  manner:  on  the  lowest  part  of  the  land  a  line  is 
drawn  across^  and  six  feet  wide  marked  off;  the  top-soil,  according  to 
its  richness,  is  taken  up,  perhaps  from  four  to  eight  inches  deep,  and 
placed  somewhere  near,  but  out  of  the  way ;  then  a  three-feet  wide, 
and  three  to  three  and  a  half  feet  deep,  trench  is  opened,  and  the  earth 
thrown  forward.  This  is  the  beginning.  Now  another  three-feet  wide 
strip  is  cut  out,  and  the  earth  thrown  into  the  open  trench ;  three  feet 
wide  are  marked  for  the  next  trench,  and  the  top-soil  from  that  strip 
thrown  upon  the  first  trench,  which  is  filled  up  level  with  the  surface ; 
coming  up  at  last  with  this  work  to  the  other  end,  there  will  be  one 
trench  and  six  feet  wide  surface  left  to  be  filled  up  and  covered  with 
the  earth  taken  out  of  the  first  trench  and  the  top-soil  from  the  first 
six  feet  wide^  which  were  thrown  forward  out  of  the  way.  This  has 
to  be  carted  up,  first  the  subsoil  for  filling  the  trench,  and  next  the 
top-soil  to  level  with.  On  such  lands  the  tojD-soil  should  never  be 
thrown  into  the  trench  and  covered  with  the  raw  subsoil,  as  the  young 
plants  have  to  depend  on  it  for  their  first  nourishment,  till  the  subsoil 
has  changed  its  texture,  by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  and  manure, 
to  a  mellow,  productive  condition. 

If  the  resources  of  a  forest  are  near,  where  leaves,  pine  straw,  rotten 
mast  of  branches,  &c.,  can  be  obtained,  all  these  should  be  collected, 
as  the  rough  material  to  be  thrown  in  the  bottom  of  the  trenches,  and 
leaves,  &c.,  mixed  in  layers  with  the  subsoil.  The  fertilizing  capaci- 
ties of  such  substances  are  not  of  much  account,  but  the  advantage  thus 
derived  keeping  the  soil  loose,  to  admit  light  and  the  action  of  the  at- 
mosphere, is  all  important.  Whatever  may  serve  that  purpose,  as 
stones,  half-rotten  stumps,  &c.,  found  on  the  land,  and  necessary  to  be 
cleared  off,  may  be  thrown  in  the  bottom  of  the  trenches.     If  sand,  the 


AMERICAN    GRAPES.  79 

coarser  the  better,  be  convenient,  it  would  be  well  to  put  it  a  couple 
of  inches  high  on  the  top  of  such  subsoil,  as  it  will  add  greatly  to  its 
improvement. 

Should  the  land  require  draining,  this  must  be  done  before  trench- 
ing; horse-shoe  tiles,  of  four-inch  diameter,  will  answer,  but  they 
should  be  laid  at  least  four  feet  deep,  with  sufficient  fail. 

On  a  less  tenacious  soil,  with  a  gravelly,  loose  subsoil,  trenching 
may  be  performed  by  horses  and  plows,  which  considerably  lessens  the 
expense.  A  double  Michigan  plow  jind  one  of  the  largest  subsoil  plows 
would  be  required,  and  two  double  teams  for  each ;  the  double  plow 
will  throw  up  a  furrow  about  twenty  inches  deep,  while  the  subsoil  plow 
following  it  will  loosen  and  deepen  the  soil  in  that  furrow  from  twelve 
to  fifteen  inches  more.  If  only  two  teams  are  at  disposal,  they  must 
be  changed  from  one  plow  to  the  other,  going  round  first  with  the 
double  ploWj  and  following  in  the  same  furrow  with  the  subsoil  plow. 
By  this  mode  of  trenching,  the  good  surface  soil  will  inevitably  be 
buried  by  the  subsoil,  and  therefore  it  must  be  meliorated  with  com- 
post. Naturally  good  soils  seldom  need  trenching ;  all  that  is  neces- 
sary is  to  remove  all  obstacles  from  the  surface,  spade  or  dig  the  ground 
over  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches,  and  jDlant  the  vines. 

Manuring,  and  the  test  manure  for  the  grape-vine. — The  mineral  ma- 
nures, in  consequence  of  their  ingredients,  have  the  most  effect  on  the 
quality  of  fruit,  and  keep  the  soil  in  a  porous,  mellow,  and  productive 
condition ;  v/hile  animal  and  vegetable  manures  encourage  the  forma- 
tion of  wood  too  fast,  and  make  the  vine  tender  and  subject  to  disease. 
Never  should  fresh  animal  manure  be  brought  into  the  vineyard,  but 
always  be  first  composted  with  sod,  or  good  surface-soil  and  charcoal 
dust,  well  rotten  ;  and  even  then  only  used  when  young  tender  plants 
absolutely  need  support.  On  first-class  land  no  manure  is  required, 
except  a  little  well-prepared  old  and  mild  compost,  with  which  to 
start  the  young  plants,  and  to  encourage  their  formation  of  roots.  But 
heavy  soils,  after  they  have  been  trenched,  should  be  improved  by 
sowing  leguminous  plants  on  them  before  planting  the  grape  vine,  and 
receive  a  good  dressing  of  lime.  Peas,  vetches,  or  buckwheat,  would 
probably  answer  best ;  they  should  be  sown  pretty  thick,  and  early  in 
the  spring  ;  when  they  have  grown  to  about  six  inches,  it  is  time  to* 
apply  the  lime ;  twenty  bushels  per  acre  will  be  the  least  quantity,  but 
more  may  be  put  on,  if  convenient.  The  lime  should  be  strewn,  in  a 
well-powdered  state,  early  in  the  morning,  when  the  dew  is  on  the 
plants.  After  the  crop  has  blossomed,  it  is  plowed  under  about  four 
or  six  inches  deep,  and  a  crop  of  turnip  may  be  raised  on  it  the  same 
year,  partly  paying  the  expense.  By  such  treatment,  and  the  appli- 
cation of  lime,  the  soil  becomes  mild  and  admirably  adapted  to  support 
the  grape-vine ;  it  can  be  kept  in  a  highly  productive  condition  by 
alternate  application  of  green  manuring  and  lime,  and  once  in  about 
five  years  of  eight  hundred  to  one  thousand  pounds  of  bone  dust,  all 
of  which  must  be  plowed  under  and  mixed  well  with  the  soil. 

Sandy  soil  must  be  treated  in  the  same  way,  marl  and  leached  ashes 
being  added,  to  make  it  more  consistent.  Ashes  and  lime  should  never 
be  applied  with  bone  dust,  as  they  will  weaken  its  fertilizing  capaci- 
ties by  driving  out  the  ammonia.     The  ashes  and  lime,  while  they 


80  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

furnish  the  plants  with  oxygen,  act  at  the  same  time,  through  their 
salinous  suhstances  dissolving  and  cooling  upon  the  soil,  to  keep  it 
moist ;  the  bone  dust,  again,  contains  the  most  nourishing  elements, 
which,  in  addition  to  the  other  suhstances,  promote  the  prosperity  of 
the  grape-vine.  When  the  planting  of  a  vineyard  has  been  concluded, 
resources  should  he  explored  whence  proper  material  may  he  obtained 
for  manure.  The  first  step  is  to  begin  with  a  compost  heap,  which 
should  be  of  such  dimensions  as  to  correspond  with  the  size  of  the  land 
to  be  prepared  for  a  vineyard.  A  large  quantity  of  charcoal  dust,  the 
unmarketable  refuse,  to  be  had,  in  most  cases,  for  nothing,  if  carted 
by  one's  own  team,  with  leaves,  pine  straw,  and  such  stuff,  which  can 
be  scraped  off  in  the  forest,  muck,  &c.,  should  be  provided  ;  anything 
raked  and  swept  in  the  yards,  barns,  and  stables,  will  be  acceptable  ; 
nor  should  be  forgotten  a  large  cistern  to  gather  all  the  liquid  manure 
from  the  animals.  When  all  these  materials  are  at  hand,  the  con- 
struction of  a  compost  heap  may  be  commenced  by  a  layer  of  sod, 
muck,  or  good  soil,  a  foot  high  ;  on  this,  stable  manure  a  foot  high  ; 
this  again  covered  with  charcoal  dust  tvfo  inches  high  ;  now  again  six 
inches  of  good  soil,  sods  are  best ;  on  this,  manure,  leaves,  &c.,  and 
again  charcoal  dust  and  sods,  or  muck,  manure,  or  leaves,  &c. ;  char- 
coal dust  continued  till  the  heap  gets  six  or  eight  feet  high,  when  a  new 
addition  has  to  be  begun.  The  heap  should  be  kept  level  and  not  too 
small  on  the  top,  so  that  the  air  and  rain  may  equally  penetrate  it. 

In  two  or  three  months  this  heap  may  be  worked  over,  by  which  its 
contents  will  become  well  mixed  and  fit  for  use.  But  it  will  improve 
by  age.  It  is  often  surprising  how  much  material  can  be  collected  for 
this  purpose,  and  how  clean  and  neat  the  while  a  farm-yard  appears  ! 
In  the  same  proportion  that  the  land  is  made  productive,  so  the  barns 
and  cellar  will  expand  and  fill  up  with  treasures. 

Planting  the  grape-vine. — Before  beginning  to  set  out  the  j^lants,  the 
land  should  be  laid  off  in  squares,  according  to  its  size,  perhaps  from 
one  to  two  or  more  acres,  with  convenient  roads  between  for  the  pas- 
sage of  teams  and  carts.  On  side-hills,  impassable  for  teams,  these 
avenues  may  be  narrower.  Next  to  be  determined  is  whether  the 
vines  shall  be  trained  on  trellises  or  stakes.  This  will  indicate  hov^ 
much  room  they  require.  In  a  northern  climate,  trellis  culture  is 
preferable,  while  in  the  south  stake  and  bow  training  are  more  advan- 
tageous. The  reason  for  the  northern  mode  of  training,  is  to  keep  the 
vines  as  high  as  possible  from  the  ground,  as  its  damj)ness  causes  rot 
and  mold  on  the  lov/er  fruit.  But  in  a  hot  climate,  it  is  desirable  to 
have  the  ground  shaded  to  retain  the  moisture.  Therefore,  in  this 
case,  the  vines  should  be  trained  low  and. on  stakes,  and  the  S23ur  and 
bow  system  practised.  In  regard  to  the  space  allowed  them,  six  by 
eight  feet  will  be  about  the  proper  distance  for  trellis  culture,  and  four 
by  four  for  stake  and  bow  training.  In  the  first  instance,  nine  hun- 
dred and  seven  plants  to  the  acre  will  be  required,  and  in  the  second, 
two  thousand  seven  hundred  and  twenty-two.  The  rows  should  run 
from  east  to  west,  to  receive  the  first  and  last  rays  of  the  sun,  at  morn- 
ing and  evening,  on  as  large  a  surface  of  the  ground  as  possible.  After 
the  course  of  the  rows  has  been  decided,  the  distances  for  the  plants  in 
the  rows  are  measured,  and  a  stick  inserted  where  the  vine  is  to  be 


AMERICAN   GRAPES.  81 

l^lanted  ;  then  the  holes  are  made,  which  should  he  a  foot  deep  and 
three  feet  wide.  A  shovelful  of  good  mild  compost  is  put  into  each 
hole,  and  well  mixed  with  the  soil ;  heing  ready  for  planting,  the  dif- 
ferent varieties  are  counted  over,  and  the  places  for  each  selected. 
Every  variety  has  its  own  merits. 

To  make  a  good  wine,  free  from  that  peculiar  taste  which  wine  has 
when  made  from  one  variety,  several  kinds  must  be  planted,  selected 
with  regard  to  their  qualities  ;  one  to  furnish  hulk,  another  to  give 
body  and  consistence  ;  one  to  be  rich  in  sugar  and  vinous  acids,  an- 
other to  furnish  flavor,  another  aroma,  another  color,  and  still  another 
to  unite  all  these  qualities,  &c.  The  nearest  proportion  of  one  to  the 
other  of  the  varieties  here  named,  or  rather  their  requirements  to 
make  100,  would  be :   60,  20,  3,  3,  9,  5. 

Of  rooted  plants  layers  are  the  best,  they  having  completed  the 
formation  of  roots,  and  being  able  to  bear  the  second  year  after  trans- 
planting ;  sickly,  tender,  and  poor-rooted  vines  can  be  rejected,  as 
there  is  a  chance  to  examine  them.  It  requires  two  persons  for  plant- 
ing, one  to  take  the  plant  and  spread  out  the  roots  evenly  in  the  hole, 
while  the  other  brings  in  the  soil,  well  pulverized,  shovel  by  shovel, 
and  keeps  gently  moving  the  plant  up  and  down,  in  order  that  all  the 
fibres  may  come  in  contact  vfith  the  earth,  and  no  cavities  be  left 
among  them.  After  the  hole  is  filled,  the  earth  is  pressed  down 
gently  with  the  foot,  and  thus  is  the  work  finished. 

When  no  rooted  plants  are  at  disposal,  and  resort  must  be  made  to 
cuttings,  they  should  be  five  eyes  long ;  the  instrument  described  on 
a  previous  page  will  be  the  most  convenient  to  plant  them  with.  Of-* 
course,  no  holes  need  be  dug,  but  the  places  will  have  to  be  marked  by 
a  stick.  They  are  planted  by  couples,  that  is,  two  at  a  place,  and 
pushed  in,  slanting,  to  the  last  and  uppermost  eye,  leaving  one  eye 
only  above  the  surface.  In  the  north,  the  spring  is  the  best  time  for 
planting  ;  while  in  the  south,  the  fall  is  best  for  rooted  plants,  and 
spring  for  cuttings.  Kooted  plants  have  to  be  cut  back  to  two  eyes, 
the  young  shoots  of  either  are  left  without  tying  the  ensuing  season, 
as  they  will  get  a  stronger  body  by  being  left  loose,  and  in  a  bending 
position. 

In  northern  countries,  especially  in  the  New  England  States,  there 
is,  at  present,  but  little  choice  among  varieties  ;  the  Diana,  Delaware, 
Isabella,  Catawba,  &c.,  will  not  ripen  there  ;  with  a  few  exceptions, 
in  very  favored  localities  at  least,  their  maturity  cannot  be  depended 
on  in  general  open-vineyard  culture.  But  the  Concord,  Hartford  Pro- 
lific, and  several  of  those  investigated  and  noted  contiguous  varieties, 
can  be  relied  on,  such  as  Case's  Crystal,  the  Bartlett,  Dracut,  Amber, 
&c.  Together,  if  cultivated  well,  they  will  produce  a  pretty  fair  wine. 
In  milder  climates  there  is  less  difficulty  in  choosing  the  proper  vari- 
eties for  a  good  wine  ;  besides  of  several  highly  improved  native 
grapes,  German  and  Hungarian  varieties  m.ay  be  cultivated  with  suc- 
cess, if  £^ttention  be  paid  to  their  habits  and  qualities.  In  all  cases 
their  time  of  maturity  should  be  alike,  that  they  may  be  gathered 
simultaneously. 

Pruning  and  training  the  grape-vine. — This  is  one  of  the  most  essen- 
tial points  in  grape  culture,  as  development  and  productiveness  arc 
6 A 


82  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

directly  affected  by  it.  The  proper  knowledge  can  only  be  acquired 
by  practice  and  experience.  It  would  be  prudent  for  an  inexperienced 
person  to  engage  a  practical  vine-dresser  to  j)rune  bis  young  vineyard 
once  or  twice,  and  accompany  liim  and  take  lessons,  rather  than  to  ex- 
periment himself  according  to  the  wild,  unsound  theories  prescribed 
by  professional  book-makers.  It  is  easy  to  give  rules  in  general  reli- 
able, but  there  are  often  circumstances  in  which  none  of  them  can  be 
ap]3lied,  when  the  theorist  is  no  longer  able  to  decide  his  course.  In- 
deed, it  requires  practical  knowledge  to  prune  and  train  a  grape-vino 
well.  Much  has  been  done,  in  those  countries  of  Europe  where  the 
grape-vine  is  cultivated,  for  the  education  of  practical  vine-dressers, 
either  by  their  respective  governments  or  by  agricultural  societies, 
schools  having  been  established  especially  to  promote  that  branch  of 
horticulture. 

The  best  time  to  prune  the  grape-vine  is  late  in  the  fall,  or,  when 
the  weather  permits,  during  winter,  as  the  plant  is  then  in  a  dormant 
state.  The  young  rooted  vines,  or  layers  two  years  old,  which  have 
been  cut  back  to  two  eyes  by  transplanting,  will  have  made  two  shoots 
during  their  summer's  growth;  these  are  pruned  back,  if  trained  on 
trellises,  to  six  eyes  each;  if  on  stakes,  one  to  six  eyes;  the  short  end, 
called  the  spur,  to  furnish  bearing  wood  the  next  year,  and  the  long 
end,  or  bow,  to  bear  fruit.  On  cuttings,  the  single  shoot  which  they 
produce  the  first  season  is  pruned  back  to  two  eyes,  and  so  all  young 
and  tender-rooted  vines.  During  the  ensuing  summer  nothing  more 
is  to  be  done  than  occasionally  to  tie  up  the  young,  growing  shoots, 
and  keep  the  weeds  down  l3y  plowing  or  hoeing.  Fruit-bearing 
branches  must  be  nibbed  back  two  leaves  above  the  bunches.  A  crop 
of  turnips,  carrots,  or  cabbage  may  be  raised  that  season,  which  will 
facilitate  the  growth  of  the  young  grape-vine. 

The  second  year,  on  the  strongest  vines — now  four  years  old — both 
ends  are  lengthened  by  six  eyes  from  the  young  wood,  and  the  rest  cut 
off;  from  the  side  shoots  all  new  wood  is  removed,  except  one  spur  of 
two  eyes  on  each  shank,  for  making  new  wood ;  the  following  spring, 
these  two  shanks  are  tied  horizontally  on  the  first  wire  or  lath  of  the 
trellis.  During  their  summer's  growth,  all  the  shoots  on  the  bearing 
canes  are  nibbed  back  to  the  second  leaf  above  the  fruit,  as  soon  as  the 
fruit  has  well  set,  and  water-shoots  broken  off  as  soon  as  they  apjDcar. 
The  shoots  from  the  lowest  buds  on  the  spurs,  after  they  have  made 
two  feet  growth,  are  pinched  in  two,  and  the  other  shoot  is  allowed  to 
grow ;  all  the  young  shoots  must  be  tied  up  several  times  through  the 
season.  The  third  ^''ear,  the  longest  canes  from  the  spurs  are  trained 
up  to  the  third  wire,  or  lath^  or  both,  of  the  trellis,  and  cut  according 
to  the  length  required,  to  permit  them  to  be  tied  on  one  foot  long, 
horizontally.  Every  second  bud  on  the  vertical  part  of  these  canes  is 
broken  out,  the  rest  left  for  fruit  spurs ;  and  the  short  shoots  on  the 
spur  are  pruned  back  to  two  eyes,  to  bear.  After  this,  the  vine  must 
b»  kept  in  such  trim  as  to  produce  alternate  fruit  and  bearing  wood. 
Those  canes  which  had  fruit  are  pruned  back  to  one  eye,  to  make  bear- 
ing wood  for  the  next  year,  and  alternate  canes  to  two  eyes,  to  bear 
the  present.  It  requires  skill  and  experience  to  manage  vines  on  trel- 
lises, in  order  to  get  large  crops  without  weakening  the  plant. 


AMERICAN   GRAPES.  83 

There  are  many  different  modes  of  training  vines  on  stakes,  accoid- 
ing  to  the  soil,  climate,  and  skill.  They  may  be  trained  without 
stakes,  on  one  or  more,  in  spiral  or  pyramidal  form,  &c.;  but  the 
most  common  and  simple  manner  is  the  spur  and  bow  system.  The 
second  year  they  are  cut  back  to  two  buds,  of  which  two  canes  are 
obtained.  The  third  year,  one  of  these  is  cut  back  to  a  spur  of  two 
eyes,  the  other  to  a  bow  of  six  eyes ;  the  first  to  form  wood  for  the  next 
year,  and  the  other  to  bear  fruit.  The  fourth  year,  the  bearing  cane, 
or  bow,  is  cut  back  to  two  eyes ;  the  canes  on  the  spur  one,  which  is 
the  lowest,  to  two ;  and  the  other  to  six  or  eight  eyes.  The  fifth  year, 
and  thereafter,  there  will  be  two  shanks,  each  with  a  spur  and  bow, 
changing  alternately  to  spurs  and  bows.  The  length  of  the  bow  must 
correspond  with  the  age,  strength,  and  condition  of  the  vine.  All  the 
wood  on  the  young  bearing  shoots  must  be  pinched  ofi",  after  it  has 
grown  two  leaves  above  the  fruit.  Water-shoots,  and  those  which  are 
not  wanted  for  either  spurs  or  bows,  are  taken  off"  by  summer  pruning. 
In  bending  and  management  of  the  bow  lies  the  art  to  raise  large,  fine 
clusters  of  superior  qualities,  without  straining  the  bearing  capacities 
of  the  vine.  Bows  and  fruit  spurs  must  always  be  bent,  in  order  to 
concentrate  the  sap  in  the  fruit  buds  and  check  the  formation  of  wood. 
For  this  reason,  also,  they  must  be  cut  loose  from  trellises  or  stakes 
in  the  fall,  and,  after  pruning,  left  hanging  down  on  the  ground  during 
winter.  In  the  spring,  after  the  vines  and  bows  have  been  tied  up, 
and  the  ground  is  dry  and  settled,  all  the  dew-roots,  or  small  fibres 
near  the  surface,  are  cut  off;  a  heavy-pronged  hoe  is  used  for  the  pur- 
pose, to  remove  the  ground  about  six  inches  deep  from  the  vine,  to 
facilitate  this  work;  the  soil  is  put  back  again  afterward. 

The  object  of  this  operation  is  to  induce  the  vine  to  push  its  roots 
deep  in  the  ground,  for  better  nourishment,  and  to  check  its  tendency 
to  superabundant  wood.  By  this  mode  of  root  pruning,  it  is  easy  to 
keep  the  vine  in  proper  bounds,  to  render  suckers  and  water-shoots 
less  prolific,  and  greatly  to  improve  its  fruit.  Stakes  will  last  twice 
the  time  if  they  are  taken  up  every  fall,  and  put  under  cover  during 
winter,  or,  at  least,  piled  up,  bottom  point  uppermost.  About  a  fort- 
night after  root  pruning,  the  soil  needs  stirring;  if  this  can  be  done 
with  horse  and  plow,  it  will  be  an  easy  task,  otherwise  it  must  be 
spaded  or  hoed ;  the  garden  fork  will  be  the  best  instrument.  This  is 
a  good  time,  also",  to  manure  with  lime,  ashes,  or  bone-dust,  and  mix 
them  with  the  ground. 

After  the  second  summer  pruning — that  is,  when  the  fruit  is  nearly 
full  grown — another  plowing  or  digging  of  the  ground  is  necessary,  in 
order  to  keep  the  weeds  down  and  the  soil  open  and  free  to  the  action 
of  the  atmosphere.  When  the  fruit  begins  to  color  and  ripen,  it  is  of 
great  importance  for  its  perfection,  as  well  as  to  strengthen  and  mature 
the  new  wood,  to  top  the  young  shoots  which  are  left  to  grow  as  bear- 
ing wood  for  the  next  year,  and  thus  to  check  their  growth.  During 
the  summer,  indications  of  disease  often  appear  on  the  vines,  which 
may  occur  from  different  causes ;  they  are  perceptible  in  the  color  of 
the  leaves  when  they  assume  a  dull,  pale,  yellow  color,  commonly 
after  several  rainy  days,  or  sudden  changes  of  the  weather  from  very 
hot  to  cold,  chilly,  and  cloudy  days.     When  the  leaves  having  this 


84  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

appearance  begin  to  shrivel  up,  insects  will  be  found  tlie  cause — the 
aphis — which  will  generally  appear  after  very  hot  days  and  thunder- 
storms, the  sun  coming  down  hot  on  them,  while  dripping  with  water, 
and  no  motion  of  the  air.  In  both  cases  their  organism  and  functions 
are  irritated  and  made  sick.  The  best  preventive  is  a  high,  free,  and 
open  position ;  the  cure,  the  application  of  plaster  or  sulphur.  There- 
fore, plaster  should  always  be  kept  in  readiness.  In  either  case,  a  good 
dusting  of  it  all  over  the  vines  early  in  the  morning  while  the  dew  is 
on,  and  this  several  times  repeated,  will  excite  the  action  of  the  leaf 
again  and  destroy  the  insects.  Sulphur,  as  it  is  more  expensive, 
may  be  reserved  for  other  and  worse  diseases — the  rot  or  mold  on  the 
fruit.  If  this  makes  its  appearance,  a  good  dusting  of  ^t  will  stop  the 
disease.  But,  again,  a  high,  free,  open  position,  and  a  gravelly, 
porous  soil,  are  the  best  preventions. 

Protection  of  tender  plants  during  the  winter.' — With  very  little 
trouble,  tender  plants  may  be  protected  from  the  destruction  of  a 
severely  cold  winter,  and  foreign  varieties  cultivated  with  success,  even 
in  a  northern  climate.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  lay  the  vines  flat  on 
the  ground  late  in  the  fall.  With  the  garden  fork  the  soil  is  taken 
up  about  nine  inches  deep  on  one  side  of  the  vine,  which  will  prevent 
it  from  breaking,  and  brings  the  vine  so  much  better  down  and  even 
on  the  ground  ;  after  this  object  is  gained,  the  earth  is  replaced  and  a 
few  forks  full  added;  the  canes  are  taken  together,  laid  down,  and 
covered  at  some  convenient  place  with  earth  or  stones  to  keep  them  in 
such  a  position.  This  simple  operation  will  preserve  them  in  a  sound, 
healthy  condition,  and  increase  their  fruitfulness.  In  the  northern  part 
of  Germany,  where  corn  cannot  be  grown  on  account  of  the  coolness  of 
the  summer,  the  highest  cultivated  varieties  of  grape-vines  are  pro- 
duced with  good  success;  the  winters  there  are  as  cold  as  in  the 
northern  parts  of  our  country^  and  would  destroy  the  plants  as  well  as 
here  if  they  were  not  thus  protected.  As  a  proof  that  foreign  grape- 
vines can  be  cultivated  in  this  country,  even  as  far  north  as  Boston,  it 
may  be  stated  that  Mr.  Harding,  of  that  city,  has  cultivated  and  fruited 
the  "  Sweet- Water"  in  open  ground  for  many  years  with  great  success ; 
and,  in  fact,  this  vine  looks  as  healthy  and  thrifty,  and  bears  as  re- 
gular and  large  crops  as  could  be  expected  from  the  best  treatment 
under  glass.  So  has  Mr.  Syiferman,  in  Maiden,  north  of  Boston, 
several  highly  improved  varieties  from  the  Khine  growing  in  the  open 
land  of  his  garden ;  such  as  the  Trollinger,  Grutedel,  Elbing,  Traminer , 
and  white  and  black  Burgundy,  and  has  obtained  from  the  first  kind, 
for  five  years,  a  regular  and  full  crop  annually.  Of  course,  these 
would  be  destroyed  if  left  unprotected,  or,  at  least,  so  much  injured  as 
to  render  them  subject  to  diseases  and  insects.  Protection  through  the 
winter  and  good  culture  have  proved  that  foreign  grapes  can  be  success- 
fully cultivated  in  our  country.  Nothing  pays  better  than  a  little 
extra  care  and  good  management  of  the  vine. 

German,  French,  and  Hungarian  methods  compared  to  ours,  with 
regard  to  their  adoption. — Although  these  methods  are  based  on  one 
and  the  same  fundamental  principle,  there  are  some  considerable  varia- 
tions in  the  culture  and  training  of  the  vine,  according  to  old  habits, 
soil,  and  climate.     With  the  introduction  of  grape  culture  into  this 


AMERICAN    GRAPES.  85 

country  by  the  G-ermans,  their  system  has  likewise  been  adopted.  On 
the  Ohio,  Missouri,  and  Hudson  rivers,  south,  east,  and  west,  where- 
ever  the  vine  ornaments  the  land,  it  has  been  planted,  with  very  few 
exceptions,  by  G-ermans;  they  have  succeeded  well  by  their  modes  of 
culture ;  modern  improvements  in  the  propagation  and  culture  have 
been  adopted,  step  by  step ;  so  that  if  we  bestow  the  same  care  on  it  as 
in  the  other  country,  there  will  not  be  much  difference  from  the  general 
German  system. 

The  prevailing  French  mode  is,  in  general,  either  the  trellis,  or  bow 
and  spur  system,  practised,  perhaps,  a  little  more  artfully  and  exactly 
to  the  point.  But  the  Hungarians  have  a  different  way  of  pruning 
and  training  ;  they  do  not  allow  wood  to  grow  for  shanks  and  branch 
canes,  but  cut  all  off,  low  on  the  ground,  every  year  ;  the  stock  forms 
a  head,  from  which  one  or  two  shoots  are  allowed  to  grow  and  bear  ; 
in  the  fall  they  are  cut  off,  and  the  stock  covered  with  coarse  manure, 
or  litter.  One  other  mode  is,  to  raise  alternate  shoots,  one  to  bear, 
the  other  to  form  wood  for  next  year  ;  the  bearing  canes  are  bent 
down,  and  a  few  eyes  covered  with  earth,  to  strike  roots  near  the  top, 
where  three  or  four  are  left  to  form  a  new  plant,  and  bear  at  the  same 
time.  Canes  thus  treated  bear  very  heavy  crops,  as  they  have  two 
sets  of  roots  for  their  support.  I  am  not  aware  whether  this  mode  has 
yet  been  introduced  in  our  country,  but  it  would  be  well  to  try  it. 
The  vines  must  be  trained  to  it  while  young  ;  the  first  grow^th  will 
have  to  be  pruned  back  to  one  eye  to  form  the  stock,  and  afterwards, 
every  fall,  back  to  the  socket  of  this  bud  ;  all  other  shoots,  except  one 
or  two,  are  broken  out. 


THE    STATE    OF    THE  GRAPE — WHEN  AND  HOW   IT  SHOULD  BE  GATH- 
ERED,   AND    APPARATUS   FOR   WINE-MAKING. 

Signs  ivhen  the  grape  is  ripe,  and  may  be  gathered. — There  are  cer- 
tain signs  when  the  fruit  has  attained  its  perfection  :  the  green  stem 
of  the  cluster  changes  to  a  brown,  woody  color  ;  the  bunches  begin  to 
hang  down  heavily  on  the  canes,  the  berries  getting  soft;  a  thin  and 
transparent  skin  ;  the  juice  vinous,  agreeable,  sweet,  thick,  and  adhe- 
sive ;  the  seeds  free  of  the  pulp,  and  dry. 

Disadvantage  tuhen  the  fruit  is  unri^oe,  or  dead-ripe. — In  the  first 
case,  the  formation  of  sugar  is  not  developed,  hence  the  predominance 
of  acids  in  the  wine,  and  its  inferiority.  In  the  second  case,  the  ne- 
cessary vinous  acids  are  last  to  neutralize,  and  give  character  to  a 
syrup-like  wine,  not  to  take  in  account  the  great  loss  in  quantity. 

Gathering ,  sorting,  and  transporting  the  fruit  to  the  press. — When  it 
is  determined  to  gather  the  vintage,  sufiicient  help  should  be  provided 
in  order  that  enough  may  be  collected  every  day  to  fill  a  large  fer- 
menting vat  in  the  evening  or  night ;  sharp  pruning  knives  or  scissors 
should  be  used,  to  prevent  jerking  and  dropping  the  berries.  When 
a  bunch  is  cut  off  it  has  to  be  examined,  and  all  dry,  green,  and  rotten 
berries  picked  out  and  thrown  away,  while  unripe  and  other  imper- 


86  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

feet  berries  or  biinclies  should  either  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the 
vines,  or  sorted  out  and  gathered  by  themselves.  The  bunches  should 
be  handled  carefully,  so  as  not  to  bruise  them.  Clean  wooden  pails  are 
best  to  use,  each  hand  being  provided  with  one  ;  and  for  transporting 
the  grapes  to  the  mill  or  press,  a  wooden  tub,  constructed  in  a  cylin- 
der form,  but  flat  on  two  sides  and  a  little  wider  on  the  top,  with 
straps,  so  it  can  be  carried  on  the  back,  and  holding  from  two  to  three 
bushels,  will  be  found  very  serviceable  ;  or,  if  the  distance  to  the  press 
is  considerable,  a  wagon  with  large  tubs  on  it  will  be  required,  the 
tubs  to  have  wooden  covers.  Clear,  dry  weather  must  be  chosen  for 
gathering  the  grapes,  and  the  operations  must  not  be  begun  in  the 
morning  till  they  are  perfectly  dry. 

The  quality  of  the  wine  will  be  much  improved  if  the  grapes  are 
visited  by  a  slight  frost  before  they  are  cut  off ;  particular  pains  must 
be  taken  to  have  everything  used  in  gathering  clean  to  the  utmost ; 
and  no  lunching  or  eating  should  be  allowed  near  the  vessels  where 
the  grapes  are  kept,  as  the  smallest  quantity  of  bread  or  any  eatable 
coming  in  contact  with  the  grapes  or  juice  will  produce  disastrous 
effect  on  the  wine. 

The  luine-press  and  its  apioaratus. — In  the  vineyard  culture,  a  good 
wine-press  is  most  important.  It  is  composed  of  a  platform,  frame, 
and  screws.  The  best  seasoned  white-oak  should  be  used ;  the  platform 
to  be  of  four  inches  thickness,  the  frame  of  sufficient  strength,  and  the 
screws  either  of  wood  or  iron,  but  strong  enough  to  answer  the  pur- 
pose. A  large  press  with  two  screws  is  always  preferable  to  a  small 
one,  as  it  performs  the  work  more  thoroughly,  and  a  greater  part  or 
the  whole  of  the  vintage  can  be  pressed  at  once,  which  is  a  considera- 
tion in  making  wine  according  to  the  principle  that  the  quicker  the 
operation  of  gathering,  pressing,  and  filling  into  the  casks,  the  better 
its  quality.  The  press  should  be  near,  or  above  the  cellar,  with  all  its 
apparatus,  fermenting  vats,  &c.,  inclosed  in  a  building  erected  chiefly 
for  that  purpose ;  and  nothing  else  should  be  kept  in  the  press-house. 
It  should  be  substantially  built,  have  good  ventilation,  and  be  cajDable 
of  maintaining  an  even  temperature,  as  this  is  very  important  while 
the  must  is  in  its  fermenting  process.  Next  to  the  press,  an  apparatus 
is  required  to  mash  the  berries.  This  may  consist  either  of  a  grape- 
mill,  with  two  iron  rollers  or  cylinders,  a  deep,  strong-built  tub,  in 
which  they  are  crushed  by  a  beater,  or  a  j)air  of  boots  with  double 
soles  and  without  heels,  long  tops,  and  unblackened,  to  tread  the  ber- 
ries on  the  press,  or  in  a  box  with  holes  in  the  bottom  to  let  the  juice 
through,  having  hinges,  hooks,  and  staples  on  one  side  to  oj)en  for  the 
mash  or  trester  to  be  let  out.  There  are  cases,  also,  when,  it  being 
desirable  to  exclude  the  stems,  a  strong  wire  sieve,  with  about  an  inch- 
wide  masher,  will  be  necessary. 

The  fermenting  apj^iaratus  and  cas/^s.— The  size  of  the  fermenting 
vats  should  precisely  correspond  with  the  dimensions  of  the  vineyard, 
in  order  to  get  the  whole  vintage  into  one  or  two.  As  the  average 
yield  from  an  acre  of  well-cultivated  vineyard  may  be  set  down  at  four 
hundred  gallons,  the  vats  should  be  one  fifth  larger,  for  the  expansion 
of  the  must  while  in  a  fermenting  state;  by  calculation  and  comparison 
it  will  be  ascertained  how  large  they  should  be.     Well-seasoned,  two- 


AMERICAN    GRAPES.  87 

incli  white  oak  planks  sliould  be  chosen  for  the  construction,  and  hoops 
one  third  of  an  inch  thiol?:,  of  good  soft  iron,  connected  by  a  screw, 
that  they  may  he  loosened  or  restricted  according  to  the  swelling  of 
the  wood.  The  proportion  should  he  as  three  to  four,  or  one-fourth 
higher  than  wide.  When  the  vat  is  thus  far  constructed  and  set  up, 
a  false  bottom  is  made,  from  well-seasoned  white  pine  boards,  and 
holes  bored  all  over,  for  the  purpose  of  putting  it  on  the  husks,  to 
prevent  their  rising  and  coming  in  contact  with  the  air.  Its  position 
must  be  regulated  by  two  or  three  sticks,  of  two  inches  square,  let 
through  by  means  of  a  dozen  holes  in  each,  with  one  wooden  pin  un- 
derneath and  one  above  the  bottom;  the  sticks  or  joists  to  rest  against 
the  cover  of  the  vat.  It  may  be  placed  two  feet  or  more  under  the 
surface  of  the  must,  and  the  pomace  kept  down  that  much. 

A  strong  cover  must  likewise  be  constructed  as  a  head  for  the  vat. 
It  is  fastened  on  by  means  of  grooves,  like  the  heads  in  casks.  This 
cover  should  fit  well,  so  that  all  external  air  may  be  excluded,  and  screwed 
and  pinned  together  in  one  piece.  When  putting  it  in,  the  screw  on 
the  upper  hoop  is  loosened,  to  make  it, easy,  and  when  the  head  is 
accommodated  in  the  grooves  the  hoop  is  again  screwed  tight.  To 
regulate  the  formation  of  carbonic  acid  gases  and  their  outlet,  and  to 
prevent  an  explosion  of  the  vat,  a  two-inch  hole  is  bored  through  the 
head-piece,  into  which  is  fitted  a  tube-bung — a  cylinder  made  of  white 
tin.  It  may  be  constructed  like  a  yoke-bow,  rising  with  the  shank 
fixed  in  the  hole  about  eighteen  inches,  and  the  other  end  coming 
down  within  six  inches  of  the  cover,  and  terminating  in  a  vessel  of 
water. 

Another  hole,  three  inches  wide,  is  made  in  the  head,  into  which  a 
bung  is  fitted,  with  a  two-inch  hole  bored  through ;  on  the  toj^  of  the 
bung  is  nailed  a  piece  of  sole  leather  on  one  side,  on  which  a  two- 
pound  lead  is  placed,  to  hold  it  firmly  and  exclude  the  air ;  the  leather 
at  the  same  time  acting  as  a  safety-valve,  in  case  the  gas  should  de- 
velop very  rapidly.  As  the  vat  should  never  be  filled  to  the  top,  but 
about  eighteen  inches  space  left  between  the  head  and  the  must^  another 
small  hole  is  made  through  one  of  the  staves,  to  show  when  the  vat  is 
filled  to  that  point,  which  is  then  closed  by  a  wooden  pin  or  plug. 
Again,  another  hole  is  required,  about  the  middle  of  the  vat,  to  admit 
a  small  faucet^  by  which  must  may  be  let  out  to  be  examined.  Finally, 
a  hole  is  made  close  at  the  bottom,  for  a  large  faucet,  to  let  off  the 
young  wine  when  it  has  finished  its  fermenting  process. 

There  is  still  a  better  apparatus  for  examining  the  must  while  in  its 
different  stages  of  fermentation,  and  to  indicate  the  quantity  in  the 
vat.  It  is  a  glass  tube,  or  cylinder,  about  an  inch  thick,  inserted  near 
the  bottom  of  the'vat  and  forming  a  right  angle,  the  other  end  running 
close  along  the  vat  to  the  top,  and  fastened  to  it  by  a  staple;  the  capa- 
city of  the  vat  is  indicated  by  marks  on  this  tube,  showing  precisely 
how  many  gallons  it  contains,  with  the  state  of  fermentation,  and  the 
changes  of  color  in  the  must.  When  the  color  of  the  wine  is  a  great 
object,  this  is  one  of  the  best  contrivances  to  determine  when  the  young 
wine  should  be  drawn  from  the  husks. 

For  a  small  vintage,  a  large  cask  or  pipe  may  be  fixed  up  to  answer, 
the  same  purpose  ;  the  head  with  the  faucet  hole  is  taken  out,  a  false' 


88  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

bottom  fitted  in,  a  liole  for  a  faucet  bored  near  the  bottom,  and  the 
other  fixtures  added. 

The  casks  for  receiving  the  young  wine -from  the  vats  should  he 
large,  holding  from  one  to  two  thousand  gallons  each,  or  the  whole 
vintage  ;  they  should  be  made  from  the  very  best  seasoned  white  oak, 
having  strong  iron  hoops,  with  screws  attached,  a  common  two-inch 
bung-hole,  and  in  one  head  a  door,  eighteen  by  twenty-four  inches 
wide.  The  door  is  fastened  on  hinges,  opening  inside,  and  has  two 
stout  bolts  and  a  cross-bar  of  oak  outside,  with  two  holes,  through 
which  the  bolts  are  passed  when  the  door  is  closed,  being  further  fast- 
ened by  two  notches  with  wings.  Another  small  hole  is  made  in  the 
middle  of  the  head,  in  which  a  wooden  faucet  is  inserted,  for  drawing 
out  samples.  The  door  is  intended  to  admit  a  man,  for  the  purpose 
of  washing  and  cleaning  the  cask. 

As  such  large  casks  cannot  be  removed  from  the  cellar,  particular 
care  is  requisite  to  keep  them  clean  and  sweet,  but  they  will  last  any 
length  of  time  if  made  of  good  material.  A  cask  for  keeping  wine 
should  never  be  used  .for  other  purposes.  As  soon  as  it  is  empty  it 
must  be  washed  clean,  inside  and  out,  well  sulphured^  and  the  bung 
driven  in  again.  It  should  be  kept  in  an  airy,  shady  place  till  wanted 
for  use  ;  the  press-house  would  be  the  most  suitable. 

A  couple  of  pails  are  necessary  for  exclusive  use  in  the  cellar  ;  they 
are  generally  made  of  oak,  and  in  the  form  of  a  vase,  having  a  narrow 
neck,  but  widening  again  at  the  top,  which  is  made  of  copper 
or  iron,  the  hoops  and  handle  being  composed  of  the  same  metal,  and 
should  hold  exactly  five  gallons,  being  gauged  to  show  by  a  mark 
each  single  gallon. 

Funnels  of  difierent  sizes  are  also  wanted,  the  largest  to  be  made  of 
oak  wood,  holding  about  six  gallons,  with  a  copper  or  iron  tube  on 
the  bottom,  to  go  into  the  bung-hole  of  the  casks,  and  two  staves  pro- 
jecting three  inches  at  the  bottom,  for  two  feet,  to  make  it  stand  firm, 
a  little  declining  towards  the  tube-hole. 

Lastly,  for  drawing  wine  in  or  out  of  the  casks  a  good  siphon  is  re- 
quired. This  may  be  made  of  tin  or  lead  pipe,  but,  for  convenience, 
should  have  a  small  faucet  soldered  on,  as  a  mouth-piece.  All  these 
articles  should  be  kept  as  clean  as  everything  pertaining  to  the  cellar 
and  presses,  and  never  used  for  any  other  purpose. 

The  cellar,  liow  it  should  he  constructed. — A  good,  well-ventilated 
and  drained  cellar  is  absolutely  demanded  for  wine  making.  To  se- 
cure an  even  temperature,  it  must  be  deep,  and  arched  over  with  stone 
or  brick,  the  stone-work  snaoothed  off  with  plaster,  and  whitewashed  ; 
the  floor  either  of  flag-stones  or  brick  ;  and  to  prevent  the  hot  summer 
air  getting  in,  and  likewise  the  cold  in  winter,  a  separate  entry  for 
the  steps  is  required,  with  a  door  at  the  top  and  another  below.  Sev- 
eral air-channels  or  flues  must  be  arranged  from  the  arch  to  a  couple 
offset  above  the  ground  outside,  The  arch  is  covered  with  from  four 
to  six  feet  of  earth.  And  this  is  now  the  most  practical  spot  to  build  a 
house  large  enough  to  contain  the  press,  a  fermenting  room,  with  con- 
veniences for  heating,  connection  by  conduits  with  the  cellar,  and 
perhai)s  a  separate  room  for  distillery  apparatus. 


AMEEICAN    GRAPES.  ,      89 


WINE-MAKING. 


Making  luliite  wine. — To  make  a  first  class  white  wine,  only  white 
grapes  are  used ;  they  are  mashed  in  the  apparatus,  being  fixed  on  the 
top  of  the  fermenting  vat,  but  not  allowing  the  husks  to  fall  into  the 
vat,  which,  after  being  mashed,  are  put  on  the  press,  and  when  the 
whole  mass  is  thus  prepared,  they  are  pressed  out,  and  the  juice,  or 
must,  put  in  the  vat.  As  there  are  no  husks  in  the  vat,  the  false  bot- 
tom is  not  required.  The  head,  or  cover,  is  now  put  on,  and  the 
temperature  of  the  must  ascertained  by  the  thermometer.  If  it  is 
lower  than  50°,  some  must  is  taken  out  and  heated,  to  warm  up  the 
whole  mass  till  it  comes  up  to  60°,  which  is  the  point  it  should  be 
brought  to  when  fermentation  takes  a  proper  course.  This  tempera- 
ture must  be  maintained  as  evenly  as  possible,  and  therefore  a  proper 
room,  as  already  described,  with  a  stove  or  fire-place  in  it,  will  be  the 
most  serviceable.  After  the  temperature  of  the  must  is  regulated,  the 
bung  with  the  safety-valve  and  the  tube  are  fixed  on,  and  a  small 
vessel  with  water  is  placed  under  the  other  end  of  the  tube,  or  cylin- 
der, so  that  it  will  reach  into  the  water  about  three  inches.  The  whole 
work  of  mashing,  pressing,  regulating  the  temperature,  and  closing 
up  the  vat,  must  be  performed  with  the  greatest  possible  speed,  as  the 
juice  begins  to  ferment  as  soon  as  it  is  extracted  from  the  berries,  and 
hj  coming  in  contact  with  the  atmosphere,  the  most  essential  part  of 
the  wine,  its  chief  strength,  the  alcohol,  escapes.  In  proportion  as 
the  grape  contains  sugar,  the  fermentation  of  the  must  will  proceed ; 
hence  the  fermentation  of  the  must  from  highly  improved  grapes  of 
best  qualities,  containing  much  sugar,  and  a  vintage  favored  with  a 
hot,  dry  summer,  will  take  twice  as  much  time  as  poor  and  watery 
juice.  By  fermentation,  the  sugar  of  the  grape-juice  is  converted  into 
alcohol,  which,  amalgamated  with  the  other  contents  of  thp  grape- 
juice,  forms  the  wine,  at  once  fiery,  aromatic,  and  pleasant  m  every 
respect.  The  dissolution  of  the  greater  part  of  the  sugar,  and  the 
union  with  the  acids  gluten,  tannin,  &c.,  will  have  been  performed 
when  the  must  begins  to  get  a  clear  color,  an  aromatic,  vinous  taste, 
and  quiet ;  it  is  then  time  to  draw  it  from  the  fermenting  vat  into  the 
casks,  in  whicli  it  will  slowly  finish  its  fermenting  process.  Kich  must 
will  ferment  in  from  five  to  eight  days  in  the  vat,  while  that  of  infe- 
rior quality  gets  through  in  two  or  three  days.  It  is  very  important 
to  have  large  casks  in  which  to  keep  the  wine,  as  thus  its  properties 
and  character  are  much  better  preserved. 

When  the  casks  have  been  filled,  a  similar  tube  is  fixed,  as  on  the 
fermenting  vat,  with  one  end  in  the  bung-hole  and  the  other  in  a  small 
Tessel  of  water. 

Making  schiUer  luine. — This  name  signifies  a  particular  color  of  the 
wine,  varying  from  one  hue  to  another,  and  to  be  called  neither  white, 
yellow,  nor  red.  Grapes  of  all  colors  are  used  in  making  this  wine  ; 
they  are  mashed  by  putting  the  mill  on  the  top  of  the  vat,  and  the 
husks  put  in  it,  and  fermented  together  with  the  must.  When  they 
are  all  mashed,  or  one  vat  is  filled,  tlie  false  or  fermenting  bottom  is 
set  in,  to  keep  the  husks  under  the  must,  and  the  head  and  other  fix- 


90  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

tures  put  on.  The  fermenting  of  scliiller  wine  takes  a  longer  time 
and  is  more  stormy  tlian  white  or  claret  wines ;  but  this  is  stronger, 
more  fiery,  and  aromatic,  than  either. 

The  same  temperature  is  required  as  for  other  kinds.  Much  care, 
however,  must  be  taken  to  watch  its  culminating  point,  when  the  car- 
bonic acid  gas  escapes  furiously,  the  water  begins  to  roar  in  the  little 
tub,  and  the  safety  valve  works  like  a  hammer,  that  nothing  may  inter- 
fere with  the  action  and  function  of  those  agents,  on  which  depends, 
in  this  critical  period,  the  safety  of  the  whole  contents  of  the  vat. 
The  agitation  may  be  observed  still  better  in  the  glass  tube  connected 
with  the  vat;  but  after  a  short  time,  only  a  few  hours,  the  must  will 
calm,  the  fermentation  proceed  more  quietly,  and,  in  two  or  three  days, 
begin  to  get  clear  and  vinous,  which  is  the  time  for  drawing  the  young 
wine  into  the  casks,  there  to  complete  its  fermentation.  The  husks 
are  pressed  and  the  juice  obtained  added  to  the  rest.  As  soon  as  one 
cask  is  filled,  the  tube  is  fixed  into  the  bung-hole,  and  a  small  vessel 
of  water  put  under  the  other  end,  to  keep  the  air  from  contact  with 
the  young  wine.  The  ventilation  of  the  cellar  is  so  regulated  as  to  get 
an  even  temperature  of  about  50°. 

Mahing  red  luine,  or  claret. — The  blue  and  Traminer-colored  varieties 
are  used  for  this  purpose ;  after  the  whole  vintage,  white,  Traminer,  and 
blue,  or  black,  is  m.ade  into  claret.  The  color  of  the  juice  has  to  be 
examined,  if  it  be  not  of  the  desired  dark-red,  some  coloring  matter 
•must  be  used.  There  are  several  harmless  substitutes,  such  as  well- 
ripened  elder  berries,  the  berries  of  the  hawthorn,  &c.  Whatever 
kind  of  berries  may  be  used,  they  should,  in  all  cases,  be  perfectly 
ripe ;  still  better  if  they  have  been  picked  some  time  before  they  are 
wanted,  and  dried  in  the  sun.  The  quantity  of  these  must  be  ascer- 
tained by  taking  a  sample  of  the  must  and  adding  berry  juice  till  the 
lesired  color  is  obtained ;  but,  as  the  red  or  claret  whines  become  lighter 
3y  age,  the  color  should  at  first  be  a  few  shades  darker. 

Claret  wine  takes  more  time  to  finish  its  fermenting  process  than 
any  other.  It  is  perfected  when  the  color  becomes  clear,  and  the  taste 
changed  from  sweet  to  strong  vinous.  According  to  the  state  of  the 
weather  and  the  season,  which  influence  the  quality  of  the  grape,  the 
fermentation  will  proceed,  but  the  ordinary  period  requisite  to  com- 
plete it  is  from  eight  to  ten  days.  When  finally  fit  to  draw  into  the 
casks,  the  management  is  the  same  as  with  other  varieties  ;  the  husks 
are  put  under  the  press,  and  the  extracted  juice  into  the  casks  and 
mixed  with  the  juice  first  drawn.  The  sediment  or  lees,  from  either 
variety,  is  saved  in  a  cask  for  further  use. 

The  husks,  which  still  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  wine- 
making  properties,  after  the  juice  has  been  extracted  from  them  by  the 
press,  are  broken  up  fine,  put  into  the  fermenting  vat,  and  water,  in 
equal  proportion  to  its  bulk,  is  added — to  each  ten  gallons  of  water  one 
gallon  of  lees — to  strengthen  and  facilitate  its  fermentation.  A  light 
but  pleasant  wine  is  obtained  in  this  way,  which  is  fit  to  drink  the 
next  summer,  and  will  be  found,  in  hot  weather,  a  very  agreeable 
cooling  drink.  All  the  seeds  should  be  saved,  well  dried,  and  hung 
up  in  bags  in  an  airy,  dry  place. 


AMERICAN    GRAPES.  91 


TREATMENT    OP    THE   YOUNG   WINE. 

The  second  fermentation. — The  young  wine,  after  it  has  been  brought 
into  the  cellar,  will  go  through  another  course  of  fermentation,  and 
will  he  more  or  less  agitated  for  a  certain  time.  The  casks  have  to  he 
filled  occasionally,  and  kept  full  to  the  hung  ;  the  dissolution  of  the 
sugar  and  of  the  diiferent  constituents  of  the  wine  will  proceed  slowly, 
and  finally  cease  altogether  ;  the  undissolved  matter  settles  on  the 
bottom  of  the  cask^  and  is  called  lees.  When  the  wine  gets  to  such  a 
state,  quiet  and  clean,  it  is  time  to  draw  it  off  into  another  cask.  The 
casks,  before  using  them,  must  be  well  cleaned  and  sulphured,  which 
is  done  by  dissolving  sulphur  in  an  iron  pan  over  a  fire,  cutting  strips 
of  cotton  cloth  or  linen  two  inches  wide  and  nine  long,  and  soaking 
them  in  the  sulphur ;  then  a  piece  of  wire  about  a  foot  long  is  fastened 
to  the  bung,  and  the  other  end  bent  to  a  hook,  on  which  is  hung  an 
ignited  strijD  of  the  sulphured  cotton^  and  introduced  into  the  cask, 
the  bung  driven  in,  the  cask  rolled  to  and  fro,  and  finally  the  sul- 
phuric acid  gas,  which  has  not  penetrated  into  the  wood,  let  out  by 
loosening  the  bung. 

A  siphon,  reaching  about  two  thirds  to  the  bottom  of  the  cask,  is 
used  for  drawing.  If  the  empty  cask  can  be  placed  near  enough,  so 
that  the  other  end  of  the  siphon  reaches  to  its  bung-hole,  it  is  so  much 
better,  as  there  is  less  escape  of  the  gaseous  and  flavoring  ingredients 
of  the  wine.  The  rest  of  the  wine  which  the  siphon  does  not  draw  is 
drawn  off  by  a  faucet,  about  six  inches  above  the  bottom.  When  a 
cask  is  thus  filled  to  the  bung-hole,  the  bung  is  driven  in  tight. 

In  order  to  preserve  the  fine,  clear  condition  of  the  wine,  all  jerking 
and  other  rough  treatment  of  \\\q  casks  must  be  avoided.  The  lees 
from  the  emptied  casks  are  collected  into  a  cask- by  itself. 

White  wines  will  have  attained  the  proper  condition  for  drawing  in 
a  couple  of  months,  wine  of  inferior  quality  still  sooner,  and  should  bo 
drawn  immediately  after  showing  a  clear,  bright  color,  as  the  sedi- 
ment injures  its  taste  and  character. 

Schiller  wine,  according  to  its  quality  and  intended  use,  may  remain 
some  time  on  the  lees,  especially  if  it  is  designed  for  preserving  to  an 
old  age  ;  but  in  most  instances  it  will  improve  by  drawing  as  soon  as 
it  is  clear. 

Claret  wine,  however,  should  remain  from  five  to  six  months  in  the 
first  cask  and  lees.  When  fermentation  is  no  longer  perceptible,  the 
cask  is  filled,  the  bung  driven  in,  and  it  is  left  undisturbed  till  the 
drawing  is  finished.  The  exact  period  is  a  matter  of  fashion,  accord- 
ing to  the  taste  and  habit  predominating  in  the  country  where  it  is 
sold.  By  letting  it  stand  on  the  lees  for  several  months  it  obtains 
more  of  those  peculiar  principles,  astringency,  &c.,  preferred  in  a  good 
claret. 

No  wine  should  be  drawn,  and  no  good  wine-cooper  will  open  a  cask 
in  cloudy  or  sulky  weather,  as  the  wine,  coming  in  contact  with  such 
an  atmosphere,  gets  turbid  and  excited  ;  therefore  cool  and  bright 
days  must  be  chosen  for  that  purpose.     AH  articles  used  in  the  draw 


92  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

ing,  no  matter  how  clean  they  may  he  kept,  should  he  previously 
rmsed  with  wine. 

Remedies  for  fiat  and  turhid  loines. — There  are  many  instances  when 
the  wine  loses  its  character,  either  turning  flat,  or  getting  excited  and 
turhid,  when  it  will  he  necessary  to  attend  at  once  to  its  restoration  hy 
applying  proper  remedies,  and  prevent  it  from  total  destruction.  By 
acting  according  to  the  principles  set  down  here,  such  cases  can  occur 
only  by  accident ;  hut,  to  avoid  the  calamity,  constant  care  is  requir^ed. 
Tlie  causes  may  he  diffeient,  hut  generally  it  will  he  found  that 
neglect,  merely,  or  perhaps  ignorance  of  proper  management,  created 
the  trouble. 

When  wine  becomes  flat,  it  wants  stimulating.  This  may  he  done 
by  various  means.  The  liquid  from  two  pounds  of  raisins,  cut  fine, 
and  soaked  a  few  days  in  a  gallon  of  good  rectified  alcohol,  then  pressed 
and  strained,  is  mixed  with  a  couple  of  gallons  of  the  flat  wine,  heated 
to  near  boiling,  and  all  put  into  the  cask  again.  After  it  has  been 
well  stirred^  the  bung  is  replaced  and  left  undisturbed  for  at  least  two 
months,  when  it  may  be  drawn  into  another  cask,  previously  well- 
sulphured.  Every  thirty  gallons  will  require  a  gallon  of  alcohol  and 
two  pounds  of  raisins. 

Another  good  remedy  is,  from  each  thirty  gallons  of  flat  wine  two 
gallons  are  taken  out,  two  pounds  of  well-dried  grape-seed  added,  and 
brought  over  fire ;  while  it  is  heating  the  seeds  are  stirred  and  rubbed 
with  a  beater,  and  after  a  while  the  liquid  is  strained  and  put  hot  into 
the  cask  again,  which  is  bunged  up  immediately.  Practical  knowledge 
and  experience  are  necessary  to  manage  such  wines ;  but  the  cause  of 
the  trouble  may  easily  be  prevented  by  adhering  to  the  general  princi- 
ples of  wine-making. 

If  the  cask  produced  the  flatness,  the  wine  must  be  drawn  first  into 
another,  before  anything  is  done  with  it.  When  the  wine  becomes 
excited,  turbid,  and  ferments  again,  which  may  occur  often  in  poor 
cellars,  if  the  weather  should  change  from  cold  to  warm,  or  if  the 
casks  have  been  opened  in  close,  sulky,  and  cloudy  weather^  the  diffi- 
culty will  be  found  most  likely  in  the  cellar.  Wine  cannot  be  ex- 
pected to  keep  and  mature  well  in  a  poor  cellar,  which,  perhaps,  is 
also  used  for  other  purposes.     ' 

Sulphur  is  a  good  remedy.  An  empty,  clean  cask  is  provided,  two 
gallons  of  the  infected  wine  put  in,  a  strip  of  sulphured  cotton  ignited, 
the  bung  driven  in,  and  the  cask  rolled.  After  a  while,  two  gallons 
more  of  wine  are  put  in,  sulphured,  and  rolled  again,  according  to  the 
quantity  to  be  cured ;  eight  or  ten  gallons  may  be  impregnated  with 
sulphur,  or  even  more ;  and  finally  restored  to  its  stand,  and  well- 
stirred,  with  the  bung  out. 

Further  treatment  of  the  wine,  and  its  fining. — After  the  wine  has 
been  drawn  once,  there  is  still  more  or  less  undissolved  matter  in  it, 
which  will  soon  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  cask  and  therefore  render 
necessary  another  drawing.  This  must  be  done,  generally,  three  or 
four  times  before  the  wine  gets  clear,  well-fined,  and  fit  for  the  market. 
The  proper  time  for  drawing  will  be  at  intervals  of  from  three  to  five 
months ;  but  experience  and  judgment  alone  can  point  out  the  exact 
period.    If  it  is  desired  to  sell  the  wine  before  it  has  attained  its  finish, 


AMERICAN   GRAPES.  \)6 

it  must  be  fined.  This  is  done  by  taking  out  of  the  cask  from  four  to 
five  gallons,  and  adding  to  each  thirty  gallons  the  whites  often  eggs; 
these  are  beaten  to  foam  with  the  wine,  finally  put  into  the  cask,  well 
stirred,  and  the  cask  bunged  up. 

Or  powdered  gum  arable  may  be  used,  in  the  proportion  of  one  ounce 
to  fifty  gallons  of  wine,  well  stirred  with  the  whole  contents.  Both 
articles  are  perfectly  harmless  to  the  character  of  the  wine,  and  en- 
tirely answer  the  purpose.  In  the  course  of  from  four  to  six  days  the 
wine  will  be  in  the  desired  condition  to  draw  and  bottle  for  market. 
It  will  keep  best  and  improve  more  in  the  casks ;  but  there  are  several 
instances  when,  after  it  has  been  drawn,  and  the  casks  filled,  portions 
remain,  for  which  no  casks  small  enough  can  be  provided;  it  is  better 
to  draw  such  portions  at  once  into  bottles.  Simple  as  the  bottling 
seems  to  be,  yet  there  are  many  things  to  be  observed,  in  order  to  keep 
the  wine  well  and  prevent  it  from  becoming  flat  and  turbid.  The  first 
and  chief  requirements  are  clean,  sweet  bottles,  and  new,  fresh  corks ; 
it  must  be  a  rule  strictly  adhered  to,  that  as  soon  as  a  bottle  is  emptied 
it  is  to  be  rinsed  out  well  with  water  and  placed  in  the  open  air,  on  a 
shelf  or  frame  erected  for  the  purpose ;  before  using,  it  is  rinsed  out  once 
more,  and  then  filled  within  two  inches  of  the  mouth.  The  cork, 
which  should  fit  exactly,  is  dipped  into  wine,  and  driven  well  in.  The 
bottles  should  always  be  placed  in  a  horizontal  position,  so  that  the 
corks  cannot  get  dry  and  admit  air,  which  is  generally  the  reason  why 
the  wine  gets  flat.  They  keep  best  if  put  in  dry  sand,  one  above  the 
other.     As  further  protection,  the  corks  may  be  waxed. 

USE    OF    THE    HUSKS,  LEES,  AND    SEEDS. 

Use  of  the  hushs, — These  may  be  differently  used  ;  a  pleasant  wine 
can  be  made  of  them,  in  the  way  already  described,  but  a  real  good 
marketable  wine  is  obtained  by  adding  sugar  in  proportion  to  the 
vinous  principles,  found  out  by  proper  instruments,  by  which  all  wines 
have  to  be  brought  up  to  a  certain  standard  point,  most  favorable  to 
their  development.  But,  as  a  description  of  this  modern  art  of  Avine- 
making  would  require  more  room  than  has  been  allowed,  it  may  only 
be  mentioned  that  a  vintage  can  be  increased  from  a  hundred  to  two 
hundred  per  cent,  without  the  least  detriment  to  its  quality. 

If  the  husks  are  not  wanted  for  this  purpose,  a  good  vinegar  may 
be  obtained  from  them.  As  soon  as  they  come  from  the  press  they  are 
broken  up  fine,  and  put  into  a  vinegar  vat,  twice  their  bulk  of  rain- 
water added,  with  two  gallons  of  lees  and  a  quart  of  beer-yeast  to  each 
barrel.  The  vat  is  set  in  a  warm  room,  but  not  in  a  fermenting  room, 
cellar,  or  anyioliere  near  ivine,  and  allowed  to  stand  till  the  vinegar  is 
formed,  which  is  then  drawn  into  barrels,  the  husks  being  brought  to 
the  compost  heap,  or  directly  to  the  vineyard. 

Use  of  the  lees. — The  lees  contain  considerable  undissolved  sugai 
and  other  vinous  substances,  which,  by  distilling,  make  a  highly  fla- 
vored brandy.  The  quantity  may  be  increased  without  affecting  its 
good  quality  by  adding  to  each  barrel  of  lees  half  a  barrel  of  well-rec- 
tified alcohol ;  that  from  potatoes  is  the  best.  Let  it  stand  a  couple 
of  weeks,  turning  the  cask  once  or  twice  a  day,  and  finally  it  will  be 


94  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

fit  for  the  still.  The  remainder  in  the  still,  too  weak  for  brandy^ 
makes  a  good  vinegar.  Lees  are  likewise  a  good  stimulant  for  flat, 
insipid  wine,  and  a  portion  should  always  he  kept  on  hand  to  he  thus 
applied. 

Use  of  the  seeds. — G-rape  seeds  are  very  valuable  for  fining  and 
iStrengthening  the  wine  ;  they  may  he  used  either  in  the  manner  men- 
tioned, or  a  few  handsful  thrown  into  the  cask  just  as  they  are. 
They  must  he  well  dried,  and  kept  hung  up  in  an  airy  place. 

DRS.    GALL    AND    PETIOL'S    METHOD  OF  WINE-MAKING,  ACCORDING  TO 
THE    MODERN   PRINCIPLES    ADOPTED  IN  GERMANY  AND    FRANCE. 

In  consequence  of  many  failures  in  the  ripening  of  the  grapes,  and 
diseases  spreading  rapidly  over  the  continent,  more  or  less  destroying 
the  crops  of  whole  districts,  grape  culturists  and  chemists  began  to 
look  for  remedies  and  substitutes  for  those  principles  in  which  the 
vintages  are  deficient. 

Much  has  been  said  against  this  method^  and  much  suggested  to 
neutralize  predominating  acids  without  resort  to  sugar  and  water,  but 
all  experiments  have  thus  far  failed,  either  the  wine  would  get  flat  at 
once,  or  be  unfit  for  nse  on  account  of  its  harshness.  More  than  fifty 
years  ago,  Chaptal,  Cadet  de  Vaux,  and  other  eminent  chemists,  sug- 
gested that  poor  wines  might  be  improved  by  adding  sugar  ;  later, 
Claudot-Dumont  urged  his  countrymen  to  abstain  from  the  bad  prac- 
tice of  sweating  and  mixing  their  poor  wines,  and  recommended  sugar 
as  the  best  agent  to  improve  them.  But  neither  of  these  chemists 
were  able  to  point  out  in  what  proportion  sugar  should  be  used  to  ob- 
tain the  desired  result.  This  problem  has  finally  been  solved  by  Drs. 
Gall  and  Petiol,  and  approved  by  such  men  as  Thenard,  Dobereiner, 
Von  Babo,  Bronner,  and  others. 

Drs.  Gall  and  Petiol  both  discovered,  after  many  analytical  experi- 
ments and  researches,  that  the  surplus  acids  in  the  grape-juice  can  be 
turned  to  good  account,  by  bringing  its  other  ingredients  (sugar  and 
water)  to  a  proper  proportion.  Every  kind  of  grape-juice  is  nothing 
but  clear  vfater,  in  which  are  dissolved  from  six  to  thirty  per  cent,  of 
sugar,  two  to  four  per  cent,  of  free  acids,  and  from  three  to  five  per 
cent,  of  other  matter,  or  the  essence  of  wine-making  principles.  Sugar 
converts  itself  into  alcohol  by  fermenting,  and  two  per  cent,  of  sugar 
will  produce,  in  the  average,  one  per  cent,  of  alcohol ;  the  free  acids, 
if  they  are  in  proportion  to  the  other  principles,  give  the  wine  its 
agreeable  vinous  character,  its  flavor,  &c.;  the  last  properties  contain 
the  principles  necessary  for  fermenting,  fining,  and  keeping.  Dr. 
Gall  has  further  proved  the  fact  that  these  different  acids  in  the  grape 
do  not  require  particular  notice  ;  it  is  sufficient  to  find  out  the  whole 
sum,  and  then  treat  them  alike.  In  order  to  ascertain  what  per  cent- 
age  of  sugar  and  acids  the  must,  or  grape-juice,  contains,  two  difier- 
ent  instruments  are  required,  a  "^must  scale"  and  an  ''acidimeter ;" 
for  the  first  purpose  Oechsle's  must  scale  is  generally  used,  and  Otto's 
acklimeter  for  the  second ;  on  both  are  the  foHowing  calculations  based, 
illustrative  of  this  method.     None  of  these  instruments  have  been  yet 


AMERICAN   GRAPES.  95 

introduced  into  our  country,  but  it  may  be  presumed  tliat,  when  a  de- 
mand for  tbem  shall  be  manifested,  some  of  the  leading  druggists  will 
respond,  and  import  them.  They  may,  however,  be  procured  at  any 
time  direct  from  the  manufacturers,  Dr.  L.  C.  Marquart,  of  Bonn,  on 
the  Rhine,  or  J.  Diehn,  Frankfort-on-the-Main. 

Experiments  continued  for  eight  years  have  proved  that,  in  favorable 
seasons,  grape-juice  contains,  in  the  average,  in  1,000  pounds: 

Sugar 240  pounds 

Free  acids 6  pounds 

Water 754  pounds 


1,000 


Which  proportion  may  be  set  down  as  a  normal ;  therefore,  to  obtain 
good  wine  from  a  vintage  of  inferior  quality^  these  proportions  must 
be  secured  by  adding  sugar  and  water.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  con- 
tents of  the  acids  are  the  indicating  point  as  to  what  quantities  of 
sugar  and  water  would  be  required  to  bring  the  wine  to  such  a  normal 
state ;  further,  as  has  been  the  case  generally,  the  less  sugar  the  more 
acids.  The  per  cent,  of  acid  in  the  grape-juice  is  the  basis  on  which  a 
calculation  must  be  founded. 

All  practical  grape-growers  and  wine-makers  in  Germany  and 
France  admit  that  a  wine  containing  the  proportion  of  sugar,  acids, 
and  water  above-described,  is  in  every  respect  preferable  to  heavier  or 
lighter  wines.  It  has  lately  been  called  a  "  normal  wine,"  and  will 
serve  here  as  well  as  a  standard. 

When  a  must  contains,  instead  of  twenty-four  per  cent.,  only  fifteen 
per  cent.,  or  instead  of  two  hundred  and  forty  pounds,  only  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  pounds  of  sugar,  but,  instead  of  only  six  per  cent,  or 
pounds,  nine  per  cent,  of  acids  in  one  thousand  pounds,  the  question 
arises,  how  much  sugar  and  water  will  have  to  be  added,  to  bring  such 
a  must  to  the  proportion  of  a  normal  wine?  To  solve  it,  we  calculate 
thus :  if,  in  six  pounds  of  acid,  in  a  normal  wine,  two  hundred  and 
forty  pounds  of  sugar  appear,  how  much  sugar  is  wanted  for  nine 
pounds  of  acids?  Answer:  three  hundred  and  sixtj^  pounds.  And 
again :  If,  in  six  pounds  of  acids,  in  a  normal  wine,  seven  hundred 
and  fifty -four  pounds  of  water  appear,  how  much  water  is  required  for 
nine  pounds  of  acids  ?  Answer  :  one  thousand  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
one  pounds.  As,  therefore,  the  must  which  we  intend  to  improve  by 
neutralizing  its  acids  should  contain  360  pounds  of  sugar,  9  pounds  of 
acids,  and  1,131  pounds  of  water,  but  contains  already  150  pounds  of 
sugar,  9  pounds  of  acids,  and  841  pounds  of  water,  remain  to  be  added 
210  pounds  of  sugar,  0  pounds  of  acids,  and  290  pounds  of  water. 

By  ameliorating  a  quantity  of  1,000  pounds  must 

by      210  pounds  sugar 
and      290  pounds  water, 

we  obtain  1,500  pounds  of  must,  consisting  of 
the  same  properties  as  the  normal  must,  which  makes  a  first-class  wine. 
The  increase  of  the  quantity  is  five  hundred  pounds,  or  two  hundred 


96  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

and  fifteen  quarts,  wliicli,  after  deducting  tlie  outlay  for  sugar,  two 
hundred  and  ten  pounds,  at  twelve  and  a  half  cents  per  pound,  amounts 
to  twenty-six  dollars  and  twenty-five  cents,  and,  allowing  fifty  cents 
per  quart,  leaves  a  clear  profit  of  eiglity-one  dollars  and  twenty-five 
cents. 

Another  illustration,  which  prohably  comes  near  the  qualities  of 
northern  wild  native  grapes — already  largely  manufactured  into  wine, 
but,  for  want  of  knowledge,  seldom  accepted  in  market — may  be  thus 
calculated:  Such  grape-juice,  or  must,  contains  twelve  per  cent.,  or 
one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  of  sugar,  and  fifteen  per  cent.,  or 
pounds  of  acids.  One  thousand  pounds  of  such  must  will  consist, 
then,  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  of  sugar,  fifteen  pounds 
of  acids,  and  eight  hundred  and  sixty-five  pounds  of  water.  In  order 
to  neutralize  these  acids,  and  make  them  proportionate,  correspond- 
ing vfith  wine  of  a  good  character  and  normal  state,  it  will  require  to 
15  pounds  of  acids,  600  pounds  of  sugar  and  1,885  pounds  of  water  ; 
as  the  must  contains  15  pounds  of  acids,  120  pounds  of  sugar,  and 
865  pounds  of  water,  have  to  be  added  0  pounds  of  acids,  480  pounds 
of  sugar,  and  1,020  j)ounds  of  water. 

Such  improved  must  will,  therefore,  consist  of — 
15  pounds  of  acids, 
600  pounds  of  sugar, 
1,885  pounds  of  water, 


2,500  pounds. 

Deducting  one  thousand  pounds  of  must,  which  furnished  the  wine- 
making  principles,  acids,  &c.,  gives  a  surplus  of  fifteen  hundred 
pounds,  or  six  hundred  and  forty-five  quarts  of  must  in  a  normal 
state.  Value  of  six  hundred  and  forty-five  quarts,  at  fifty  cents  per 
quart,  three  hundred  and  twenty-two  dollars  and  fifty  cents.  Cost  of 
four  hundred  and  eighty  pounds  of  sugar,  at  twelve  and  a  half  cents 
per  pound,  sixty  dollars.  Net  profit,  two  hundred  and  sixty-two 
dollars  and  fifty  cents. 

It  will  be  seen  that  such  wine  is  produced  at  the  small  expense  of 
nine  and  a  quarter  cents  per  quart,  omitting  the  one  thousand  pounds, 
or  four  hundred  and  thirty  quarts,  which  furnished  the  wine-making 
principles.  But  a  true  estimate  of  the  cost  of  such  a  wine  from  the 
wild  native  grapes  when  they  have  to  be  bought  must  be  calculated 
thus : 

3,000  pounds  of  grapes,  at  3-|  cents  per  pound |105 

480  pounds  of  sugar,  at  12^  cents  per  pound 60 

165 


And  as  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  dollars  make  two  thousand  five 
hundred  pounds  of  must,  or  one  thousand  seventy-five  quarts,  the 
actual  expense  is  fifteen  and  one  third  cents  per  quart;  allowing  in- 
terest on  capital  invested  for  apparatus,  casks,  shrinkage,  and  labor, 
the  whole  expense  will  not  average  twenty  cents  per  quart. 


AMERICAN    GRAPES.  97 

An  immense  field  of  profitable  employment  presents  itself  to  indus- 
trious men.  In  a  favorable  season  a  man  will  g'ather  five  bushels  of 
wild  grapes  in  a  day,  from  which  he  obtains  at  least  eighty  quarts  of 
natural  wine,  while  if  ameliorated  according  to  Drs.  Gall  and  Petiol, 
he  will  get  one  hundred  and  twenty  quarts  of  good  normal  wine. 

It  is  further  proved  that  such  wines  made  according  to  these  princi- 
ples mature  at  least  in  half  the  time  required  by  natural  wine,  and 
keep  better ;  consequently,  permitting  a  quicker  return  of  invested 
capital,  a  Ijetter  article  for  speculation,  safe  transport  to  distant 
markets,  &c.  Thus,  too,  a  good  v/ine  can  be  made  of  an  inferior 
vintage,  grown  in  an  unfavorable  season,  and  the  quantity  of  a  rich 
vintage  increased  to  two  hundred  per  cent.,  without  the  least  detriment 
to  its  quality.  It  is  very  important  that  this  method  should  be  intro- 
duced into  our  country ;  it  will  not  only  encourage  people  to  more 
activity  in  this  lucrative  branch  of  industry,  but  will  furnish  us  with 
a  wholesome  and  pleasant  beverage ;  insuring  as  a  pure,  cheap  article, 
a  large  consumption  and  a  ready  sale. 

Grapes  properly  cultivated  in  vineyards  or  gardens,  and  in  favorable 
climates  and  localities,  will  generally  contain  sufficient  sugar  and  no 
surplus  of  acids  ;  so  it  may  appear  that  there  is  no  need  to  practice  this 
method.  But  Drs.  Gall  and  others  found  by  analyzing  the  husks  or 
pomace,  after  the  juice  had  been  extracted  by  means  of  povf  erful  presses, 
that  these  not  only  still  contained  a  considerable  amount  of  juice,  but  also 
a  great  amount  of  extracts  or  wine-making  principles,  in  many  cases 
sufficient  for  three  times  the  bulk  of  the  juice  previously  obtained. 
This  fact  suggested  the  question :  as  there  are  so  many  of  these  valuable 
properties  left,  and  only  sugar  and  water  exhausted,  v/hy  cannot  these 
principles  be  substituted  till  the  other  are  completely  used  up  ?  It 
was  found  that  it  could  be  easily  done  ! 

The  secret  of  making  wine  from  water  was  thus  solved,  and  an  all-im- 
portant principle  for  wine-making  established.  By  further  experiments 
these  speculations  not  only  proved  to  be  correct,  but  it  was  in  most 
cases  impossible  to  judge  which  was  natural  wine,  or  which  the  pro- 
duct of  this  new  method ;  indeed,  the  preference  is  generally  given  to 
the  latter.  While  natural  wine  is  so  very  different,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances v/hich  prevailed  in  its  growth,  such  "Gallized"  wine  is 
always  in  peri^ct  harmony,  because  its  contents  are  not  the  results  of 
chance,  but  the  close  follovf ing  of  the  process  of  Nature. 

The  2:>ractice  of  this  method  is  quite  simple ;  for  instance,  let  the 
vintage  be  of  an  average  good  quality,  the  must  containing  twenty- 
four  per  cent,  of  sugar  and  six  per  cent,  of  acid,  and  the  quantity  ono 
thousand  pounds.  The  grapes  are  mashed  in  the  usual  way,  but  not 
pressed ;  the  juice,  if  it  be  white  wine,  drawn  off  into  casks  to  ferment ; 
if  claret  or  red  wine,  it  is  fermented  on  the  husks,  as  described  in  a 
former  paragraph,  and  then  drawn  off  into  casks.  Before  this  is  done, 
however,  tv/o  hundred  and  forty  pounds  of  sugar  are  dissolved  in  seven 
hundred  and  fifty-four  pounds  of  water,  and  as  soon  as  the  grape-juice 
is  drawn  off,  this  solution  is  put  on  the  husks  in  the  fermenting  vat. 
It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  have  sugar-water  prepared  and  ready  for 
an  infusion  before  the  wine  is  drawn  from  the  fermenting  vat,  and  put 
immediately  on  the  pomace  as  soon  as  the  wine  is  off,  to  prevent  their 
7 A 


98  AaRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

coming  in  contact  with  tlie  air,  getting  dry,  moldy,  and  spoiled.  It 
is  practicable  to  draw  off  this  infusion  once  a,nd'  put  it  on  the  husks 
again  in  order  that  their  fatty  substances  may  be  better  dissolved ;  but 
this  operation  has  to  be  performed  without  delay,  as  fermentation 
commences  immediately*,  and  must  not  be  interrupted.  The  water 
used  for  that  purpose  should  be  soft  rain  or  cistern  water.  A  large 
iron  or  copper  kettle  is  put  over  a  fire  and  heated,  in  which  the  sugar 
is  thoroughly  dissolved,  and  then  the  whole  brought  to  a  temperature 
of  '70°  and  poured  over  theliusks  in  the  vat. 

The'mode  of  fermenting,  temperature,  and  the  entire  operation,  .is 
the  same  as  before  described.  To  obtain  a  certain  color,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  let  this  second  wine  remain  longer  on  the. husks  and  in 
the  vat.  The  proper  period  for  drawing  will  be  best  found  out  by  often 
examining  samples  till  the  desired  result  is  obtained.  When  this  is 
the  case,  the  young  wine  is  drawn  off  and  filled  into  casks. 

Again,  two  hundred  and  forty  pounds  of  sugar  are  dissolved  in  seven 
hundred  and  fiftj^-four  pounds  of  v^^ater  put  on  the  husks  and  managed 
as  before  stated.  Should  this  second  wine,  after  it  has  fermented  and 
been  drawn  off  from  the  lees,  contain  less  than  five  per  cent,  of  acid, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  add  two  ounces  of  tartaric  acid  to  each  one  hun- 
dred pounds,  or  twenty  ounces  to  one  thousand  pounds  of  wine;  the 
tartar  is  pulverized  and  dissolved  in  two  quarts  of  heated  wine,  which 
is  then  j^ut  into  the  casks  and  well  stirred. 

After  this  third  wine  (second  infusion)  has  fermented  and  been 
drawn  off,  the  husks  are  taken  out  and  put  under  the  press,  and  the 
extracted  juice  added  to  the  rest  in  the  casks.  This  wine  is  treated 
like  other  wines,  only  left  some  time  longer  on  the  lees  before  drawing 
and  fining.  There  is,  from  one  thousand  pounds,  or  four  hundred  and 
thirty  quarts  of  must,  an  increase  of  two  thousand  pounds,  or  eight 
hundred  and  sixty  quarts  of  wine,  which,  after  charging  for  four  hun- 
dred and  eighty  pounds  of  sugar,  at  twelve  and  a  half  cents  per  pound, 
will  equal  sixty  dollars,  or  not  quite  seven  cents  per  quart. 

The  must-scale  and  acidimeter  have  to  be  used  often  while  such  wine 
is  in  its  fermenting  process,  and  before  it  is  drawn  off  from  the  vat,  in 
order  to  examine  and  find  out  the  capacity  of  the  husks,  whether  they 
contain  sufiicient  properties  for  another  infusion,  or  only  for  'a  part. 
If  the  result  of  the  examination  of  the  young  wine  shows  an  undimin- 
ished amount  of  acids,  the  husks  will  bear  another  infusion  of  sugar- 
water  to  the  same  amount  as  before ;  or  if  there  is  found  a  deficiency 
of  one  and  a  half  or  two  per  cent.,  the  quantity  of  sugar  and  water 
must  be  regulated  accordingly.  For  instance^  after  the  first  infusion 
has  fermented,  the  pomace  shows  a  decrease  of  two  per  cent,  of  acids, 
or  wine-extracts,  but  there  is  still  four  per  cent,  remaining,  which,  if 
fermented  with  a  proportionate  quantity  of  sugar-water,  will  make  as 
good  a  wine  as  any.  Therefore,  to  determine  of  vdiat  proportion  the 
second  infusion  should  consist,  we  calculate  thus  :  If  six  per  cent,  of 
acids  require  two  hundred  and  forty  pounds  of  sugar,  how  much  is 
wanted  lor  four  per  cent.?  Answer.  One  hundred  and  sixty  pounds. 
Now,  if  six  per  cent,  of  acid  required  seven  hundred  and  fifty-four 
pounds  of  water,  how  much  is  wanted  to  four  per  cent.  ?     Answer. 


AMERICAN   GRAPES.  99 

Five  liundred  and  two  and  two  third  pounds.  There  is  CQnsequently 
wanted  for  the  second  infusion  one  hundred  and  sixty  pounds  of  sugar 
and  five  hundred  and  two  and  two  third  pounds  of  water. 

It  will  sometimes  be  found  that,  after  two  infusions  have  been  fer- 
mented^ and  two  hundred  per  cent,  obtained,  the  pomace  still  contains 
several  per  cent,  of  wine  extract ;  therefore,  a  third  infusion  of  sugar- 
water  may  be  applied,  and  a  still  larger  quantity  of  v^ine  obtained. 
The  calculation  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  sugar  and  water  to  be  used 
is  the  same.  In  either  case,  should  a  stronger  vinous  taste  be  desired, 
tartaric  acid  is  added  by  degrees  till  the  object  is  attained. 

To  facilitate  these  manipulations,  it  is  necessary  to  construct  tables, 
in  which  the  proportion  of  weight  and  measure  to  each  other  are  cal- 
culated. It  will  be  found  more  convenient  in  practice  to  measure  the 
must  and  Vc^ater,  instead  of  weighing,  and  as  must  will  differ  in  its 
specific  weight,  according  to  its  acids  and  saccharine  properties,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  a  table,  on  which  can  be  ascertained,  according  to 
the  indication  of  the  scales,  the  exact  amount  of  each.  On  the  table, 
for  instance,  which  has  been  calculated  and  constructed  to  Oechsle's 
must-scale,  when  ninety-five  per  cent,  is  indicated,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  must  contains  21.8  per  cent,  of  sugar.  The  acids  and  extracts 
which  the  must  contains  increase  its  specific  weight,  and  prevent  the 
scale  from  sinking  and  showing  the  amount  of  sugar  correctly,  being 
deducted,  and  the  exact  amount  of  sugar  found  on  it.  For  the  acidi- 
meter,  a  table  is  constructed,  on  which  is  found  the  calculation  how 
the  per  cents,  of  acid  compare  with  those  of  sugar,  and  how  much 
water  is  required  for  certain  per  cents,  of  acids  and  sugar  in  weight 
and  measure. 

These  tables,  as  they  are  compiled  in  conformity  with  the  scales,  are 
generally  supplied  with  the  instruments,  and  with  directions  for  use. 

As  the  sugar  contains  more  or  less  water,  even  when  it  appears 
perfectly  dry,  it  is  necessary,  after  a  certaiii  quantity  has  been  dis- 
solved for  such  ameliorating  purposes,  to  use  the  must-scale,  find  out 
how  it  compares  with  the  intended  purpose,  and  regulate  the  balance 
by  either  adding  more  sugar  or  water  till  the  desired  point  on  the 
scale  is  correct. 

It  is  a  matter  of  course  that  only  sugar  of  the  best  quality  should  be 
used ;  grape  sugar  is  the  best ;  but  as  this  cannot  be  had  cheap  and  in 
large  quantities,  white  loaf  sugar  must  be  used.  Still,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  enough  of  the  former  will  be  manufactured  as  soon  as  a 
demand  is  manifested. 

Since  the  introduction  of  this  new  method  of  wine-maldng  into  Grer- 
many,  several  grape-sugar  factories  have  been  established,  and  are  all 
doing  well,  as  the  demand  for  this  article  increases  from  year  to  year. 
Grape  sugar  can  be  produced  from  forty  to  fifty  per  cent,  cheaper  than 
v/hite  loaf  sugar  ;  it  is,  therefore,  a  great  desideratum  that  this  method 
should  be  adopted. 

It  lias  been  suggested  to  keep  each  part  of  the  wine  by  itself:  as  the 
natural  wine,  the  first,  second,  and  third,  that  a  fair  chance  of  judg- 
ment may  be  had  ;  but  afterward,  when  the  result  has  given  satisfac- 
tion, and  all  doubts  are  removed,  it  will  be  found  that  no  reason  exists 
why  they  sh(^ild  not  be  mixed  a,t  once,  as  the  care  and  management 


100'  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

will  be  considerably  facilitated,  without  interfering  in  the  least  with 
its  quality. 

But  as  experience  and  judgment  are  required  to  put  this  method  in 
practice,  it  will  be  .best  to  begin  with  a  small  quantity. 

Success  will  follow  good  management  in  this  branch,  as  well  as  in 
any  other  of  horticulture  or  agriculture,  and  more  so  here,  as  these 
principles  correspond  precisely  with  Nature. 


ON  THE  PEODUCTIONS  OF  THE  IONIAN  ISLANDS 

AND  ITALY. 


BY  S.  B.  PARSONS,  OP  FLUSHING,  NEW  YORK. 


We  landed  opposite  the  little  town  of  Samos,  on  the  island  of  Ceph- 
alonia.  Our  ride  up  the  mountain,  from  this  place,  was  full  of  inter- 
est, with  delightful  glimpses  of  the  coast  and  sea,  patches  of  vines, 
with  the  peculiar  ant-hill  culture  noticed  first  in  Zante,  and  wild 
flowers  and  trees,  many  of  which  were  new  to  us.  Cyclamens,  ane- 
mones, and  iris  were  abundant.  The  Quercus  ilex,  or  holly  oak,  grow- 
ing in  the  plains  of  large  sise,  became  dwarf  as  we  ascended,  until,  at 
the  greatest  altitude,  it  creeps  like  a  vine  upon  the  ground,  in  large 
rich  masses,  v/itll  very  small  leaves.  Although  flourishing  here  in  the 
snow  region^^it  has  not  proved  hardy  about  New  York,  but  would 
doubtless  be-so  wherever  the  QiLercus  virens,  or  live  oak,  will  grow. 
With  its  rich,  glossy,  holly  foliage,  it  would  be  a  valuable  addition  to 
our  ornamental  trees.  That  which  most  excited  our  admiration,  how- 
ever, was  the  Ceratonia  siliqica,  or  carob  tree.  It  is  round  headed,  ever- 
green, with  leaves  placed  and  formed  like  the  locust,  but  thick  and 
glossy  as  the  Pittosporum.  It  bears  a  pod,  which  is  eaten  by  cattle, 
and  is  used  largely  for  government  horses  in  Malta.  In  Sicily,  a  spirit 
is  distilled  from  it.  It  grows  wild  everywhere,  and  is  said  to  be  the 
same  tree  which  furnished  food  to  John  the  Baptist.  A  superior  va- 
riety is  cultivated  by  grafting  upon  the  wild  species.  It  would  doubt- 
less succeed  in  our  extreme  southern  States,  for  we  found  it  on  high 
positions,  and  in  the  snow  region.  Some  seeds  for  distribution  will  be 
forwarded  to  the  Patent  Office,  and  it  will  be  found  worthy  of  careful 
trial,  combining,  as  it  does,  great  beauty  with  the  production  of  a  use- 
ful article  of  food. 

At  one  of  the  villages,  we  found  the  women  crocheting  capes  and 
sleeves  with  a  thread  made  from  the  fibers  of  the  aloes.  The  fabric 
v/as  light,  glossy,  and  beautiful ;  and  the  fiber  could  readily  be  culti- 
vated in  our  southern  States. 

The  culture  of  grape  and  currant,  on  Mr.  Pana's  estate,  is  very 
thorough.  It  was  pleasant  to  notice  his  frank,  kind  manner  with  his 
laborers,  and  their  respectful,  ready  answers.  He  is  said  to  be  un- 
cqualed  on  the  island  for  the  thought  and  intelligence  Which  he  givea 


THE   IONIAN   ISLANDS  AND  ITALY-  lOl 

to  his  estates.  His  gardens  were  full  of  oranges,  pears,  Japan  med- 
lars, grapeS;  and  quinces,  while  roses  were  blooming  everywhere. 

We  wished  to  ascend  the  Black  mountain,  to  see  the  noble  speci- 
mens of  Picea  cephalonica,  which  are  found  here  only,  and  took  mules 
up  the  almost  j^recipitous  sides,  among  piles  of  rocks  and  stones,  with 
a  few  flowers  struggling  from  among  them,  and  very  little  vegetation, 
except  mosses  and  the  dwarf  Quercus  ilex.  After  some  hard  work,  v/e 
reached  the  forest  of  pines,  and,  passing  through  a  part  of  it,  arrived 
at  the  government  cottage,  where  rangers  are  kept  to  protect  the  wood. 
The  sight  of  the  trees  fully  repaid  us.  Here  were  superb  specimens  of 
Ficea  cephaloovica ,  fifty  or  sixty  feet  high,  growing  where  they  had 
abundant  room  to  develop,  straight  as  an  arrow  and  symmetrical  as  a 
pyramid,  with  the  rich,  glossy  foliage  peculiar  to  the  species.  Some 
of  the  specimens  had  trunks  three  feet  in  diameter,  and  covered  as 
much  ground  as  a  large  live  oak  in  Florida.  As  the  tree  is  perfectly 
hardy  near  New  York,  we  were  anxious  to  procure  some  seed,  but 
looked  in  vain  for  cones.  One  was  brought  us  by  a  ranger,  but  the 
seed  was  all  worthless.  We  could  now  readily  understand  why  it  is 
that  the  French  and  English  have  been  unable  to  procure  this  seed; 
and  that  the  tree  is  still  a  rare  one  in  England,  notwithstanding  the 
great  rage  there  for  all  fine  conifer?e.  From  the  overhanging  rocks, 
nearly  three  thousand  feet  high,  we  caught  a  superb  view  of  the  island 
and  sea,  as  the  clouds  rolled  away  below  us  for  a  few  minutes.  The 
barren  peaks  loomed  up,  white  with  limestone;  rich -olive  groves  and 
small  villages  dotted  the  plain ;  and  the  sea,  winding  in  among  the 
islands,  gave  the  coast  many  little  coves  with  picturesque  effect. 

In  Cephalonia,  the  sides  of  the  mountains  below  the'  snow  line  are 
planted  with  vines  on  the  steepest  declivities.  The  whole  ground  is 
white  with  small  pieces  of  limestone,  and  these  are  often  a  foot  deej). 
Among  them  the  vine  is  planted,  and  one  can  scarcely  conceive  how 
great  must  be  the  change,  on  the  appearance  of  vegetation,  from  their 
present  white  barrenness  to  the  living  green  of  the  new  leaves.  No 
soil  was  to  be  seen  on  the  surface,  where  the  vines  had  not  yet  been 
touched  with  the  hoe.  On  digging  down  there  is  found  a  rich-looking, 
bright  red  soil,  called  te^ra  rosa,  which  is  sometimes  used  for  mortar, 
and  is  evidently  full  of  iron.  In  some  places  the  vines  were  planted 
in  water-courses,  and  much  earth  had  been  washed  away  from  the 
roots.  These  are  said  to  produce  the  best  wine.  It  is  evident  from 
their  experience  in  Cephalonia  that  the  vine  thrives  well  with  plenty 
of  stone  and  surface  water.  We  noticed  many  fossils,  and  passed  a 
fathomless  lake  two  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  The  whole,  road 
down  the  mountain  was  full  of  glimpses  of  beauty.  In  the  valley  "WS 
again  met  the  luxuriant  vegetation  which  this  climate  and  soil  give. 

Cephalonia  is  not  so  highly  cultivated  as  Zante,  but  its  specialities 
are  the  same — currants,  grapes,  and  olives.  We  saw  no  cows  on  the 
island,  and  but  few  oxen,  of  inferior  breed,  imported  from  Morea. 
Thero  are  few  horses,  and  those  of  inferior  character.  Fish  are  plen- 
tiful and  good.  Lemons  and  oranges  are  abundant,  but  not  exported. 
The  blood-oranges  are  the  best,  and  we  could  hear  of  no  insect  upon 
them.  They  have  a  singular  mode  of  propagating  the  lemon,  in  order 
to  insure  the  same  variety.    A  brancli,  two  or  three  feet  long,  is  buried 


102  AGRICULTURAL  REPORT.      - 

in  the  ground^  in  a  sloping  direction,  tlie  upper  end  being  six  inches 
below  the  surface,  and  several  inches  of  the  lower  end  left  out  of  the 
ground.  In  other  words,  it  is  a  cutting  reversed.  •  That  part  a,bove 
the  ground  sends  up  a  shoot  vfliich  grows  with  great  rapidity,  vdiile 
the  part  below  remains  dormant  or  decays.  Jaj^an  medlars  grow  here 
of  large  size,  and  are  said  to  produce  fine  fruit.  Currants  are  produced 
in  large  quantities,  but  with  the  exception  of  those  of  Mr.  Pana,  the 
cultivation  is  not  equal  to  that  of  Zante. 

Olives  are  cultivated  by  cuttings,  and  also  by  grafting.  Twenty- 
five  thousand  barrels  of  oil  are  made  annually.  The"  harvest  is  from 
October  to  December,  inclusive.  The  ripest  fruit  is  the  richest,  and. 
the  best  is  grown  on  the  hills.  Five  to  forty  bushels  are  produced  by 
a  tree,  and  one  bushel  will  make  two  gallons  of  oil. 

Near  Lixuri  is  a  heavy  gray  argillaceous  soil,  and  all  along  the  coast 
are  numerous  marshes,  which  could  be  easily  drained  and  thus  ren- 
dered extremely  fertile. 

The  caper  grows  wild,  but  is  never  prejoared  for  exportation.  A  list 
of  about  two  hundred  species  of  plants  and  trees  found  in  Cephalonia 
was  obtained,  which,  if  desired,  will  be  furnished  to  the  department. 
Of  these.  Salvia  officinalis  is  used  for  asthma,  Golutea  arhorescens  in- 
stead of  senna  leaves,  (this  is  hardy  near  IST.ew  York,)  and  Phytolacca, 
applied  externally,  is  considered  a  specific  in  cancer,  producing  exces- 
sive pain  and  inflammation,  and  curing  in  six  or  eight  weeks. 

Orange  trees,  the  size  of  full-bearing  apple  trees,  and  filled  with 
fruit;  Japan  medlars,  fifteen  feet  high;  Portugal  laurel,  of  the  same 
height ;  large  and  beautiful  specimens  of  Lauristinus,  in  full  bloom, 
(and  this  in  January;)  pride  of  India;  immense  cactus  and  aloes ;  large 
acacias ;  a  sort  of  Gleditschia,  the  pods  of  which  are  sold  in  the  market ; 
date  palms,  myrtle,  pine,  cypress,  and  olives,  clothe  the  valleys  and 
hills.  The  olives,  unlike  the  Italian,  were  very  large  and  spreading, 
and  their  trunks  split  and  perforated,  often  to  such  a  d.egree  that  one 
wondered  vfhere  vitality  could  exist.  The  French  cut  down  most  of 
the  finest  trees  during  the  rule  of  the  first  Napoleon,  and  after  the 
island  Avas  delivered  to  the  English,  in  1815,  the  government  oifered 
a  shilling  bounty  for  each  tree  planted,  hoping  thu^  to  encourage  their 
grov.^th.  It  was  partially  successful,  and  there  are  nov/  a  great  num- 
ber of  fine  trees  upon  the  island.  The  only  kind  grov/n  is  the  small 
variety,  for  oil.  A  large  variety,  used  for  pickles,  is  produced  upon 
the  adjacent  island  of  Paxos. 

Corfu  has  a  great  abundance  of  rich  soil,  but  is  not  under  good  cul- 
ture. The  ruinous  metayer,  or  contract  system,  prevails  here,  and  few 
cultivate  their  own  lands.  They  are  let  out  on  short  leases,  for  one 
third  or  one  fifth  of  the  produce.  For  want  of  intelligent  manage- 
ment, the  olive  and  vine,  of  which  three  fourths  of  the  culture  con- 
sist, are  very  much  neglected.  The  vine  is  of  the  poorest  quality, 
while  the  olive  trees  are  too  thickly  planted  for  ventilation,  and  never 
regularly  pruned  nor  dug.  Instead  of  being  carefully  picked,  the 
fruits  are  allowed  to  fall,  from  October  to  Aprils  and  many  are  half- 
rotten  before  being  pressed.  Sometimes  they  are  stored  and  salted, 
until  a  more  convenient  time  for  manufacture.  The  ripe  olives  make 
better  oil,  but  not  of  such  fine  appearance  as  the  unripe.     The  trees 


THE   IONIAN    ISLANDS   AND    ITALY 


103 


blossom  in  April  and  ripen  in  October,  when  tlie  fruit  harvest  begins. 
The  soil  is  a  very  rich,  stiJtf,  tenacious  clay,  retentive  of  moisture,  and 
interspersed  with  stone  and  rock,  of  limestone  and  silex.  Arable  land 
bears  a  small  proportion  to  woodland  and  pasture. 

Quercus  aegilops  is  found  in  the  mountaiii,s,  and  its  acorn,  called 
halania,  is  sometimes  used  for  a  dye-stuff.  Figs,  pomegranates, 
apricots,  almonds,  plums,  peaches,  and  melons  abound,  and  there  is 
some  culture  of  the  cereals.  Oranges  fruit  and  flower  together  through 
all  the  year.  Apricots,  almonds,  plums,  andpeaches  flower  in  February. 
Peas,  beans,  potatoes,  and  cherries  ripen  in  April.  The  hay  harvest 
is  in  May  ;  that  of  barley,  oats,  wheat,  and  flax  in  June.  Indian  corn 
and  millet  generally  ripen  in  August,  but  sometimes,  in  bad  years,  not 
un'cil  September  or  October.  The  vintage  begins  the  latter  part  of 
September. 

The  following  table,  obtained  from  the  garrison  librarian,  will  give 
the  best  idea  of  the  temperature.  It  is  the  monthly  average  for  ten 
years : 


1^ 

3 

< 

1-3 

3 
fcs 
3 

<: 

m 

.3 
O 

O 

> 

SI 

S 
o 

a 

5Si 

47' 

56 

7.40 

59 

48 

36 

5.27 

64 

51-i 

40' 

3.74 

70 

57 

44 

1.60 

79 

6,5i 

52 

0.69 

87i 

72i 

58i 

0.70" 

91 

77i 

64 

0.23 

88 
76 
63i 
1.36 

8U 

70' 

58i 

3.17 

65i 

53' 

5.86 

6Si 

57| 

44i 

7.25" 

62 

Mean 

49-! 

5.47 

In  1839,  there  were  17  inches  feil  In  November. 
In  1842,  there  were  19  inches  fell  in  January. 

There  are  no  animals  peculiar  to  Corfu.  Pasture  is  scarce,  and  cat- 
tle are  brought  from  Albania.  Dogs  are  reared  with  great  difficulty. 
The  birds  most  common  are  havfks,  owls,  crows,  partridges,  quails, 
woodcock,  snipe,  plover,  wild  duck,  and  pigeons,  the  last  in  large 
quantities.  Eggs  are  abundant,  and  good  butter  and  cheese  are  made 
from  goat's  milk.  The  fuel  is  wood,  charcoal,  and  cliosto,  or  refuse 
fi'om  the  oil  mills.  The  peasants  are  industrious  and  thrive  well  on 
their  daily  allowance  of  food,  which  is  two  pounds  of  coarse  bread, 
seasoned  by  a  few  cloves  of  garlic,  with  a  little  weak  wine.  Meat  is 
almost  an  unknovv^n  luxury  with  them,  although  we  noticed  in  the 
market  some  fine  turkeys  and  chickens,  for  the  use  of  the  wealthier 
classes.  Among  the  peasants  are  several  curative  practices  which  they 
think  specifics.  They  treat  the  pip  in  fowls  by  removing  the  crust  on 
the  tongue,  and  then  making  them  swallow  it  in  oil,  v/hich  purges 
copiously.  Convulsions  in  goats  are  cured  by  a  seton  thrust  through 
the  cartilage  of  the  nose.  Setons  of  green  hellebore  are  inserted  in 
horses  for  pectoral  diseases.  To  prevent  hydrophobia,  a  paste  of 
verhascwn  and  cantharides  is  given  dogs.  Teucvium  tincture  is  used 
for  intermittent  fevers.  Excellent  honey  is  made,  and  Melissa  officinalis 
is  cultivated  for  the  bees.  Or ganum  vulgar e  i^  used  for  dying  wool 
purple,  and  Juncus  acutus  is  gi'0V\ai  for  the  manufacture  of  mats  and 
cordage,  but  too  limited  in  extent  to'  afford  any  opportunity  of  ex- 
amining its  culture. 


104  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

We  cannot  liear  of  any  insect  upon  the  orange  or  lemon.  The  olive 
appears  to  be  infested  by  an  insect,  which  caused  knots  upon  the  limbs, 
similar  to  those  which  grow  upon  our  plum  trees.  There  is  also  an 
insect,  something  like  the  curculio,  which  destroys  the  kernel  of  the 
olive.  They  are  sometimes  collected  and  destroyed  by  beating  the 
tree.  There  are  also  knots  upon  the  olive  similar  in  character,  though 
not  in  shape,  to  the  knees  of  the  cypress^  which  are  so  much  dreaded 
by  travelers  in  our  southern  swamps.  These  are  about  the  size  of  tv\^o 
hands,  and  are  planted  to  produce  young  trees.  It  is  difficult  to  obtain 
them  in  any  quantity,  on  account  of  the  unwillingness  of  proprietors 
to  have  their  trees  mutilated.  The  olive  grows  fast  in  a  warm  climate, 
biit  very  slow  in  its  northern  limit,  which  is  about  the  latitude  of 
Lyons.  Those  from  the  north,  would  doubtless  be  most  successfuHn 
the  United  States.  The  Lucca  oil  is  considered  the  best,  from  the  fact 
that  a  superior  quality  is  made  from  trees  grov/n  in  high  situations, 
where  ice  is  often  found.  Slopes  of  our  Allegiiauies  present  favorable 
sites  for  this  culture.  The  high  lands  are  also  esteemed  best  for  vines, 
and  produce  the  finest  wines,  although  the  plains  yield  more  abund- 
antly. 

Near  Catania  is  a  highly-cultivated  J'egion,  with  vineyards  of  great 
extent,  and  large  fields  of  grass,  wheat,  flax,  lupins,  &c.  The  vines 
were  about  four  feet  apart,  and  men  were  plowing  between  them  both 
ways,  while  others,  with  hoes,  were  drawing  the  earth  away  from  the 
roots,  as  in  Cephalonia.  Many  of  the  plants  were  of  great  age,  with 
stems  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter,  and  each  branch  pruned  dovv^n 
to  one  or  two  eyes.  Orchards  of  lemon  and  almond  trees  Avere  there, 
and  the  earth  drawn  from  their  roots,  laying  bare  a  circle  sometimes 
ten  or  fifteen  feet  in  diameter.  The  soil  is  decomposed  lava,  black, 
like  peat,  even  on  higu  lands,  and  must  be  wonderfully  fertile.  In 
many  places  dykes  were  formed  to  catch  the  rain  and  keep  it  upon  the 
vines  as  long  as  possible.  We  crossed  many  beds  of  mountain  torrents 
several  hundred  feet  wide  and  running  into  the  sea.  Near  Catania  an 
immense  stream  of  lava,  a  mile  wide,  is  piled  up  in  masses,  upon  which 
nothing  will  yet  grow,  except  here  and  there  a  cactus,  the  acrid  nature 
of  which  is  said  to  aid  in  disintegrating  the  mineral. 

As  we  approached  Catania  there  Avere  evidences  of  higher  cultivation, 
and  pleasant-looking  country  houses,  with  their  gardens,  were  fre- 
quent. Fields  of  mustard,  with  their  light  and  vivid  green,  had  a 
growth  of  a  foot  even  thus  early  in  February ;  indeed,  all  the  vegeta- 
tion evinced  the  richness  of  the  soil  and  the  tropical  nature  of  the 
climate. 

Oranges  and  lemons  were  abundant,  and  we  occasionally  ate  some 
Indian  figs,  which  were  pleasant,  but  rather  too  sweet.  The  sharp 
spines  with  which  they  are  covered  render  gloves  necessary  in  handling 
them.  The  best  fruit  we  found  here  were  some  delicious  pears,  sold  at 
a  cent  each,  and  the  Limoncelli  apple,  which  grows  upon  the  slopes 
of  Mount  Etna,  and  has  a  delicate  sub-acid  flavor. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Palermo  we  visited  the  agricultural  school,  com- 
menced in  1848  under  the  private  endowment  of  the  Due  Castel  Nuovo 
of  $5,000  per  annum.  The  director  receives  $500  annually,  the  chap- 
lain, who  also  teachesj  |325,  and  the  Lancasterian  teacher  |90,     It  is 


THE    IONIAN    ISLANDS    AND    ITALY.  106 

connected  witli  130  acres  of  land,  composed  of  red  calcareous  soil,  allu- 
vial and  rich.  The  plantations  of  manna  and  saffron  were  the  most 
interesting.  The  ash  trees  ibr  the  manna  were  planted  ten  feet  apart, 
and  the  bark  on  one  side  was  full  of  incisions,  from  which  the  gum 
had  issued.  There  v/ere  good  plantations  of  oranges  and  lemons,  but 
it  was  too  early  to  see  their  'growing  crops.  The  building  is  Grecian, 
of  very  tasteful  design,  with  bed-room,  dining-hall,  and  school  of 
ample  size.  A  very  fine  collection  of  230  varieties  of  the  woods  of  the 
island  was  shown  us.  The  ornamental  grounds  are  tasteful,  with 
trimmed  cypresses,  seventy  years  old,  and  walls  painted  with  good 
landscapes,  above  Avhich  rose  at  a  distance  the  real  mountains.  A 
flov,'-er-garcien,  in  the  French  style,  a  statue,  and  groups  of  shrubs, 
aided  the  effect  of  the  scene.  There  are  twenty-six  pupils,  four  of 
whom  arc  charity,  the  others  paying  about  fifty  dollars  a  year,  which 
sum  includes  clothing,  board,  and  tuition.  Three  meals  a  day  are 
given  them;  breakfast  an  hour  after  sunrise,  consisting  of  bread,  with 
fruit,  cheese,  or  sausages;  dinner  at  noon,  of  v/ine,  bread,  and  soup, 
with  meat  three  "times  a  week,  and  on  the  alternate  days  beans  and 
maccaroni,  with  a  ragout  on  the  Sabbath ;  supper  at  eight,  of  bread 
and  cheese,  salad,  and  boiled  greens.  Napkins  were  provided,  and  the 
table-tops  were  of  marble.  Five  hours  a  day  is  devoted  to  practice  in 
the  field,  and  four  hours  in  the  school  to  scientific  studies. 

AGRAMI. 

Oranges^  Lemons,  and  Citrons.- — Of  these,  the  best  known  and 
most  generally  cultivated  are  the  common  orange  and  its  varieties, 
the  blood  orange,  the  Seville  or  sour  orange,  and  the  bergamot ;  the 
common  lemon,  the  sweet  lemon,  and  the  bergamot;  the  Florence 
citron,  distinguished  by  its  delicate,  grateful,  and  highly-scented 
oil,  contained  in  the  rind,  and  the  imperial  citron,  a  rough,  irregular 
fruit,  growing  to  a  great  size,  and  chiefly  cultivated  as  a  curiosity. 
The  citron  is  cut  in  two,  placed  in  salt  water  ten  or  twelve  days,  then 
laid  down  in  salt,  and  sent  thus  to  Leghorn,  Genoa,  and  France,  to  be 
preserved  in  sugar.  These,  and  all  the  varieties  of  the  citron  family, 
require  a  v/arm  climate,  a  rich,  loamy  soil,  somewhat  loose,  and  an 
eastern  or  sunny  exposure.  Stable  manure  is  used  freely,  and  the  best 
fruit  is  grow^n  on  the  richest  soil.  An  abundant  supply  of  water  is 
also  requisite,  especially  for  the  lemon  species^  whose  roots,  spreading 
horizontally  and  rarely  striking  deep,  are  most  exposed  to  the  burning- 
heat  of  the  summer.  In  preparing  for  a  plantation,  the  ground  is 
made  gently  sloping,  with  just  enough  descent  to  allow  water  to  run, 
and  is  then  dyked  in  eight  feet  squares.  Every  week  or  fortnight  after 
being  planted,  according  to  the  weather,  water  is  turned  on  the  highest 
of  these,  and  then  on  each  lower  one,  successively.  This  is  continued 
all  summer.  As  the  same  water  is  used  by  many,  some  irrigate  at 
mid-day,  and  do  not  consider  it  injurious.  The  trees  are  grown  in 
nurseries,  and  when  of  sufiicient  size  are  planted  in  orchards,  fifteen 
icet  apart.  The  lemon,  from  its  more  straggling  growth,  will  do  better 
at  twenty  feet.  The  fruit  from  ungraftecl  trees  grows  larger,  and  is 
esteemed  as  good  as  that  from  grafted  trees  for  home  consumption. 


106  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

The  latter,  liowever^  are  preferred,  for  several  reasons.  Tlie  natural 
fruit  is  more  delicate  in  its  texture,  matures  quicker,  and  will  not  keep 
so  well  for  exportation.  It  is  also  tliorny,  and  wounds  the  fruit. 
Trees  are  sometimes  grown  from  cuttings,  but  are  thought  to  bear  less 
and  to  be  of  shorter  duration  than  those  from  seed.  The  trees  may  be 
raised  from  seed,  or  propagated  by  layers  and  young  branches.  When 
the  plants  are  cultivated  with  attention  and  skill,  they  come  into 
bearing  in  four  or  five  years.  In  ten  or  twelve  years  a  moderate  crop 
is  annually  produced,  and  at  from  twelve  to  twenty  they  may  be  con- 
sidered in  full  bearing.  An  average-sized,  adult  tree  will  produce 
from  twelve  hundred  to  two  thousand  fruit,  although  there  are  many 
larger  trees  that  will  yield  from  four  to  six  thousand.  Of  these,  one 
sixth  are  unfit  for  exportation,  and  are  used  for  home  consumption  or 
cut  up  for  lemon  juice  and  oil.  From  the  flowers  of  the  orange  an 
agreeably-scented  water,  well  known  in  commerce,  is  obtained  by  distil- 
lation. The  bitter  peel  of  the  sour  or  Seville  orange,  as  also  the  orange 
buds  or  small  fruit  which  are  blighted  on  the  trees  of  all  varieties  in 
the  month  of  June,  afi^ord  a  considerable  article  of  commerce.  They 
are  dried,  and  shipped  to  Germany  and  other  parts  of  the  north,  where 
they  are  either  consumed  by  the  brewers  of  malt  liquors  or  converted 
into  cordials  by  infusion  or  distillation  over  spirits.  The  fruit  intended 
for  exportation  is  gathered  with  the  greatest  care,  and  deposited  in 
baskets  lined  with  sacking  or  hemp  cloth.  The  sound  and  most  perfect 
being  selected,  they  are  wrapped  in  a  light-brown,  thin  paper,  imported 
from  Genoa  and  Trieste,  the  rags  composing  Vvdiich  go  from  Sicily. 
Large  sums  are  sent  annually  to  Genoa  for  its  j)urchase.  They  are 
then  packed  in  light,  boxes,  double-lined  with  this  paper.  This  gath- 
ering and  packing  continues  from  November  to  March,  and  is  done  by 
men,  v.^omen,  and  children,  in  the  country,  under  a  contractor,  who 
receives  eight  cents  for  each  box  of  three  hundred  and  sixty.  In  this 
shape  they  are  brought  to  the  city  store-houses,  where,  after  remaining 
eiglit  or  ten  days,  they  are  all  unpacked  and  examined,  and  any  orange 
or  lemon  showing  the  least  scratcli  or  blemish  is  cast  into  a  bin,  to  be 
sold  in  small  quantities  to  the  city  retail  dealers.  The  perfect  ones  are 
then  again  wrapped  and  packed  as  before.  If,  by  some  accident,  they  are 
not  shipped,  the  same  process  is  repeated  every  two  weeks,  so  that  when 
shipped  they  are  always  perfect,  and  likely  to  keep  for  a  long  time.  The 
assorting  and  wrapping-  by  women,  at  eighteen  cents  a  day,  and  packing 
by  men,  at  thirty-two  cents,  requires  some  skill  a-nd  dexterity  to  suit 
the  numbers  contained  in  the  cases  to  the  customs  of  the  country  to 
which  they  are  to  be  sent.  Each  case  is  divided  across  the  middle  into 
two  equal  parts,  in  each  of  which  the  fruit  is  arranged  in  five  tiers. 
Children  are  employed  in  smoothing  the  papers  taken  from  the  fruit  in 
the  unpacking,  and  these  children  earn  about  two  cents  per  day  beside 
fruit  enough  to  eat  with  their  bread. 

Of  lemons  intended  for  England  and  America,  the  usual  number  in 
such  cases  is  three  hundred  and  sixty ;  of  oranges,  the  size  of  the  case 
for  which  is  smaller,  the  number  is  two  hundred  and  forty.  The  first 
shipment  of  lemons,  called  "di  jyrimi  fiori,"  takes  place  in  September; 
they  are  considered  much  inferior  to  the  subsequent  gathering,  from 
November  to  January,  as  they  have  a  hard,  thick  rind,  and  contain 


THE   lONIAlN    ISLANDS   AND   ITALY.  107 

little  juice.  These  are  mostly  sent  to  Trieste,  and  to  the  markets  in 
the  Mediterranean,  while  some  few  find  their  way  to  England,  as  early 
shipments.  Lemons  for  exportation  should  weigh  at  least  three  and  a 
half  ounces  each,  have  a  firm  rind,  moderately  thick,  ahoundvfith  acid 
juice,  and  not  he  unripe.  For  this  latter  quality,  the  fruit  which  is 
gathered  and  packed  green,  in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  is  greatly 
to  he  preferred  for  foreign  markets.  About  the  month  of  Januar}^, 
the  lemons,  approaching  to  maturity,  hegin  to  change  their  color  on 
the  tree,  from  whicli  time  they  gradually  decline  in  quality  for  long- 
voyages,  until  the  month  of  March,  when,  the  trees  heing  exhausted 
of  their  fruit,  the  gathering  season  closes  until  the  new  crop  comes 
round.  A  sufficient  quantity  of  fruit  is  always  kept  upon  the  trees  for 
home  consumption  until  the  next  season.  The  most  considerable,  and 
sometimes  the  most  valuable  portion  of  the  fruit,  is  the  scartito,  or  that 
rejected  as  unfit  for  exportation,  from  whicli  the  essential  oil,  contained 
in  the  rind,  and  the  juice  or  citric  acid  in  the  pulp,  are  extracted.  The 
essential  oil  is  expressed  by  the  hand,  in  a  room  from  which  the  air  is 
carefully  excluded,  as,  owing  to  its  highly  volatile  nature,  the  oil  pro- 
duced would  be  greatly  diminished  by  currents  of  air.  The  skin  cut 
from  three  sides  of  the  lemon  is  pressed  between  the  thumb  and  finger, 
and  ten  or  twelve  ounces  may  be  expressed  in  a  long  day  by  an  expert 
and  stead}^  workman.  The  oil  thus  expressed  is  put  into  large  re- 
ceivers, whence  (after  remaining  some  days  to  d.eposit  the  extraneous 
matter  that  comes  off  with  the  oil)  it  is  transferred  to  copper  bottles, 
for  exportation. 

The  juice,  or  citric  acid,  is  obtained  by  submitting  the  pulp  to  a  pow- 
erful press,  which,  though  rustic  in  construction,  is  efficient.  This  is 
worked  during  the  season  night  and  day.  The  cjuantity  of  juice  pro- 
duced from  one  press  during  twenty-four  hours  averages  one  hundred 
and  twenty-six  gallons.  In  the  average  of  the  season,  it  requires  from 
ninety-five  to  one  hundred  and  five  lemons  to  produce  a  gallon  of  juice. 
The  amount  of  the  annual  produce  cannot  easily  be  ascertained.  The 
produce  of  the  district  of  Messina,  including  imports  from  the  oppo- 
site coast  of  Calabria,  is- stated  at  two  hundred  and  forty-two  millions 
of  gallons.  In  seasons  of  great  demand,  any  quantity  maj  be  pur- 
chased, the  requisite  amount  being  fraudulently  made  up  by  water 
mixed  with  the  juice  of  the  sour  or  Seville  orange  and  that  of  the 
sweet  orange  taken  in  its  green  and  immature  state ;  sometimes  the 
adulteration  is  with  the  juice  of  unripe  grapes. 

Lemon  juice  intended  for  exportation  is  put  into  strong  and  vfell- 
seasoned  oak  casks,  and  filled  to  the  bung,  so  as  entirely  to  exclude 
the  air.  When  the  lemon  juice  is  originally  of  a  good  quality,  and 
the  filling  of  the  casks  is  completed,  the  article  may  be  kept  in  a  cel- 
lar, or  cold  place,  for  any  reasonable  time.  By  injudicious  manage- 
ment, rather  than  from  natural  defect,  lemon  juice  shipped  to  foreign 
markets  was  formerly  spoiled  before  it  reached-  its  destination.  To 
obviate  this  evil,  a  British  merchant  established  in  Messina,  in  1815, 
a  manufactory,  on  a  large  scale,  for  crystalizing  the  citric  acid.  This 
process,  however,  being  found  expensive  for  consumers  in  general^  a 
new  mode  was  introduced,  of  evaporating  the  juice  over  steam,  in 
leaden  pans,  four  or  five  feet  in  diameter,  by  which  tlie  watery  parts 


108  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

of  the  juice  being  thrown  off,  there  remained  nothing  but  the  citric 
acid  and  mucilage,  in  a  highly-concentrated  state.  This  was  found  to 
answer  the  purposes  of  calico  printers  and  other  great  consumers  so 
completely,  that  almost  all  the  lemon  juice  now  shipped  from  Sicily 
is  boiled  down  to  any  given  strength ;  the  degree  of  that  strength, 
ascertained  by  a  hydrometer  contrived  for  the  purpose,  determines  the 
amount  of  the  duty  to  be  levied  on  the  import. 

VINE. 

Unlike  some  other  vegetable  productions  of  the  island,  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  vine  is  not  limited  to  any  particular  district  or  aspect.  It 
flourishes  equally  well  on  the  mountains  and  in  the  plains,  on  the  sea- 
coast  and  in  the  interior,  in  the  north  and  in  the  south. 

The  difficulty  of  transportation  in  so  mountainous  a  country  as 
Sicily  naturally  promotes  the  most  extensive  cultivation  toward  the 
coast.  That  in  the  interior  is  principally  limited  to  the  vicinity  of 
large  towns,  for  the  consumption  of  the  inhabitants  alone. 

Generally  speaking,  the  black  grape  predominates  throughout  the 
island,  and  from  this  and  the  white,  too  often  planted  promiscuously, 
an  endless  variety  is  cultivated  in  every  province.  In  laying  dov/n  a 
new  vineyard,  the  land,  which  should  slope  southerly,  is  iirst  well 
cross-plowed,  in  the  month  of  isTovember,  and  allowed  to  rest  till  the 
middle  of  January.  Trenches  are  then  dug,  about  five  feet  deep  and 
from  four  to  five  feet  apart,  which  are  left  open  to  ventilate  about  fif- 
teen days.  The  plants,  which  are  vigorous  cuttings  of  the  former 
year's  growth,  taken  from  some  neighboring  healthy  vineyard,  and 
generally  from  eight  to  ten  feet  long,  are  placed  upright  in  the 
trenches,  at  a  distance  of  five  feet  apart,  the  trench  being  then  filled 
in  to  the  depth  of  three  fiset.  The  upper  end  of  the  cutting  or  magli- 
nolo,  as  it  is  termed,  is  then  turned  down  with  its  point  stuck  into  the 
ground  to  keep  it  fresh.  'As  the  season  advances:  and  the  plant  begins 
to  vegetate,  the  remainder  of  the  trench  is  from  time  to  time  filled  in. 
In  the  succeeding  winter  the  plants  are  attentively  examined  and 
pruned,  leaving  the  most  vigorous  shoots  only  with  not  more  than  two 
eyes  or  buds.  The  vineyard  is  then  hoed  up  and  kept  clean  from 
weeds,  till  the  end  of  May  or  June,  a  cavity  being  left  around  each 
plant  to  receive  the  rains.  The  same  cultivation  is  continued  for  the 
second  and  third  years,  before  which  the  plants  do  not  show  any  fruit. 
The  fourth  is  generally  considered  the  first  year  of  produce.  In  those 
districts  where  canes  are  to  be  had,  the  plants  are  staked  in  March  and 
April,  to  which  the  shoots  are  attached  as  they  advance  in  growth,  to 
protect  them  from  being  broken  by  the  strong  northeast  winds  which 
prevail  in  June,  From  six  or  seven  years  to  twenty  a  vineyard  is 
considered  in  its  prime  bearing,  though  there  are  many  favored  by  rich 
soil  and  judicious  management,  which  remain  in  full  bearing  forty  and 
even  fifty  years.  If  the  plantation  is  good,  the  produce  of  one  thou- 
sand vines,  in  the  seventh  year,  will  be  two  hundred  and  thirty  gal- 
lons of  wine.  Where  the  proprietor  holds  the  vineyard  in  his  own 
possession,  the  average  annual  expense  of  cultivation  may  be  estimated 


TH^   IONIAN    ISLANDS    AND    ITALY.  109 

at  from  two  dollars  and  fifty  cents  to  three  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per 
thousand. 

When  the  owner  is  an  absentee,  or  puts  his  vineyard  into  the  hands 
of  a  metmjer,  this  latter  is  expected  to  reside  on  the  spot  and  perform 
all  the  labor,  for  which  he  divides  the  vintage  with  the  landlord  in 
equal  parts,  measured  at  the  press.  The  expense  or  cost  of  the  canes 
is  borne  equally  by  the  landlord  and  metayer,  and  cuttings  are  also 
divided  in  equal  portions.  These  agreements  are  always  in  favor  of 
the  landlord,  as,  the  metayer  being  unprovided  with  casks  or  stores  to 
deposit  his  portion,  the  whole  goes  into  the  hands  of  the  landlord,  who, 
about  Christmas,  holds  a  meeting  with  other  landlords  of  the  same 
district,  when  a  price  is  fixed  at  which  tliey  are  to  settle  with  the  me- 
tayers, deducting  one  half  the  expense  of  the  vintage.  The  price  is 
always  much  under  that  at  which  the  wine  maybe  sold  when  matured, 
but  the  landlord  considers  himself  entitled  to  this  advantage  for  the 
expense  of  providing  casks  and  stores,  the  possibility,  in  unfavorable 
seasons,  of  the  wine  turning  sour,  the  bursting  of  casks,  and  similar 
accidents. 

The  vintage  toward  the  coast  commences,  in  favorable  seasons,  from 
about  the  20th  to  the  25th  of  September,  but  in  the  mountains  and 
the  interior  a  month  later.  Every  vineyard  of  any  extent  is  provided 
with  apalmento  and  wine-press,  generally  constructed  in  some  shed  or 
convenient  out-house  adjoining  the  dwelling  of  the  metayer.  This 
consists  of  a  substantial  stone  cistern  built  upon  the  floor  of  the  press 
room,  about  three  feet  deep,  and  proportioned  to  the  extent  of  the  vine- 
yard, having  an  opening  at  the  bottom,  or  one  side,  into  which  is 
introduced  a  Stone  gutter,  projecting  over  a  well  sunk  in  the  ground, 
and  immediately  under  the  wall  of  the  cistern  above.  Sometimes  a 
wooden  cistern  is  used,  which  is  cheaper,  and  better  adapted  to  our 
economy.  The  grapes  being  gathered  and  thrown  into  this  cistern, 
are  trodden  by  men,  when  the  juice  flowing  through  the  gutter  is  re- 
ceived into  the  well  below.  This  treading  is  kept  up  as  long  as  any 
juice  continues  to  flow,  when  the  husks  are  collected  and  heaped  in  the 
middle  of  the  cistern.  Being  covered  with  strong  planks,  they  are 
then  submitted  to  the  press.  This  consists  of  a  beam  of  timber,  from 
twenty  to  twenty-four  feet  long,  one  end  of  which  is  let  into  a  hole, 
purposely  built  in  the  wall,  and  to  the  other  is  affixed  a  vertical  screw, 
with  a  huge  stone  attached,  weighing  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  hun- 
dred weight.  This  beam  passing  over  the  husks,  which  have  |)re- 
viously  been  collected  in  the  middle  of  the  palmento,  subjects  them  to 
a  most  powerful  pressure,  when  the  stone  is  suspended  by  the  winding 
of 'the  screw.  When  no  more  juice  flows  from  the  pressure,  the  husks 
are  removed,  and  the  must  conveyed  to  the  magazine.  The  produce 
of  this  pressing,  which  brings  out  the  coloring  matter  from  the  musk, 
is,  in  a  commercial  point  of  view,  considered  essential  in  the  quality 
of  the  red  wines.  So  much  is  a  deep  color  thought  desirable  in  these 
wines  for  a  foreign  market,  that  it  is  a  custom,  in  many  parts,  to  spread 
the  husks  again  upon  the  floor  of  the  palmento,  and  return  the  must 
thereon,  leaving  it  two  or  thr?e  days  to  ferment,  thereby  more  effectu- 
ally incorporating  the  coloring  matter  with  the  wine ;  but  the  practice 
is  injudicious,  as  it  imparts  to  the  wine  a  harsh,  acid  taste,  acquired 


110  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT.     . 

from  the- stalks.  For  wliite  wines,  the  husks  and  stalks  are  excluded 
in  the  fermentation. 

A  good  vineyard,  in  favorable  seasons,  v^^ill  produce  about  four  hun- 
dred gallons  of  must  per  thousand  plants ;  but  an  average  of  the  whole 
island  cannot  be  calcula^ted  at  more  than  two  hundred  gallons.  The 
places  for  the  exportation  of  Sicilian  vfines  are  Messina,  Melazzo,  Ei- 
posto,  or  Mascali,  Catania,  Syracuse,  Mazzara,  Marsala,  and  Palermo. 
Those  of  Messina  and  Melazzo  are  all  red,  or,  according  to  the  term 
of  the  country,  hlack  wines.  Very  little  of  the  white  grape  is  culti- 
vated, and  that  chiefly  intermixed  with  the  red.  In  the  neighborhood 
of  Savora,  about  twenty  miles  south  of  Messina,  and  from  Kiposto  to 
Catania,  and  thence  to  Syracuse,  including  that  district,  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  white  grape  preclominates ;  hence  the  shipments  from  those 
ports  are  principally  white  wines,  and  the  quality  full-bodied  and 
strong.  A  description  of  muscat  is  made  in  Syracuse,  and  much  es- 
teemed for  its  rich  and  luscious  flavor. 

The  most  esteemed  wines  of  Sicily,  and  the  most  important  in  com- 
mercial rank,  are  the  celebrated  white  v/ines  of  Marsada,  Mazzara,  and 
the  adjoining  territories.  As  far  back  as  I'ISO,  John  Woodhouse 
settled  at  Marsala  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  first  establishment 
for  those  wines,  which  have  since  obtained  the  highest  reputation.  It 
is  said,  -however,  that  the  success  of  this  speculation  was  in  the  outset 
very  equivocal.  The  first  shipments  were  made  to  America,  where  it 
gradually  acquired  reputation ;  and  about  1802  it  was  introduced  into 
the  English  fleet,  then  under  the  command  of  Lord  Nelson,  in  compli- 
ment to  that  oflicer  acquiring  the  appellation  of  Bronte  Madeira;  under 
which  denomination  considerable  shipments  were  subsequently  made 
to  England.  Five  other  establishments  were  afterwards  founded,  and 
have  proved  ^qyj  profitable.  Each  of  these  gives  employment  to  nu- 
merous workmen.  In  those  of  Woodhouse  and  Ingham,  about  one 
hundred,  and  in  those  of  others,  from  fifty  to  seventy,  are  in  constant 
attendance,  v\fhose  wages  and  allowance  are  liberal.  A  visit  to  one  of 
these  establishments  is  always  interesting.  The  great  extent  of  the 
premises,  the  neat  arrangement  of  the  work-shops,  the  close  attention 
of  the  principals,-  and  the  incessant  activity  of  the  cooi)er  and  smiths, 
make  an  impression  on  the  visitor ;  the  strength  of  which  is  heightened 
by  the  appearance  of  the  v/ine  stores,  where  from  ten  to  twelve  thou- 
sand pipes  are  ranged,  tier  above  tier,  extending  to  a  distance  of  several 
hundred  yards.  The  daily  earnings  of  a  family,  consisting  of  a  father 
and  fom-  sons  of  various  ages,  might  be  estimxated  as  follows : 

Father 28  to  32  cents. 

Son,  seventeen  years 20  to  24      "^ 

Son,  twelve 12  to  14      '' 

Son,  eight 8  to  10      '' 

Son,  five 2  to     4      " 

Each  adult  is  allowed  fire-v/ood  for  cooking  his  food^  besides  two  and 
a  half  quarts  of  Vv^ine,  and  a  small  quantity  of  oil,  per  day.  Each  boy 
has  the  same  allowance,  excepting  wine;  his  ration  of  which  is  about 
one  quart  per  diem. 


THE    IONIAN    ISLANDS    AND    ITALY.  Ill 

The  annual  produce  in  Marsala  and  tliat  territory  is  estimated  at 
about  twenty-four  thousand  pipes,  of  v/liicli  one  half  is  supposed  to  he 
consumed  in  the  country.  As  the  grape  is  a  mixture  of  both  white 
and  black,  the  v/ine,  in  its  primitive  state,  would  be  approaching  to 
pale-red  or  cherry  color.  Artificial  means  are  therefore  employed  to 
reduce  the  color ;  and  though  much  mystery  is  affected  in  the  subse- 
quent management,  and  each  establishment  pretends  to  a  process 
peculiarly  its  own,  the  main  secret  may  be  said  to  consist  in  frequent 
rackings  from  the  lees,  taking  care  never  to  disturb  it  in  the  spring, 
or  during  the  prevalence  of  the  sirocco  or  southeast  winds.  There  is 
also  a  gradual  reinforcement  of  clean  spirit;  for  the  preparation  of 
which,  each  establishment  is  provided  with  the  most  modern  and  ap- 
proved retort.  Three  or  four  years  are  required  to  make  it  marketable. 
The  neighborhood  of  Palermo  and  the  surrounding  territory  produces 
abundance  of  most  excellent  v^^ines  in  greafvariety,  both  red  and  v/hite, 
which  are  brought  into  Palermo  and  prepared  for  foreign  markets.  No 
less  considerable  quantities,  destined  for  exportation,  are  likewise 
brought  along  the  coast  to  this  port,  whence  extensive  shipments  of 
white  wines  are  annually  made  to  South  America,  England,  and  the 
United  States. 

SUMAC,    OE    RHUS    CORIARIA. 

Is  a  small  shrub^  growing  from  two  to  three  feet  in  a  season,  and 
used  for  its  stringent  qualities  by  tanners  and  dyers.  The  cultivation 
is  confined  chiefly  to  the  vicinity  of  Palermo  and  Alcamo,  the  last 
being  esteemed  the  best.  It  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  the  leaves 
of  the  leutish  and  mjh'tle  trees.  A  soil  of  moderate  depth  is  required, 
and  not  too  ricli ;  for  if  the  growth  is  too  luxuriant,  the  tannin  in  the 
plant  becomes  diluted.  Manure,  therefore,  is  never  used.  Stony 
ground  will  do  very  well,  although  the  sumac  near  Palermo  was  on 
good  rich  loam.  It  will  not  bear  much  water,  and  is  therefore  better 
on  a  hill-side,  vfith  a  southern  exposure,  as  the  more  sun  it  receives 
the  stronger  will  be  the  tannin.  It  could  doubtless  be  grown  with 
profit  on  the  dry  lands  in  our  southern  States.  The  proper  adaptation 
of  the  land  can  be  ascertained  by  testing  the  leaves  Vv^ith  sulphuric 
ether.  In  the  best  sumac,  one  hundred  grains  of  the  powdered  leaf 
should  give  thirty  to  thirty-five  grains  of  pure  tannin.  Use  as  much 
sulphuric  ether  as  will  dissolve  the  sumac,  or  pass  it  through  the  sumac 
till  it  runs  clear,  then,  draw  off  the  ether  by  heat,  and  the  deposit  will 
be  pure  tannin. 

The  soil  is  prepared  as  for  potatoes,  with  furrows  from  two  to  two 
and  a  half  feet  apart,  in  which  in  January  or  February  are  placed  the 
young  suckers  two  and  a  "half  feet  apart.  In  August,  of  the  first  year, 
the  leaves  on  the  lov/er  part  of  the  branches  are  drawn  off  with  thumb 
and  finger,  leaving  a  tuft  on  the  top.  In  October  the  whole  head  is 
taken  off,  or  sometimes  broken,  and  left  ha,nging  by  the  bark  till  dry. 
The  second  year,  in  June,  the  branches  are  stripped  of  ripe  leaves; 
and  in  August,  as  soon  as  the  v/hole  plant  is  mature,  it  is  cut  with  a 
sickle  down  to  six  inches ;  it  is  then  spread  out,  dried  thoroughly  on 
each  side  till  entirely  cured.     The  June  gathering  is  omitted  in  many 


112  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

cases  when  the  plants  are  not  strong.  After  being  dried,  tlie  brandies 
are  put  upon  a  floor  and  threshed,  when  the  leaves  will  separate  from 
the  wood,  which  is  of  no  value  except  for  fuel.  The  leaves  are  then 
ground  between  two  mill-stones,  one  of  which  is  on  edge  and  revolving 
around  a  center.  We  visited  a  mill  driven  by  steam  pov/er,  which 
threw  out  the  powdered  sumac  in  large  quantities.  The  air  vras  iilled 
with  fine  particles  of  dust,  which  covered  our  clothing  and  entered  th'. 
lungs.  It  is  not  injurious,  however;  for,  although  it  seemed  suffoca- 
ting, the  workmen  will  sleep  three  or  four  hours  successively  in  it  and 
are  always  remarkably  healthy.  They  were  particularly  exempt  from 
cholera. 

The  leaves  are  readily  reduced  to  powder,  v/hile  the  stems  are  not. 
These  last  are  then  separated  by  sifting,  and  the  pure  sumac  is  placed 
in  bags  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-three  pounds  each  for  shipment.  A 
sumac  plantation  will  produce  a  good  article  for  ten  years,  and  a 
poorer  for  ten  years  longer.  The  same  soil  will  not  bear  sumac  a 
second  time,  unless  cropped  by  something  else  for  twenty  years,  nor 
is  it  then  so  good  as  land  on  which  sumac  has  never  been  grown.  It  re- 
quires the  usual  cleaning,  and  is  hoed  in  December,  March,  and  May. 
Two  thousand  pounds  of-  ground  sumac  to  an  acre  is  considered  an 
average  crop. 

BARILLA,    OR   SODA. 

The  cultivation  of  this  alkaline  plant,  which  is  attended  with  con- 
siderable expense  and  requires  great  labor  and  care,  has  lately  been 
much  neglected,  as  its  present  value  will  hardly  remunerate  the  grower. 
Since  the  introduction  of  chemical  bleaching,  the  demand  for  Great 
Britain,  Ireland,  and  America,  has  become  very  limited;  while  in 
France  the  extended  use  of  soudefactice  has  almost  exploded  the  con- 
sumption of  the  vegetable  production.  The  favorite  soil  of  this  plant 
is  a  fat  and  putrid  earth,  and  it  requires  an  exposure  to  marine  exha- 
lations, on  v/hich  the  quality  much  depends.  The  best  is  that  of  Tra- 
pani  and  the  Island  of  Ustica.  After  these  Terranova,  on  the  south 
coast.  The  produce  of  the  latter  district,  however,  is  supposed  to  be 
affected  in  its  quality  by  the  sirocco  winds,  it  having  been  observed 
that  in  seasons  when  these  winds  prevail  it  is  much  inferior. 

The  superiority  of  the  Ustica  barilla  is  said  to  be  owing  to  the  burn- 
ing of  the  plant  before  it  is  thoroughly  dry ;  but,  if  this  were  the  sole 
reason,  the  jjeculiar  process  would  naturally  be  adoj)ted  elswherc. 

Owing  to  the  state  of  the  roads,  I  was  unable  to  reach  a  barilla  plan- 
tation even  on  horseback,  but  was  promised  a  detailed  account,  which 
has  not  yet  reached  me. 

OLIVES. 

The  cultivation  of  the  olive  maybe  traced  among  the  earliest  objects 
of  Sicilian  industry,  and  its  fruit  has  ever  been  considered  one  of  the 
principal  sources  of  national  wealth.  Only  two  varieties  appear  to  be 
generally  known  or  cultivated  in  Europe.  The  Olea  longifolia,  the 
spear,  or  long-leaved  European  olive,  which  is  chiefly  cultivated  in 


THE    IONIAN    ISLANDS    AND    ITALY.  113' 

the  south  of  France  and  many  parts  of  Tuscany  and  Piedmont.  From 
the  fruit  of  this  species,  which  is  of  a  hright,  lively  green,  oval  and  of 
a  roughish  skin,  we  are  furnished  with  that  delicate  oil  so  much 
esteemed  for  our  tables. 

The  Olea  latifoUa,  or  broad-leafed  European  olive,  is  the  species  cul- 
tivated in  Sicily,  Italy,  and  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,  v/here  the  trees 
grow  to  a  much  larger  size  than  those  of  the  other  variety.  The  fruit 
or  berry  is  also  much  larger,  rounder,  smoother  skinned,  and  more 
fleshy,  than  the  olive  of  France,  more  productive  in  oil,  and  though 
much  stronger  and  less  grateful  to  an  American  palate,  arising  from 
an  improper  mode  of  treatment,  is,  nevertheless,  from  its  rich  and 
unctuous  quality,  better  suited  to  manufacturing  purposes. 

The  usual  mode  of  propagating  the  olive  in  Sicily  is  by  grafting  upon 
the  wild  olive,  or  from  strong,  healthy  shoots,  which  are  thrown  up 
about  the  roots  of  the  old  plants.  These  latter,  being  detached  with  a 
portion  of  the  parent  root  in  the  months  of  January  and  February,  are 
plajited  twenty-five  feet  apart,  in  holes  four  or  five  feet  deep,  previously 
opened  and  prepared  for  their  reception,  and  in  ten  years  will  become 
bearing  trees.  The  mountain  shores,  on  the  northern  coast  of  the 
island,  seem  peculiarly  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  olive.  Along 
the  whole  extent  of  this  coast,  we  saw  the  sides  of  the  mountains  and 
intermediate  valleys  entirely  clothed  with  it ;  while  in  the  interior  of 
the  island  and  on  the  southwestern  coasts,  it  is  rare  to  find  a  few  small 
and  straggling  plantations.  Hence,  almost  the  entire  produce  of  oil 
in  Sicily  is  collected  along  the  northern  coast,  extending  from  Cape 
Gallo  to  the  Paro  of  Messina,  and  thence  to  Taormina,  about  two  hun- 
dred miles,  including  Palermo  and  its  dependencies.  From  the  quan- 
tity of  oil  made  on  the  estates  of  small  proprietors,  and  consumed  for 
domestic  use,  it  would  be  difiicult  to  give  any  accurate  statement  of  the 
entire  annual  product,  though  it  has  been  estimated  that  the  above- 
mentioned  districts  collect,  in  favorable  seasons,  from  seventeen  hun- 
dred thousand  to  twenty-two  hundred  thousand  gallons,  of  which  four 
fifths  is  required  for  home  consumption. 

Maay  incredible  tales  are  related  of  the  extraordinary  duration  of 
the  olive  ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that,  when  carefully  cultivated,  it  will 
continue  to  produce  fruit  and  remain  in  healthy  vegetation  for  cen- 
turies. Trees  are  now  living,  which  are  said  to  be  seven  or  eight  hun- 
dred years  old,  and  several  are  designated  in  a  title  deed  drawn  up  in 
1610.  The  flower,  which  is  a  small  cluster,  not  unlike  that  of  the 
grape,  is  put  forth  from  shoots  of  the  former  year's  growth,  in  the 
month  of  June.  In  July  the  fruit  begins  to  set,  and  from  that  to 
the  end  of  August  is  considered  the  most  critical  time  for  the  crop,  to 
which  nothing  is  at  that  time  more  injurious  than  the  rains.  From 
this  cause,  and  a  prevalence  of  east  v.^inds,  the  fruit  during  that  season 
is  very  subject  to  blight,  and  to  be  infested  with  a  small  insect  which, 
penetrating  the  skin,  produces  a  worm  or  grub  ;  this  consumes  the 
pulp  v/ithin,  leaving  little  more  than  the  nut  or  stone  covered  with  the 
outer  rind.  As  no  means  have  been  discovered  to  check  its  progress, 
in  a  few  days  the  most  promising  crops  have  been  rendered  of  little 
value.  Of  all  the  vegetable  productions  of  the  island,  none  is  con- 
sidered more  precarious  tha,n  the  olive,  even  under  the  most  favorable 


114  AGEICULTURAL    REPOET. 

circumstances  and  seasons.  An  uninterrupted  succession  of  crops  is 
never  to  be  calculated  upon,  it  being  an  admitted  fact  that  every  third 
year  will  be  one  of  scarcity  or  sterility.  In  some  districts,  many  ex- 
tensive plantations  have  often  been  altogether  out  of  bearing  for  many 
years,  without  any  apparent  cause,  and  to  the  utter  ruin  of  the  pro- 
prietors. 

Toward  the  coast,  the  season  of  gathering  commences  in  the  month 
of  October.  This  work  is  continued  from  this  time  until  the  month 
of  December  and  even  January  in  some  of  the  districts  situated  higher 
up  the  mountains.  The  fruit  is  at  first  shaken  from  the  trees,  and 
finally,  toward  the  latter  end  of  the  season,  beaten  from  the  bunches 
by  long  poles  or  canes.  At  each  respective  gathering,  women  and 
children  are  employed  to  collect  the  fruit  from  the  ground,  whence  it 
is  conveyed  to  appropriate  stores,  and  cast  into  large  bins  or  receptacles, 
prepared  for  the  purpose.  Here  it  is  left  to  sweat  and  ferment  for 
many  days,  until  it  becomes  black,  and  has  all  the  appearance  of  ap- 
proaching decay.  This  practice,  so  destructive  to  the  quality  of  the 
oil,  is  nevertheless  general,  as  it  is  erroneously  supposed  to  increase 
the  quantity.  In  this  state  it  is  conveyed  to  a  mill,  where  it  is  first 
ground  to  a  paste  under  heavy  stones,  and  chaff  or  small  straw  oc- 
casionally thrown  on,  to  retain  the  oil.  The  pulp  is  then  rammed 
into  round,  flat  baskets,  made  of  a  strong  kind  of  rush,  and  submitted 
to  a  press.  When  the  oil  ceases  to  run  from  this  first  pressing  the 
baskets  are  removed,  their  contents  again  passed  under  the  mill,  thence 
a  second  time  returned  into  the  baskets,  submitted  to  the  press  as 
before,  and  in  like  manner,  a  third  and  last  time.  In  these  final 
pressings,  hot  water  is  thrown  upon  the  baskets  as  they  are  jAled  under 
the  press,  the  more  readily  to  disengage  the  oil,  which,  flowing  out 
with  the  water^  as  the  press  is  let  down,  is  conveyed  to  the  tub  or  cask 
sunk  in  front,  where  the  oil,  swimming  on  the  surface,  is  carefully 
skimmed  off.  Whatever  now  remains  in  the  baskets  is  thrown  aside, 
as  the  perquisite  of  the  workmen,  by  whom  it  is  collected  and  left  some 
days  to  ferment,  and  then  submitted  to  another  pressure,  which  yields 
a  small  quantity  of  very  bad  oil,  used  by  curriers  and  leather  dressers. 

Although  the  mode  here  described  is  that  in  general  practice  for 
extracting  the  great  mass  of  oil  produced  for  commerce,  there  are  many 
intelligent  men  who,  for  private  consumption^  are  more  refined  in  their 
process.  By  pressing  their  fruit  fresh,  as  gathered  from  the  trees, 
without  leaving  it  to  ferment,  they  obtain  an  oil  nothing  inferior  in 
quality  to  that  of  Lucca.  From  the  many  samples  of  fine  oil  found 
at  the  tables  of  the  most  respectable  Sicilian  families,  it  may  be  safely 
inferred  that  the  bad  repute  of  Sicilian  oil  arises  from  the  unscientific 
mode  employed  in  its  preparation.  By  proper  attention  to  this  point 
alone,  the  olives  of  Sicily  are  as  capable  of  yielding  as  good  oil  as  the 
boasted  produce  of  France  and  Tuscany. 

THE   INDIAN    PIG 

Is  the  Cactus  opuntia,  which  makes  so  conspicuous  a  feature  and 
gives  so  tropical  a  character  to  a  Sicilian  landscape.  Although  some- 
what ugly,  it  is  strikingly  picturesque.     The  leaves  are  nearly  half 


THE    IONIAN    ISLANDS    AND    ITALY.  115 

an  inch  tliick,  large  as  a  miiUen'  leaf,  of  a  dull  green  color,  and  free 
from  j)rickles.  AVithout  stalk  or  stem,  these  leaves  grow  one  out  of 
another,,  agglomerating  into  an  irregular  mass,  like  a  rock  with 
cavernous  vacancies  in  its  sides.  This  vegetable  mass  hears  a  yellow 
flower,  which  becomes  a  fig-like  fruit,  with  a  red,  sweetish  pulp,  much 
eaten  by  the  natives. 

It  is  generally  planted  in  belts,  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet 
wide,  and  from  ten  to  fifteen  apart.  Across  these  belts  the  cactus 
leaves  are  placed,  touching  each  other  ;  they  very  quickly  take  root, 
and  produce  new  foliage.  It  will  grow  in  poor  and  dry  soil,  and,  with 
asphodel,  is  the  first  plant  upon  the  lava,  for  which  it  is  the  most 
valuable,  breaking  it  up  with  its  strong  acrid  roots. 

It  bears  the  third  year,  and  has  a  full  crop  in  ten  years.  Its  net 
profit  is  estimated  at  from  thirty  dollars  to  fifty  dollars  per  acre,  as  it 
will  produce  two  crops  a  year,  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred 
bushels  ])er  acre,  and  sells  readily  at  wholesale  at  from  twenty-four  to 
thirty  cents  per  bushel.  It  is  one  of  the  most  useful  plants  on  the 
island  ;  the  tree  serves  for  fences,  the  leaf  for  receiving  the  liquid 
manna,  and  the  fruit  for  the  consumption  of  all  classes. 

ALMONDS. 

Almonds  are  grown  in  greatest  abundance  at  Avola  and  Girgenti, 
and  are  of  both  kinds,  sweet  and  bitter.  The  trees  are  propagated 
from  nuts  and  cuttings.  The  nut  it  planted  in  the  spring  or  autumn, 
and  the  young  trees  transplanted  at  the  end  of  a  year  to  the  nurserv 
grounds,  to  be  grafted  in  the  second  or  third  year.  The  cuttings  are 
planted  about  fifty  feet  apart_,  and  are  grafted  at  six  years  old,  four 
years  after  which  they  come  into  bearing.  Attaining  its  full  growth 
at  fifteen  years,  the  tree  continues  in  its  prime  until  thirty,  when  it 
begins  to  fall  off,  and  perishes  at  sixty  years.  The  flower  appears  in 
January,  the  fruit  ripens  in  May.  Of  the  sweet  almond,  the  best  sorts 
are  those  of  Mascali  and  Avola,  which  are  equally  remarkable  for 
whiteness  and  flavor.     The  shell  is  used  for  fuel. 

SAFFRON. 

Saffron  grows  wild  in  various  parts  of  Sicily.  The  soil  most  con- 
genial is  a  loose,  calcareous  earth,  free  from  clay.  Planted  in  fur- 
rows, about  a  foot  apart,  the  bulbs  produce  a  violet  colored  flower, 
which  is  gathered  in  October.  The  three  pistils  are  collected  and  dried. 
The  stamens  are  thrown  away  as  useless.  The  bulbs  require  to  be 
transplanted  every  third  year. 

MULBERRY. 

The  red  mulberry  is  the  species  chiefly  cultivated  in  Sicily,  the  white 
being  much  neglected.  The  fruit  is  of  little  value,  and  grown  only 
for  the  silk-worm.  The  Celso  Jilippino,  a  species  recently  introduced, 
comes  into  leaf  about  three  weeks  before  the  white,  and  six  before  the 


116  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

red.  The  growtli  is  veiy  rapid,  but  is  never  allowed  to  exceed  twelve 
feet  in  height,  at  which  elevation  the  tender  leaf  can  be  gathered  by 
children. 

SILK. 

The  production  of  silk  in  Sicily  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  the 
northern  and  northeastern  coasts.  From  Catania,  its  southern  limit, 
this  branch  of  industry  goes  northward,  as  far  as  Taormina  and  Mes- 
sina, proceeds  eastward  to  Melazzo,  follows  the  line  of  coast  to  St. 
Stefano,  turns  a  little  southward,  and  terminates  at  Mistretta.  The 
whole  produce  of  these  places,  and  all  the  intermediate  villages,  finds 
its  way  to  the  Messina  market,  except  what  is  retained  in  Catania,  for 
the  use  of  the  Catanese  looms.  None  is  produced  in  the  interior,  and 
but  a  very  small  quantity  in  Palermo  and  its  neighborhood.  The 
annual  produce  is  estimated  at  thirteen  hundred  bales,  or  three  hun- 
dred thousand  pounds.  This  is  exclusive  of  floss  or  waste,  which  is 
estimated  at  one  hundred  thousand  pounds  more. 

SILK-WORMS. 

The  appearance  of  the  worm,  in  its  natural  course,  takes  place  about 
the  ipiddle  of  April ;  but,  in  seasons  when  the  vegetation  of  the  mulberry 
tree  is  unusually  backward,  it  is  artificially  retarded  until  the  leaves 
are  ready.  When  this  cannot  be  accomplished,  the  leaves  of  the 
blackberry  and  the  lettuce,  which  merely  keep  it  alive,  are  given  to 
the  worm,  until  its  natural  food,  the  mulberry  leaf,  is  ready  and 
plentiful.  This,  in  Messina  and  its  dependencies,  which  chiefly  form 
the  silk  district,  is  almost  wholly  the  leaf  of  the  red  species.  In  Cala- 
bria, the  white  mulberry,  which  leaves  out  three  weeks  earlier  than 
the  red,  is  used,  until  the  first  and  second  change,  w^hen  the  white  be- 
comes hard,  and  the  red  is  substituted  for  it.  Those  fed  on  the  red, 
yield  a  greater  quantity  of  a  stronger  silk  than  those  fed  on  the  white, 
but  the  silk  of  the  latter  is  finer  and  of  a  brighter  description.  The 
quantity  consumed  by  the  worms,  from  the  time  of  their  coming  into 
being,  to  the  fourth  and  last  change,  bears  a  great  disproportion  to 
the  amount  of  silk  produced.  One  hundred  and  seventy-five  pounds 
of  leaf  yield  only  thirteen  ounces' of  silk.  In  Lombardy,  one  hundred 
and  twenty-six  pounds  of  leaf  yield  one  pound  of  silk  ;  in  Sicily,  two 
hundred  and  fifteen  pounds  of  leaf,  one  pound  of  silk. 

The  fourth  and  last  sickening,  or  change  of  skin,  is  considered  the 
most  critical;  nor  are  the  worms  deemed  out  of  danger  until  they 
have  climbed  the  arbor  and  spun  the  cocoon.  The  intestines  of  such 
as  die  in  the  changes  are  made  into  thick  thread  and  sold  under  the 
name  of  "  silk-worm  gut"  to  American  seamen  and  others,  for  making 
fishing  tackle.  A  small  portion  of  the  cocoons,  according  to  the  ex- 
tent and  demand  of  the  establishment,  is  put  aside  for  eggs,  the  grubs 
of  which,  when  transformed  into  m.oths,  are  alloAved  to  eat  their  way 
out.  Those  intended  to  be  wound  off"  must  be  destroyed,  in  order  to 
obtain  the  silk  unbroken.  The  usual  mode  of  effecting  this  purpose 
is  by  placing  the  cocoons  in  a  slow  oven.    This  practice  greatly  hardens 


THE    IONIAN    ISLANDS    AND    ITALY.  117 

the  gummy  matter  which  covers  the  silk  on  the  cocoon,  and  renders  it 
more  troublesome  to  detach,  in  winding.  To  obviate  this  objection, 
some  establishments  in  Messina  have  adopted  successfully  the  following 
ingenious  contrivance,  which,  from  its  simplicity  and  efficacy,  is  worthy 
of  notice:  In  a  small  closet,  erected  in  some  corner  of  the  establish- 
ment, a  copper  hoiler  is  fixed  over  a  furnace.  From  the  ceiling  of  this 
closet,  shallow  baskets,  attached  to  each  other,  and  filled  with  cocoons, 
are  hung  up  in  succession,  until  the  lowermost  nearly  touches  the 
boiler,  previously  filled  with  water.  A  sliding  door  in  front,  wdiich  is 
made  to  fit  closely,  is  now  let  down  to  touch  the  edge  of  the  boiler, 
and  so  secured  that  the  steam  shall  not  escape.  The  water  is  now  made 
to  boil,  and  so  kept  up  for  about  half  an  hour,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  the  fire  is  withdrawn  and  the  whole  left  quiet  another  half  hour. 
During  this  period,  the  condensed  steam  from  the  cocoons,  with  a  great 
portion  of  the  gummy  substance  from  the  silk,  which  has  been  dis- 
solved by  the  steam,  is  drained  off  into  the  hoiler  below.  The  cocoons 
are  then  removed  to  the  floor  of  a  chamber  and  left  to  cool,  after  which 
they  are  placed  on  a  terrace,  where  they  are  exposed  to  the  full  heat  of 
the  sun,  until  thoroughly  dried  and  prepared  for  winding.  Mean- 
while, the  steam-closet  receives  a  fresh  charge^  and  the  operation  is 
repeated,  until  all  the  gruhs  are  killed.  From  the  cocoons  eaten 
through,  a  silk,  called  calamo  di  semenza,  is  obtained,  by  carding,  and 
which,  in  quantity,  is  equal  to  one  fourth,  and  in  value  to  three  fourths, 
of  the  ordinary  or  net  silks.  Another  and  inferior  description,  called 
culahio  di  fuori,  is  taken  from  the  outer  part  of  the  cocoon,  before  the 
silk  is  wound  off,  the  value  of  which  is  about  half  that  of  the  common. 
The  calamo  of  both  sorts  is  exported  to  England,  where  it  is  made 
into  hosiery  and  shawls.  In  Sicily  it  is  spun  by  hand  and  woven  into 
ticking,  for  mattresses,  and  into  coarse  stockings  and  gowns,  for  the 
use  of  the  female  peasantry. 

MANNA. 

The  manna-ash  grows  chiefly  near  Palermo^  and  is  propagated  from 
seed,  or  cuttings.  The  former  is  preferable,  the  tree  being  of  rapid 
growth  and  soon  coming  to  perfection.  Manna  is  the  coagulated  juice, 
or  sap,  which  oozes  out  of  the  Fraxinus  ormcs,  a  species  of  ash,  indige- 
nous to  the  northern  coast.  The  tree,  at  its  full  growth,  is  from  twenty 
to  twenty-five  feet  high^  borne  on  an  upright  stem,  with  smooth  bark, 
about  eight  feet  in  height,  and  about  two  and  a  half  in  circumference. 
It  is  well-known,  with  us,  as  a  hardy,  ornamental  tree,  with  clusters 
of  flowers.  The  manna  is  obtained  in  the  months  of  August  and  Sep- 
tember, from  horizontal  incisions  made  in  the  bark  about  three  inches 
long  and  half  an  inch  deep.  Under  these  incisions,  and  quite  close, 
another  slight  cut  is  made  in  the  bark,  in  which  is  inserted  a  leaf  of 
the  same  tree,  serving  as  a  gutter  to  conduct  the  sap  into  a  receiver 
placed  on  the  ground  at  the  foot  of  the  tree.  This  receiver  is  nothing 
more  than  the  dried  leaf  of  the  cactus  opuntia,  which  is  ten  or  twelve 
inches  long  and  about  eight  inches  broad.  When  dried,  it  assumes 
the  shape  of  a  hollow  dish,  sufficiently  capacious  for  the  purpose  re- 
quired.    These  incisions  are  begun  at  the  bottom  of  the  tree,  and  each 


118  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

day  a  fresli  one  is  made,  two  inclies  above  the  first,  and  so  continued 
during  the  ''raccolta,"  or  gathering,  which,  in  favorahle  seasons,  lasts 
about  six  weeks. 

WJien  the  incision  is  first  made,  the  manna  flows  in  a  watery,  lim- 
pid state,  but  gradually  thickens  as  it  is  exposed  to  the  air  and  the 
heat  of  the  sun,  which  at  this  season  is  intense. 

This  is  deemed  the  best  and  finest  quality,  and  called  '■'■  manna  in 
tears.''  After  it  is  collected,  and  the  leaf  removed  to  a  fresh  incision 
above,  the  sap  continuing  to  flow  down  the  bark  of  the  tree  is  concen- 
trated thereon,  and  farms  a  second  quality,  which  is  afterwards  care- 
fully detached  with  a  knife.  This  is  distinguished  in  commerce  as 
''  manna  in  flakes,"  the  quantity  of  which  is  by  far  the  most  consider- 
able 23art  of  the  collection. 

A  third  and  inferior  quality  is  collected,  called  ''manna  in  sorts," 
composed  of  the  refuse,  or  broken  collections  from  the  two  preceding, 
that  which  has  accidentally  run  upon  the  ground,  or  been  damaged  by 
rain,  and  that  which  flows  at  the  end  of  the  season,  when  the  heat  of 
the  sun  is  insufficient  to  concentrate  it.  The  quantity  and  quality  of 
th  is  article  depend  upon  a  hot  and  dry  season.  As  the  operation  is  neces- 
sarily exj^osed  to  the  weather,  a  rainy  or  damp  season  will  greatly 
diminish  the  quantity  of  the  crop,  and  often  entirely  ruin  its  quality, 
since,  once  wet,  it  cannot  be  dried  by  any  artificial  means.  The  first 
two  qualities  are  usually  shipped  to  England  and  the  United  States  ; 
the  latter,  and  inferior,  to  the  Adriatic  markets,  and  those  of  the  Med- 
iterranean. Other  countries  are  provided  with  this  drug  from  Naples, 
which  draws  its  supplies  from  the  southern  coast  of  Calabria.  In  the 
plantation  which  I  saw  the  trees  were  ten  feet  apart,  but  aijpeared  too 
close  for  healthy  growth. 

CAROB    TREE,    OR    CERATONIA    SILIQUA. 

The  carob  was  noticed  in  my  report  on  Cephalonia,  as  being  one  of 
the  finest  ornamental  trees.  Its  fruit  is  somewhat  like  that  of  the 
honey  locust,  or  Gleditschia,  and  its  pod  full  of  a  sweet,  rich  pulp,  cov- 
ering a  nutritious  bean.  It  is  eaten  here,  as  at  Cephalonia,  both  by 
men  and  cattle.  A  preserve  is  made  of  the  juice,  boiled  with  sugar, 
and  spirits  are  also  distilled  from  it.  Most  of  the  produce  goes  to 
Naples.  It  is  rarely  cultivated  in  large  quantities,  and  the  fruit  is 
mostly  collected  from  natural  trees.  A  few  specimens  on  a  place  will 
often  'be  found  grafted  with  a  superior  variety.  Its  native  habitat 
seems  about  Syracuse,  where  it  is  found  in  considerable  quantities. 

PISTACHIO    NUTS,    OR    TEREBINTHUS    INDICA. 

The  pistachio  tree  springs  up  in  rich  soils,  in  the  central  districts, 
and  also  in  the  volcanic  humus,  in  the  region  of  Mount  Etna.  Grafted 
at  six  3^ears  old,  it  comes  into  bearing  at  twelve,  and  produces  a  fair 
crop  about  once  in  three  years,  until  a  very  advanced  age.  A  male 
scion,  grafted  upon  one  female  in  an  orchard,  is  sufficient  to  fecundate 
the  whole.  The  nut,  gathered  in  September,  is  exposed  to  the  sun 
until  perfectly  dry,  as  the  least  degree  of  moisture  causes  it  to  rot. 


THE   IONIAN    ISLANDS    AND    ITALY.  11^ 


ALOE. 

This  conspicuous  plant,  equally  useful  and  ornamental,  abounds  in 
all  parts  of  Sicily,  but  is  found  in  the  greatest  perfection  in  the 
southern  and  central  districts.  Planted  in  favorable  soils,  it  attains 
the  height  of  eighteen  to  twenty  feet,  and  flowers  in  seven  or  eight 
years,  after  which  it  immediately  dies  away,  leaving  suckers  behind 
to  continue  the  succession. 

It  serves  for  impenetrable  fences,  the  stems  for  rafters  of  huts,  and 
the  leaf  for  domestic  manufactures.  The  leaf,  steeped  in  water  until 
perfectly  tender,  crushed  between  cylinders,  soaked  for  some  days  in  a 
stream^  then  beaten  and  combed  out,  yields  a  thread  which  is  used  for 
various  purposes. 

CORK    WOOD. 

Cork  oaks  of  stunted  growth  are  found  in  the  woods  of  Sciana.  The 
outer  bark,  unfit  for  bungs  and  stoppers,  is  used  chiefly  for  fishing 
tackle ;  the  inner,  equally  valuable  with  common  oak  bark,  is  used  in 
tanneries,  to  protect  which  branch  of  industry,  the  exportation  of  cork 
wood,  except  as  dunnage,  is  strictly  prohibited. 

GUADO. 

This  dye  plant  is  sown  in  autumn,  and  gathered  in  May.  The  leaves, 
ground  at  the  mills  and  kneaded  with  the  juice,  are  worked  into  balls, 
which,  when  dried  in  the  sun,  are  used  in  giving  linen  a  light-blue 
color. 

FIGS. 

These  are  of  poor  quality,  not  so  well  suited  for  exportation  as  those 
of  the  Levant.  No  alkaline  solution  is  used  in  their  preparation  ;  they 
are  slit,  and  dried  on  strings,  mostly  about  Messina  and  Calabria. 

TOBACCO. 

This  plant  is  produced  in  gardens  around  most  of  the  principal 
towns.  The  best  soil  for  its  cultivation  is  a  good,  rich  loam,  and  the 
best  situation  a  slope  with  a  southerly  exposure.  Sown  in  the  winter^ 
it  soon  comes  up,  and  gradually  advances  until  the  crop  requires  to  be-, 
thinned.  The  sprouts  transplanted  are  set  about  twenty  inches  apart,^ 
in  ground  well  watered  and  manured.  The  blossoms  are  nipped  off,,, 
and  the  shoots  cut  away  as  soon  as  they  appear,  to  enable  the  young.; 
leaf  to  expand  and  ripen.  The  maturity  of  the  leaf,  which  is  in  sum- 
mer, is  denoted  by  a  change  in  its  color,  and  the  appearance  of  pus- 
tules on  its  surface.  The  plant  is  then  plucked  up,  and  the  leaf' 
stripped  and  dried,  preparatory  to  its  sale  to  the  dealer  for  manufac- 
ture. The  quantity  of  seed  sown  is  about  a  gallon  per  acre  ;  the 
quantity  of  leaf  gathered  about  thirteen  thousand  pounds.     Tobacco  . 


120  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

was  once  worth  to  tlie  government  tliirt}^  or  forty  tliousand   dullars 
revenue  ;  they  increased  the  duty,  and  none  was  imported. 

COTTON. 

The  soil  of  the  Sicilian  plains  is  eminently  adapted  for  its  growth. 
The  seed  is  obtained  from  Malta,  sown  in  S23ring,  gathered  in  August, 
September,  and  even  as  late  as  December.  The  plant  is  not  liable  to 
blight,  but  is  sometimes  injured  by  the  sirocco. 

The  sea-island  cotton  seed  has  been  distributed  in  several  districts  ; 
some  has  entirely  failed.  In  one  place  a  little  cotton  was  produced, 
but  the  trial  was  scarcely  such  as  to  warrant  a  decision  upon  its  adap- 
tation to  the  climate  and  soil. 

CASTOR   OIL. 

This  plant  grows  wild  in  many  parts,  and  is  much  cultivated  in  the 
vicinity  of  large  towns  for  the  oil  which  is  extracted  from  the  nut.  It 
is  prepared  by  almost  every  chemist,  for  home  consumption,  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  castor  oil  from  the  East  and  West  Indies.  Were  the  process 
properly  conducted,  the  extraction  of  the  oil  might  become  an  impor- 
tant branch  of  Sicilian  industry. 

LIQUORICE. 

The  roots  of  the  liquorice  plants^  which  grow  wild,  are  converted 
into  paste  by  washing,  steeping,  boiling,  and  evaporation.  The  first 
quality  is  that  of  Taormina ;  that  of  Catania  and  Patti  is  too  often 
adulterated  with  the  juice  of  the  cactus  and  carob. 

OPIUM. 

This  is  nearly  equal  to  the  Turkish  ;  has  been  made  by  a  Sicilian 
chemist  from  the  wild  poppy,  vfhich  abounds  in  the  island, 

LUPINS. 

White  lupins  are  raised  for  fattening  cattle,  and  also  as  manure  for 
vineyards,  being  plowed  in  when  a  foot  high. 

SEEDS. 

Anise,  canary,  cotton,  flax,  hemp,  and  mustard  are  the  chief.  The 
first  three  are  largely  ex]3orted  ;  the  last  three  are  mostly  consumed  in 
the  island. 

Wheat  is  of  two  kinds,  soft  and  hard,  the  soft  used  chiefly  for  house- 
hold bread,  the  hard  for  maccaroni.  The  seed  sown  in  October  and 
November,  at  the  rate  of  half  a  bushel  to  an  acre,  yields,  in  June  and 
July,  about  eight  for  one.  The  average  weight  of  a  bushel  is  about 
sixty  pounds.     This  grain  has  been  much  neglected  for  the  want  of 


THE    IONIAN    ISLANDS    AND    ITALY.  121 

sufficient  hardness  in  the  English  mill-stones  ;  hut  since  cast-iron  and 
French  hurrs  have  heen  introduced,  the  wheat  here  can  be  made  into 
flour  equal  to  that  of  the  best  soft  grain.  The  best  maccaroni  wheat 
is  called  Giustalisa,  and  the  next  best  Bealforte.  At  the  magazines 
these  were  priced  to  me  at  |1  50  per  bushel.  The  annual  crop  of 
wheat  is  computed  at  16,000^000  bushels. 

Oats  are  raised  in  small  quantities  in  the  southern  districts  ;  the  re- 
turn of  seed  is  ten  to  one. 

Barley  is  found  unfit  for  malting,  and  is  chiefly  used  as  provender 
for  horses. 

Indian  corn  is  but  little  cultivated.  A  particular  species,  called 
Oinquantino,  ripens  in  fifty  days. 

Eice  is  principally  grown  in  low  marshy  districts  about  the  plains 
of  Catania,  where  the  lands  may  be  irrigated  by  the  waters  of  the  Giar- 
retta.  The  quantity  is  inconsiderable,  and  hardly  sufficient  for  home 
consumption.  The  grain,  small  and  ordinary  in  quality,  may  be  classed 
as  little  better  than  Egyptian.  It  must  be  sown  in  a  deep  soil,  and  kept 
constantly  under  water.  It  produces  about  six  hundred  weight  per 
acre  of  clear  rice.  This  is  thrown  into  a  mill,  the  lower  stone  of  which 
is  lined  with  cork.  The  cultivation  of  this  grain  is  considered  an  un- 
healthy occupation.  The  dry  rice  of  Porto  Rico  is  not  cultivated  in 
Sicily.  Sown  on  two  occasions,  it  came  up  quickly,  but  owing  to  inat- 
tention was  allowed  to  perish. 

Flax  is  grown  abundantly  in  all  parts  of  the  island.  The  best  soil 
for  it  is  a  rich  garden-ground.  The  land  requires  from  three  to  six 
plowings,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  preceding  crops,  and  good  and 
plentiful  dressings  with  stable  manure,  or  the  sweepings  of  sheep-folds. 
The  sowing  generally  takes  place  in  November,  but  occasionally  in 
March,  when  two  salmas,  or  sixteen  bushels  of  linseed  are  allowed  to 
one  salm,  or  about  five  acres  of  ground.  The  harvest  is  usually  in 
May  and  June,  when,  in  favorable  seasons,  from  thirty  to  forty  bush- 
els of  linseed  are  gathered,  together  with  ten  cantars,  or  about  sixteen 
hundred  weight  of  flax .  The  plant  being  drawn  up  by  the  roots ,  the  seed 
is  beaten  out  and  sifted  previous  to  shipment.  The  stalk  is  steeped  in 
running  water  for  seven  or  eight  days,  at  the  end  of  which  time  it  is 
taken  out  and  dried.  The  crisp  bark  is  broken  and  removed  by  a  pe- 
culiar instrument.  The  fibre  is  combed  and  prepared  for  spinning 
with  a  view  to  future  manufacture.  Flax,  which  in  England  is  sup- 
posed to  impoverish  the  ground^  is  in  Sicily  thought  to  have  a  benefi- 
cial effect. 

Hemp  is  much  cultivated  on  the  eastern  coast,  in  rich  damp  soils,  or 
in  ground  well  irrigated.  The  land  is  plowed  four  or  five  times  before 
the  sowing,  which  takes  place,  near  the  coast,  in  March,  but  in  the  moun- 
tains in  April,  when  three  and  a  half  bushels  are  sown  on  an  acre  of 
land.  The  ground  requires  to  be  well  watered  every  four  or  five  days 
from  running  streams  or  from  reservoirs.  The  plant,  which  is  delicate, 
and  liable  to  be  cut  by  the  frosts,  comes  to  perfection  in  July  and  Au- 
gust. A  good  crop  will  yield  from  seven  hundred  to  a  thousand 
pounds  of  seed,  and  from  six  to  ten  hundred  weight  of  fiber,  per  acre. 
The  seed  is  beaten  out,  and  the  fiber  prepared  for  spinning  in  the  same 
manner  as  flax.     The  plant,  when  taken  out  of  the  water  in  a  putrid 


122  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

state,  creates  a  severe  malaria,  to  escape  the  effects  «f  whicli,  the  persons 
employed  are  recommended  to  sleep  among  horses  and  mules.  The 
cultivation  of  hemp  and  rice  is  prohibited  within  two  miles  of  any  hu- 
man habitation,  unless  mountains  or  rivers  intervene. 

CREAM    OF   TARTAR. 

This  salt  has  of  late  years  been  manufactured  largely  near  Messina 
from  the  f93ces  in  settlings  of  new  wine.  The  tartrate  of  potash, 
though  containing  a  large  quantity  of  tartaric  acid,  is  too  much  charged 
with  extraneous  and  earthy  matter,  deposited  in  the  fermentation  of 
the  must,  to  allow  it  to  crystalize  by  rest,  on  which  account  it  was 
formerly  made  ui3  into  large  balls,  dried  in  the  sun,  and  then  burnt  in. 
heaps.  The  tartaric  acid  destroyed,  nothing  remained  but  the  jDotash, 
which  was  sold  to  soap-makers,  hatters,  and  others.  This  wasteful 
practice  is  at  length  exploded,  and  at  present  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
per  cent,  of  cream  of  tartar  is  obtained  from  the  faeces  of  wine  of  good 
quality,  while  the  base,  or  potash,  is  employed  as  heretofore. 

SULPHUR. 

This  mineral  is  found  in  most  parts  of  the  island ;  but  it  is  within 
the  area  of  an  irregular  diamond,  of  which  Sciacca,  Mount  Hybla, 
Alicama,  and  Terranova  are  the  relative  points,  that  the  richest  beds 
are  situated.  The  mines  lying  v/ithin  twenty  or  thirty  miles  of  the 
coast  are  at  present  in  full  operation.  Of  those  further  inward^  some 
are  not  worked,  on  account  of  the"  high  rate  of  carriage,  while  others 
are  worked  only  in  discharge  of  contracted  obligations.  Generally 
covered  by  a  bed  of  calcareous  concretion,  sulphur  is  found  combined 
with  other  matters,  its  separation  from  which  is  effected  by  burning  in 
kilns,  made  of  gypsum  and  stone,  each  containing  about  sixty  hundred 
weight  of  mineral.  The  liquified  sulphur  escapes  through  a  hole  in 
the  front,  and  runs  into  a  wooden  trough,  where  it  is  left  to  grow 
solid. 

CANTHARIDES,    OR    SPANISH    FLIES. 

These  insects  come  over  from  Egypt,  and  alighting  in  the  olive  trees 
in  the  months  of  May  and  June,  are  collected  by  the  peasantry  and 
prepared  for  exportation.  They  are  similar  to  our  curculio,  and  are 
caught  about  Bronte,  by  jarring  the  tree  over  a  blanket. 

SALT. 

The  excavation  of  rock  salt,  most  of  which  goes  to  the  Danubian 
pastures,  amounts  to  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  tons  per 
annum.  Evaporating  salt  is  carried  on  at  Trapani  and  Agosta.  At 
the  former  place,  fifteen  hundred  and  sixty-two  tons  are  annually 
made. 


THE  'IONIAN    ISLANDS    AND   ITALY.  123 


BEES. 

These  insects  arc  kept  in  great  quantities  in  tlie  southeastern  dis- 
tricts. Some  farmers  have  from  two  to  three  thousand  large  hives ; 
these  are  carried,  by  night,  up  into  the  mountains,  in  summer,  and  in 
winter  brought  to  the  plains,  in  both  which  regions  the  bees  find  abun- 
dant flowers.  Two  or  three  crops  of  honey  and  wax  are  obtained  in 
the  course  of  the  year,  generally  in  May  and  August.  The  honey  of 
Mount  Hybla,  near  Catania,  clear  and  well-flavored  with  orange  flow- 
ers, maintains  its  ancient  reputation. 

Owing  to  the  great  consumption  of  wax  in  churches,  the  proceeds  of 
bee-hives  form  a  valuable  item  in  husbandry. 

DAIRY. 

Butter  is  only  made  around  Messina,  Palermo,  and  in  the  country 
of  Modria,  from  the  milk  of  cows  and  goats.  Curds  and  cheese  are 
made  throughout  the  island,  from  the  milk  of  cows,  sheep,  and  goats 
combined. 

LIVE    STOCK. 

Horses. — Those  used  in  riding  are  in  general  small,  but  good;  those 
for  draft,  wretched  and  worthless.  Their  usual  fodder  is,  in  the  spring, 
green  barley;  in  summer,  a  kind  of  dog  grass;  in  winter,  barley,  oats, 
straw,  beans,  and  bran. 

The  Butera  stud,  in  Sicily,  is  that  of  the  estate  of  Kadali,  held  by 
the  Prince  of  Butera,  at  Melangianni,  near  Terranova  and  Licata. 
Founded  in  1825,  at  which  period  the  thorough-bred  horses  and  blood 
mares  were  imported  from  England,  it  increased  by  degrees,  till  now 
it  consists  of  one  hundred  and  six  animals.  It  is  placed  under  the 
superintendence  of  an  experienced  trainer. 

Mules  are  small  and  feeble,  with  the  exception  of  the  Modua  breed, 
which  are  tall,  strong,  and  active,  and  chiefly  used  for  riding  and  lit- 
ters. The  mules  are  much  employed  in  land  culture  and  in  carrying 
burdens. 

Asses  are  also  inferior,  except  the  Pantelleri  breed,  which  is  tall  and 
well  made. 

Oxen  are  of  two  breeds,  the  red,  or  Tunis,  and  the  black,  or  native. 
The  red^  which  is  much  used  in  farming,  is  large  and  well  propor- 
tioned ;  one  species  is  remarkable  for  its  length  of  horns,  which  are 
often  two  and  a  half  feet;  these  are  not  so  strong  as  those  whose  horns, 
are  more  moderate.  The  black  is  never  put  to  the  plow.  In  the  sum- 
mer the  cattle  graze  upon  the  mountains,  Avhere  they  find  abundant, 
grass ;  in  the  winter  they  descend  to  the  plains,  where  they  browse  on 
the  dwarf  palm,  the  bird  weed,  and  the  stubble  of  corn  fields.  Unpro- 
vided with  sheds,  they  have  no  other  shelter  from  the  weather  than  the 
branches  of  trees,  an  exposure  always  prejudicial  and  often  fatal.  A 
cow  which  is  a  good  milker  will  yield  from  four  to  six  quarts  per  day. 
Barren  covv^s  are  usually  put  to  the  plow. 


124  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

Sheep. — The  native  breeds^  wliite,  brown,  and  blacky  are  small  and 
scraggy,  producing  a  coarse  wool,  at  the  rate  of  from  two  to  three 
pounds  per  animal,  used  for  domestic  manufacture.  The  ewes,  which  are 
milked  regularly,  give  about  half  a  pint  per  day.  The  carcass  of  a 
.two  year  old  weighs  about  thirty  pounds.  The  merino  breed  has  been 
introduced  on  the  Butera  estate,  which  boasts  of  two  flocks  of  unmixed 
and  crossed,  of  four  and  fourteen  hundred,  respectively. 

Goats  are  numerous ;  their  long  and  fine  hair  is  woven  into  cloth 
and  sacking. 

Swine  compose  a  gaunt,  black  breed,  remarkable  for  nothing  but  the 
length  and  stiffness  of  their  dorsal  bristles.  A  one  year  old  hog 
weighs,  if  fed  on  acorns,  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds;  a  two  year 
old,  one  hundred  and. eighty  pounds. 

LAMB    AND    KlD    SKINS. 

After  the  month  of  March  the  kid  and  the  white  and  sjDotted  lamb 
skins  are  steeped  in  sea- water,  to  preserve  them  from  the  worms,  and 
to  clear  them  from  all  fleshy  substances.  In  this  state  of  preparation, 
which  costs  about  five  dollars  per  thousand,  they  may  be  safely  shi]3ped, 
in  all  seasons  of  the  year,  to  perform  the  longest  voyages.  The  black 
lamb  skins  are  prepared  for  the  German  market,  at  about  ten  dollars 
per  thousand. 

SOIL. 

With  the  exce|)tion  of  the  chain  of  Monte  Peloso,  or  Nestuvo,  which 
runs  in  a  southwest  direction  from  Cape  Peloso,  and  its  dependent 
granitic  plains,  all  the  soils  of  Sicily  may  be  classed  under  the  several 
varieties  of  the  calcareous.  There  are,  of  course,  exceptions,  but  these 
are  so  diminutive  in  comparative  extent  as  not  to  admit  of  their  being 
called  any  more  than  mere  patches.  When  the  soil  is  deep,  which  is 
not  unfrequently  the  case,  and  this  to  an  extent  seldom  seen  in  other 
countries,  it  is,  for  the  most  part,  a  rich  and  fertile  loam;  where  it  is 
shallow,  it  has  the  appearance  of  being  sandy  and  sterile,  without  being 
so  in  reality,  as  it  contains  a  very  great  variety  of  marine  exuvia  in  its 
composition,  derived' from  the  neighboring  conchiferous  limestone, 
which  yields  sufficient  humus  to  enable  it  to  produce  the  most  luxur- 
iant crops,  notwithstanding  its  arid  and  unpromising  appearance. 

MANURES. 

The  usual  fertilizing  materials  are  stable  manure,  and,  where  it  is  to 
be  had,  that  of  sheep  and  goats.  Lime,  so  useful  an  agent  in  stiif  and 
clayey  soils,  which  abound  in  Sicily,  as  well  as  in  light  and  sandy  ones, 
also  common  in  certain  districts,  is  totally  neglected,  to  the  consequent 
loss  of  humidity,  which  it  would  absorb  from  the  atmosphere,  and  the 
prevalence  of  vermin,  which  it  would  check  and  destroy.  Bones, 
formerly  used  for  manure,  but  now  employed  in  chemistry,  are  become 
too  expensive  for  the  farmer,  and  are  therefore  left  to  be  exported,  in 


THE    IONIAN    ISLANDS    AND    ITALY.  125 

large  quantities,  to  France  and  G-enoa.  Lupins,  as  before  observed, 
are  in  frequent  use  for  manure  ;  their  tliick,  succulent  tops,  covered  by 
the  plow,  form  a  highly  fertilizing  mass  of  vegetable  matter. 

IMPLEMENTS. 

The  rudest  is  the  plow,  Avhich  Simond  properly  describes  as  an  im- 
plement which  seems  to  have  gained  nothing  since  the  days  of  Tuj^to- 
lemus.  It  consists  of  a  shaft,  eleven'  feet  long,  to  which  the  oxen  are 
fastened  by  an  awkward  collar,  while  the  other  end  is  mortised  ob- 
liquely into  another  piece  of  timber,  five  feet  long,  with  one  end  sharp, 
scratching  the  ground,  and  the  other  held  by  the  plowman,  who,  on 
account  of  its  shortness,  bends  almost  double  while  at  work.  The  end 
in  the  ground  is  often,  but  not  always,  shod  with  iron,  but  it  has 
neither  colter  nor  mold-board.  This  instrument  scarcely  penetrates 
the  earth,  and  is  kept  straight  with  great  difficulty. 

The  next  is  the  hoe,  which  varies  in  construction  in  different  pro- 
vinces, according  to  the  nature  of  the  ground.  In  the  vicinity  of  Pal- 
ermo, where  the  soil  is  not  deep,  and  the  heavier  soils  of  the  Valle 
Mazzara  prevail,  the  hoe  is  broad  and  shallow;  whereas  that  in  use 
near  Messina  and  the  Val  Demone,  where  the  soil  is  light  and  sandy, 
is  narrow  and  long,  often  two  feet  and  more,  and  sloped  in  upon  the 
handle.  This  unwieldy  instrument,  often  containing  from  eight  to  ten 
pounds  of  iron,  is  used  by  the  peasants. 
■  The  sickle  and  three-pronged  wooden  fork  offer  nothing  remarkable. 

RENTS. 

The  usual  rent  of  land  for  corn,  &c.,  is  about  one  dollar  and  seventy- 
five  cents  per  acre,  taking  the  average  throughout  the  island.  Leases 
run  for  three  years,  sometimes  with  the  privilege  of  three  more,  and 
occasionally  for  nine  years,  but  never  a  longer  time.  For  orange  and 
lemon  orchards  the  rents  are  higher,  and  vary  widely,  according  to 
age  and  quality,  -  Their  standing  crop,  however,  is  often  sold  by  the 
landlord,  by  estimation,  at  so  much  per  thousand  on  the  tree,  or  per 
thousand  gathered  by  the  purchaser,  counted  on  the  premises,  and 
often  by  the  heap.  When  the  crop  is  sold  thus,  it  is  at  the  risk  of  the 
purchaser  from  the  day  of  the  contract,  and  one  third  of  the  amount 
is  always  paid  in  advance.  The  expense  of  the  gathering  in  all  cases 
devolves  on  the  purchaser. 

LABOR. 

The  laborer  by  the  day  receives  one  tari  (eight  cents)  in  money,  and 
in  food  four  ahd  a  half  pounds  of  coarse  bread,  one  quart  of  wine,  and 
one  measure  of  oil  for  his  herb  soup.  His  earnings  amount  to  about 
twenty  cents  per  day.  In  some  places  he  is  paid  entirely  in  money, 
in  which  case  he  receives  about  twenty  cents  per  day  the  year  round. 
In  harvest,  his  wages  are  generally  doubled,  and  his  food  given  v/ith- 
out  limitation.     The  hours  of  labor  from  April  to  harvest  are  divided 


126  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

in  two  portions,  from  4,  am.,  till  noon,  allowing  one  liour  for  break- 
fast, and  from  3,  p.  m.,  till  sunset.  The  three  hours  at' noon  are  for 
dinner  and  sleep,  a  plan  which  must  be  attended  with  the  best  results, 
and  which  we  have  often  vainly  endeavored  to  introduce  among  our 
own  laborers  during  the  hot  season.  From  harvest  to  April  the  hours 
are  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  with  one  hour  for  dinner  and  half  an  hour 
for  breakfast.  The  price  of  bread  does  not  vary  so  much  as  elsewhere 
in  Europe,  and  with  us  being  about  two  cents  a  pound. 

-      GENERAL   CULTURE. 

With  a  population  of  two  millions  three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand, 
Sicily  has  an  area  of  more  than  six  and  a  half  millions  of  acres,  of 
which  4,000,000  are  cultivated  with  wheat,  1,700,000  are  left  for  graz- 
ing, 200,000  are  left  in  woodland,  420,000  are  cultivated  with  grapes, 
150,000  are  cultivated  with  olives^  40,000  are  cultivated  with  oranges 
and  lemons,  and  30,000  are  cultivated  with  sumac. 

The  remainder  is  in  other  crops  and  waste  lands.  The  whole  is 
divided  into  seven  hundred  thousand  properties,  the  yearly  value  of 
each  being  about  twenty  dollars.  The  soil  is  adapted  to  all  the  finest 
vegetables.  Peas  are  on  our  table  here  in  February,  and  I  see  con- 
tinually the  very  finest  broccoli  and  cauliflower.  Of  the  former,  there 
are  varieties  for  each  winter  month  from  November  to  April.  Of  the 
latter^  a  moderate  specimen  measured  more  than  a  foot  in  diameter. 
These  were  under  field  culture,  and  not  the  pet  nurslings  of  a  gentle- 
man's gardener,  which  are  often  still  larger  with  us ;  you  see  every- 
where donkey  after  donkey  loaded  with  them.  Lettuce  is  used  for 
horses,  and  also  the  twitch  grass,  which  with  us  is  so  formidable  an 
enemy  to  hoed  crops.  Walnuts,  or  Madeira  nuts,  which  with  us  will 
scarcely  bear  in  twenty  years,  produce  fruit  here  in  from  four  to  six 
years.  The  soil  and  climate  of  Sicily  are  all  that  could  be  desired,  the 
working  classes  seem  industrious,  and  nothing  is  wanting  but  enter- 
prise among  the  men  of  wealth,  and  a  laissez  faire  practice  on  the  part 
of  the  government.  The  Sicilians  of  the  higher  class  rarely  visit  their 
estates  in  the  country,  except  for  a  few  weeks,  in  spring  and  autumn, 
when  they  carry  with  them  all  the  fashionable  follies  of  the  city,  and 
rarely  take  an  interest  in  agriculture.  Notwithstanding  the  hot  weather, 
by  which  the  country  is  nearly  burnt  up  in  the  summer,  the  peasantry 
cultivate  the  land  thoroughly,  and  gather  in- the  crops. 

The  Neapolitan  government  is  far  from  being  paternal ;  it  is  thor- 
oughly repressive  of  all  development.  It  seems  apprehensive  lest  any 
of  its  people  should  attain  wealth,  and  instead  of  encouraging  an  in- 
dustry which  would  add  to  its  own  revenues,  it  imposes  a  burden  upon 
anything  becoming  too  profitable.  Large  quantities  of  wheat  were  at 
one  time  grown,  and  Sicily  bade  fair  to  be  a  great  producer  of  that 
grain ;  government  then  forbade  its  exportation.  They  began  the  ex- 
tensive production  of  maccaroni ;  government  forbade  its  exportation. 
They  produce  largely  of  sumac.  G-overnment  has  forbidden  the  export 
of  trees,  and  may  next  forbid  the  export  of  the  ground  article.  Their 
policy  can  scarcely  be  thus  to  keep  it  in  their  own  hands,  as  the  plant 
exists  elsewhere.     Some  enterprising  men  desired  to  construct  a  rail- 


THE    IONIAN    ISLANDS   AND    ITALY.  127 

road ;  the  stock  was  all  taken,  and  they  were  about  to  commence  the 
work,  when  government  threw  obstacles  in  the  way,  and  the  enter- 
prise was  abandoned.  There  is  also  a  tax  upon  each  tree  planted,  to 
be  paid  annually,  and  not  remitted  if  the  tree  dies.  Whether  this  is 
imposed  by  the  government,  or  by  the  church,  to  v/hich  two  thirds  of 
the  island  belongs,  I  could  not  satisfactorily  ascertain;  but,  however  it 
may  be,  the  result  of  this  wretched  policy  is  that  the  lessees  take  no 
interest  in  improving  the  land,  and  content  themselves  with  a  bare 
subsistence. 

One  thing  is  certain,  there  is  no  country  whatever  of  its  extent  that 
can  compare  with  Sicily  in  climate,  soil,  and  variety  of  its  products. 
Were  it  in  the  hands  of  our  people,  and  allowed  to  develop  under  our 
free  institutions,  its  exports  would  become  of  unexampled  value,  and 
its  whole  surface  would  be  like  a  garden. 

MADDER. 

At  Naples  we  found  in  the  cultivation  of  madder  more  peculiarity 
than  we  had  anticipated,  and  could  readily  account  for  our  own  failure 
in  its  culture  on  Long  Island,  some  fifteen  years  ago,  when  we  had  no 
guide  beyond  the  meager  information  contained  in  books.  It  will  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  madder  root  is  two  feet  long,  about  the  size  of 
a  large  pipe  stem,  and  thus  very  liable  to  break  in  digging  from  a 
heavy  adhesive  clay.  The  soil  should,  therefore,  be  light  and  very 
rich,  with  as  much  fertilizing  matter  applied  as  it  will  hold.  It  should 
be  dug  or  plowed  three  feet  deep,  and  then  laid  out  in  beds  or  spaces 
six  feet  wide,  having  a  vacancy  of  two  feet  between  them.  In  these 
spaces  the  seed  is  planted  like  beet  seed,  in  rows  nine  inches  apart,  and 
covered  three  inches  deep.  The  quantity  of  seed  required  for  an  acre 
is  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds.  The  planting  is  done  in  March, 
and  the  same  clearing  is  required  through  the  season  that  beets  receive. 
The  following  November  or  December,  the  earth  from  the  two  feet  va- 
cancies between  them  is  taken  out  and  placed  upon  the  beds,  covering 
them  two  inches,  and  sometimes  more,  as  a  protection  against  the 
cold.  In  August  of  the  following,  or  second  year,  and  sometimes  of 
the  third  year,  the  roots  are  dug  with  a  spade  two  feet  long,  dried  in 
the  sun  to  one  fifth  of  their  green  weight,  and  exported  in  that  condi- 
tion. They  were  formerly  always  ground  here,  but  the  adulteration 
was  so  great  that  foreign  merchants  now  prefer  to  grind  it  themselves. 
The  average  jDroduce  of  that  dug  in  the  second  year,  or  of  eighteen 
months  growth,  is  one  ton  per  acre;  that  of  thirty  months  growth  is 
one  and  a  half  tons  per  acre.  Its  value  is  from  one  hundred  and  thirty 
dollars  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  per  ton,  and  doubtless  more  in 
the  United  States.  The  quantity  grown  in  the  vicinity  of  Naples  is 
large,  but  probably  not  equal  to  that  grown  near  Avignon. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  quality  of  all  agricultural  products  is  better 
the  further  north  they  are  grown,  so  long  as  the  growth  or  fruit  is  not 
injured  by  the  cold.  Thus,  the  orange  is  finer  in  Florida  than  in 
Havana,  while  in  Savannah  again,  it  is  inferior,  as  the  wood  is  injured 
by  the  above-mentioned  cause.  Apples,  pears,  potatoes,  wheat,  and 
corn  are  finer  in  the  northern  and  western  States  than  in  the  southern; 
and  although  exceptions  may  exist,  this  will  be  found  commonly  true. 


128  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

Madder  could,  doubtless,  be  most  profitably  grown  with  us  in  the 
light,  rich  soils  of  the  south.  'Whether  it  can  be  profitably  grown  at 
the  north,  and  its  superior  quality  compensate  for  the  greater  trouble, 
may  only  be  ascertained  by  actual  experiment  and  a  knowledge  of  the 
effect  upon  it  of  northern  w^inters. 

SILK. 

We  visited  the  estate  of  Mr.  Strickland,  near  Naples.  This  gentle- 
man is  much  interested  in  silk  culture.  He  is  just  finishing  a  stone 
cocoonery,  one  hundred  and  tv/enty  by  thirty  feet,  and  thirty  leet  high, 
which  is  heated  by  earthen  stoves,  and  will  hold  the  v/orms  from  twelve 
ounces  of  eggs.  He  is  very  particular  to  throw  out  all  the  defective 
eggs,  and  consequently  no  disease  has  yet  appeared  among  his  worms, 
while  it  is  abundant  elsewhere  in  Naples,  and  all  through  Tuscany  and 
Lombardy.  The  arrangements  of  his  new  cocoonery  are  complete.  The 
frames  are  made  of  cane  and  brown  paper,  and  covered  with  nets.  Upon 
these  nets  the  leaves  are  placed,  and  while  the  worms  are  feeding  they 
are  lifted  off,  and  the  frames  cleaned.  Mustard  is  cultivated  to  give 
bosquets  for  the  worms  to  spin  upon,  the  branches  being  hung  above 
them,  and  the  seed  j)aying  the  cost  of  cultivation. 

His  mulberry  trees  are  planted  fifteen  feet  apart,  grafted,  and  cut 
down  every  year,  leaving  two  new  branches,  each  with  six  eyes.  They 
generally  vegetate  about  the  twentieth  of  March,  although  a  variety 
called  Filippino  is  two  vv^eeks  earlier.  Those  known,  however,  as  Bolog- 
nese  and  Majatica  are  most  generally  used.  The  leaves  are  ready  two 
weeks  after  vegetation,  and  the  hatching  of  the  eggs  is  deferred  till 
they  are  certain  of  the  right  food.  The  use  of  substitutes,  as  in  Sicily, 
might  produce  disease.  The  quantity  of  leaves  consumed  is  about 
twenty-four  hundred  pounds  to  an  ounce  of  eggs,  or  one  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds  of  cocoons.  The  trees  being  kept  down  to  the  height  of 
seven  feet,  children  can  pick  the  leaves  ;  but  this  operation  is  not 
allowed  till  the  tree  has  been  grafted  ten  years,  wdien  it  will  produce 
fifty  pounds. 

The  best  worms,  and  those  from  which  the  finest  silk  is  obtained,. 
are  called  Festallini  and  Valdarned,  while  a  coarser  kind  is  made  by 
the  Bolognese.  The  hatching  is  generally  about  the  end  of  April,  but 
depends  somewhat  upon  the  season  and  the  state  of  the  leaf.  The 
cocoons  are  sold  alive  at  forty  cents  a  pound,  and  some  "are  always- 
reserved  for  eggs,  which  sell  for  four  ducats,  or  three  dollars  and  twenty 
cents  per  ounce.  Five  hundred  pounds  of  cocoons  will  produce  two 
hundred  ounces  of  eggs. 

The  production  of  silk  has  been  larger  in  the  provinces,  but  limited 
in  Naples  to  domestic  cultivation  among  the  peasants,  who  had  suffered 
severely  from  inferior  eggs  until  Mr.  Strickland  came,  and,  by  his  clean 
mode  and  uniform  success,  induced  them  to  imitate  his  practice  and 
buy  the  eggs  from  him.  Whoever  may  desire  a  supply,  should  order 
not  later  than  the  fifteenth  of  May,  as  Mr.  Strickland  only  reserves 
from  his  sales  of  cocoons  sufficient  to  meet  actual  demands.  A  better 
source  cannot  be  found,  as  he  is  an  educated,  intelligent  man,  and  an 
attentive  manager,  taking  great  pride  in  keeping  his  worms  free  from 
the  disease  which  has  ravaged  Tuscany  and  Lombardy. 


THE   IONIAN   ISLANDS   AND   ITALY.  129 

LUPINS. 

Mr.  Strickland  cultivates  lupins  and  plows  them  in  for  manure.  He 
thinks  them  indigestible  and  unfit  for  horses,  although  often  cut  by 
others  for  that  purpose  "when  a  foot  high. 

BARLEY. 

Two  or  three  crops  of  barley  are  grown  successively  for  fodder. 

CLOVER. 

The  Italian  clover,  in  his  opinion,  deepens  the  soil. 

CASTOR   OIL. 

Castor  oil  is  grown  and  manufactured  to  some  extent,  but  requires 
much  irrigation. 

APPLES. 

The  best  apples  here  are  Limoncelli  and  Melagelata. 

GRAPES. 

A  grape  called  Wafrancola  is  spoken  highly  of,  with  a  strawberry 
flavor  and  coarse  leaf,  not  subject  to  mildew. 

FIGS. 

They  have  a  mode  of  ripening  figs  ten  days  earlier  by  touching  the 
blossom  end  with  sweet  oil. 

TREES    AND    PLANTS. 

In  the  botanic  garden  are  Magnolia  soulangiana,  Pyrus  japonica, 
and  Camellias,  in  the  open  ground,  all  in  bloom  early  in  March,  with 
some  fine  specimens  of  rare  trees,  such  as  Laurus  camphora,  fifty  feet ; 
Araucaria  excelsa,  thirty  feet;  and  Araucaria  hrasiliensis,  twelve  feet; 
a  large  tree  of  Taxodium  mucronatum,  and  a  fine  plant  of  Chammrops 
Jiumilis.  The  place  appears  well  kept,  under  the  direction  of  M.  Ten- 
ore,  but  Tv^ill  not  compare  in  richness  with  the  botanic  garden  at  Pal- 
ermo. There  were  two  trees  in  the  garden  of  Baron  Kothschild  which, 
to  a  lover  of  arboreal  beauty,  would  almost  be  worth  a  trip  from  Eomt 
to  Naples.  They  were  Araucaria  excelsa;  and  those  who  have  admired 
the  small  specimens  in  green-houses  can  imagine,  in  some  degree,  how 
superb  are  these,  forty  feet  high,  straight  as  an  arrow,  full,  rich,  and 
feathery,  and  clothed  Avith  a  shade  of  incomparable  green. 
9 A      . 


130  AGRICULTURAL  REPORT. 


AGRICULTURE. 

The  agriculture  of  the  vicinity  of  Naples  presented  nothing  beside 
the  madder  worthy  of  special  attention.  The  usual  proportion  of  olives 
and  vines  grows  on  its  rich  volcanic  soil.  These  under  a  good  govern- 
ment would  be  the  source  of  wealth  beyond  measure. 

ROME. 

The  agriculture  of  the  Eoman  Campagna  does  not  offer,  like  Sicily, 
numerous  objects  of  interest;  and,  respecting  its  leading  features, 
Hiliard  has  written  so  well  and  thoroughly  that  repetition  would  be 
needless.  One  of  our  most  interesting  visits  was  to  the  estate  of  Count 
Her  rick.  liis  place  is  not  a  large  one,  but  he  has  for  manager  a  very 
intelligent  Irishman,  who  has  been  in  Italy  some  fifteen  years,  and 
thoroughly  understands  the  comparative  merits  of  Italian  culture.  He 
says  that,  with  all  the  skill  of  his  countrymen  with  the  spade,  they 
cannot  compete  with  Italians. 

VINES. 

The  soil  is  about  two  and  a  half  feet  deep,  and,  to  prepare  it  for 
vines,  the  Romans  have  a  mode  which  they  call  a  scasscata.  This 
consists  of  trenches  four  feet  wide  and  four  feet  deep,  by  means  of  which 
the  ground  is  thoroughly  broken  up  and  prepared  for  culture.  After 
the  first  trench  is  dug  out,  the  workmen,  with  a  sharp-pointed,  strong 
hoe,  undermines  the  adjacent  soil  as  far  as  he  can  reach  it,  commencing 
at  the  bottom  and  making  a  lateral  trench  a  foot  high ;  the  other  three 
feet  soon  fall  in,  breaking  up  entirely,  and  thus  saving  a  large  part  of 
the  labor  of  digging.  For  vines,  the  ground  is  generally  thus  prepared 
to  the  depth  of  four  feet;  still  deeper  is  considered  better,  and  ten  feet, 
if  possible,  would  be  desired.  When  the  ground  is  ready,  a  cutting 
five  or  six  feet  long  is  taken,  and  six  or  eight  inches  of  its  lower  end 
twisted  and  bent  upward,  forming  an  elbow,  in  which  is  placed  a 
strong,  long-handled,  two-pronged  fork.  Upon  the  handle  is  a  step 
for  the  foot^  three  and  a  half  feet  from  the  forked  end;  with  this  the 
laborer  is  enabled  to  force  the  cuttings  rapidly  into  the  soil,  to  the 
depth  of  three  and  a  half  feet,  and  three  feet  apart.  Thus  planted,  the 
cuttings  rarely  fail  to  grow,  and  are  preferred  to  rooted  plants,  because, 
vrith  greater  facility,  they  may  be  planted  very  deep.  There  is  the 
same  aim  in  this  country,  as  elsewhere  in  EuroiDe,  to  keep  the  roots  of 
vines  as  deep  as  possible;  and  they  are  equally  careful  to  cut  off  all 
the  roots  which  strike  out  within  a  foot  of  the  surface. 

CANES. 

In  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  here,  canes  form  an  important  feature, 
and  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  substitute  for  them.  Four  or  six  are 
placed  around  a  vine,  about  a  foot  from  it  at  the  bottom,  and  meeting 


THE    IONIAN    ISLANDS    AND    ITALY.  131 

at  tlie  top,  where  they  are  tied  with  osiers.  They  will  last  two  or  three 
years.  In  many  places  these  canes  are  used  for  trellises  and  fences, 
and  are  capable  of  being  applied  to  so  many  purposes  that  their  culti- 
vation should  be  introduced  with  us.  They  can  be  bought  here,  eight 
to  fifteen  feet  long,  at  four  dollars  per  thousand.  The  soil  to  grow 
canes  is  dug  four  feet  deep,  and  should  be  rich.  The  eyes  are  planted 
four  feet  apart  and  a  foot  deep,  and  the  spaces  between  kept  clean ;  but 
no  hilling  up  is  required,  as  with  corn.  A  good,  plantation  will  pro- 
duce twelve  thousand  per  acre,  for  twelve  or  fifteen  years.  The  heavier 
the  soil,  the  longer  will  the  plantation  continue  to  produce  well. 

CLOVER. 

Lucerne  is  cultivated  extensively.  This  is  well  known  to  require  a 
very  deep  soil,  and  the  ground  in  which  it  is  sown  is  dug  four  feet 
deep.  The  seed  is  drilled  in,  at  the  rate  of  ten  |)Ounds  to  an  acre.  In 
its  best  condition,  it  will  bear  five  cuttings  during  the  season,  of 
three  tons  per  acre,  at  each  cutting.  It  requires  great  care  in  feeding, 
to  avoid  injuring  the  cattle,  and  is  never  fed  fresh,  but  cut  in  the 
morning  and  used  in  the  evening.  It  is  thought  good  for  liver  disease 
in  horses. 

MANURES. 

Lupins  are  used  extensively  for  manure,  and  are  sown  after  harvest, 
broadcast,  at  the  rate  of  three  hundred  pounds  to  an  acre,  costing  one 
cent  per  pound.  They  are  not  covered^  but  will  quickly  germinate, 
growing  two  feet  in  three  months,  at  which  height  they  are  plowed 
under.  The  next  best  article  for  this  purpose  is  the  French  bean. 
Peas  are  planted  between  the  rows  of  vines. 

PEACHES. 

Peaches  are  grafted  on  the  almond  tree,  and  are  considered  better  on 
the  sweet  than  on  the  bitter.  They  have  no  worms  at  the  root,  but 
ants  destroy  the  bark  when  old. 

GENERAL    REMARKS. 

Manure  is  not  so  abundantly  used  as  further  north,  costing  two  cents 
per  bushel.  The  great  fertility  of  the  soil  and  numerous  laboring  pop- 
ulation would,  under  proper  management,  make  the  country  around 
Rome  very  productive  ;  whereas,  under  its  present  metayer  system,  and 
want  of  fostering  care,  either  from  proprietors  or  from  government, 
agriculture  is  depressed,  and  there  is  neither  ambition  nor  effort  for 
improvement. 

Some  credit,  however,  should  be  given  to  the  government  for  the 
establishment  of  a  small  agricultural  school  in  1852.  There  are  seven 
pupils,  who  pay  from  their  labor,  after  their  education  is  finished,  at 
the  rate  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  per  year.  There  were  excel- 
lent drawings  by  the  students  of  flowers,  architecture,  vegetables,  high 


132  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

and  low  vine-culture,  different  modes  of  farm-culture,  and  inventions. 
The  course  lasts  three  years,  and  the  ages  of  the  students  are  from 
nineteen  to  thirty.  The  artistic  tendencies  of  young  Komans  were 
here  well  illustrated,  and  more  rapid  progress  was  never  exhibited 
than  by  the  drawings  of  these  pupils. 

FLORENCE. 

The  finest  specimen  of  landscape-gardening  in  Italy  is  the  Villa 
Bemidoff,  at  Florence,  and  this  owes  much  to  the  taste  of  an  English 
gardener,  Joseph  Goode. 

Near  the  entrance  to  these  grounds  there  is  a  mass  of  rock-work, 
covered  with  ferns,  mosses,  and  flowers.  A  rustic  path  leads  to  the 
top,  from  which  is  a  view  of  a  miniature  lake,  filled  with  fish_,  and  dot- 
ted with  aquatic  plants.  The  interior  of  this  rock-work  forms  a  grotto, 
used  by  the  bathers  in  the  lake  as  a  dressing-room.  The  variegated 
ivy,  which  grew  in  great  profusion,  produced  a  pretty  effect.  There 
were  beyond  this  some  acres  of  lawns  and  gardens  laid  out  with  taste, 
and  looking  very  beautiful  with  the  flowers  and  fresh  foliage  which 
thus  early  in  April  were  in  full  luxuriance.  The  purple  magnolia, 
Spirce  Jieveesii,  and  Judas  tree  were  in  bloom,  and  masses  of  Rhododen- 
dron, Weigela,  and  laurel  were  very  brilliant,  the  latter  filling  the 
whole  air  with  its  fragrance.  There  were  large  PauUinias,  Fittosporum, 
and  Arbutus  Uned.o.  The  Banksia  roses  were  in  full  bloom,  and  quite 
astonished  us  by  the  great  size  of  the  plants.  Arose  garden,  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  in  diameter,  was  judiciously  planted,  with  standards 
and  dwarfs,  and  veryp)retty  seats  were  formed  by  roses  trained  so  as  to 
make  little  alcoves.  An  island  in  the  middle  of  a  lake  was  ornamented 
with  a  large  cage,  in  which  were  birds  of  fine  plumage  or  song,  while 
around  it  swam  several  black  swans.  There  was,  also,  quite  a  mena- 
gerie of  the  more  useful  animals,  among  which  we  noticed  a  drome- 
dary and  a  llama.  Each  of  the  animals  had  a  house  and  large  pad- 
dock for  its  especial  use.  The  stables  and  carriage-houses  were  in 
perfect  order.  The  horses  were  fine,  and  four  black  ones,  of  mixed 
ISTorman  blood — were  showy,  and  of  admirable  action.  The  villa  was 
under  repair  and  could  not  be  seen,  but  we  entered  the  conservatory 
through  a  most  charming  horticultural  library.  The  glass  structures 
here  contain  one  of  the  most  rare  and  valuable  collections  of  plants  in 
Europe,  among  which  are  an  oak  leaf,  Grevillea,  fifteen  feet  high,  and  a 
Metrosid^eros  albicans  twenty  feet.  An  Agave  gracilis,  five  feet,  was 
valued  at  $5,000.  Rliopala  corcovadensis  had  a  very  beautiful  leaf,  like 
young  ferns.  DicJcsonia  antarctica  was  a  beatiful  fern,  four  feet  high. 
None  of  the  fern  tribe,  however,  could  equal  the  Cheilantlies  lentigera, 
or  Brussels  lace.  Its  leaves  were  finely  cut,  soft,  and  feathery,  and 
there  was  a  gracefulness  about  it  quite  unequaled  in  its  way.  Lyco- 
podium  leptopliyllum  was  a  moss  of  unusual  beauty.  But  the  great 
charm  of  this  collection  was  in  the  variety  of  plants  remarkable  for 
their  foliage,  among  which  were  some  five  hundred  of  Dracmna  nobilis, 
scattered  all  over  the  house,  with  their  soft  luxuriant  leaves,  tinted 
crimson,  purple,  and  pink,  resembling  masses  of  flowers.  There  were, 
also,  Caladium  argente,  Maranta  roseolineata,  and  many  others.     These 


THE   IONIAN   ISLANDS   AND    ITALY.  138 

foliage  plants  are  becoming  deservedly  popular  in  Europe.  Curious, 
often  brilliant,  and  growing  luxuriantly,  they  are  constantly  changing 
their  form,  and  present  always  the  beauty  which  belongs  to  otlier 
plants  only  vfhen  in  bloom. 

There  are  several  other  villas  about  Florence,  the  grounds  of  which 
are  found  delightful  in  the  early  spring,  when  bright  flowers  and  fresh 
foliage  abound,  but  they  offer  no  distinctive  features  worthy  of  record. 
One  of  the  best  was  the  Torrigiaiia.  In  this,  masses  of  blooming 
flowers,  some  twelve  feet  in  diameter,  in  pots,  were  surrounded  by  an 
edging  of  tile  twenty  inches  high,  and  produced  a  good  effect.  There 
were  an  imitation  temple  of  Janus,  a  high  tower  and  observatory, 
patches  of  China  roses,  hedges  of  Japan  Euonymus,  weeping  SopJwras, 
and  an  artificial  river,  with  miniature  island  and  stone  bridge.  A 
large  Phoiinia  serrulata  was  in  full  bloom,  and  those  who  have  seen 
only  the  shrubby  specimens  we  have  in  America  can  scarcely  conceive 
the  beauty  of  a  tree  fifteen  feet  high,  and  the  same  in  diameter,  with 
its  glossy,  rich  leaves,  and  covered  with  masses  of  white  fringe  like 
flowers.  Banksia  and  Chromatella  roses  were  trained  twenty-five  feet ; 
and  Souvenir  de  Malmaison  was  grafted  on  Banksia,  which,  in  this 
climate,  makes  the  best  stock  possible.  There  were,  also,  imitation 
Gothic  ruins,  and  the  unfailing  circus  of  wooden  horses — a  part  of 
every  Italian  villa  of  any  pretension.  Anemones,  tulips,  and  carna- 
tions were  in  full  bloom,  and  a  fine  effect  was  produced  by  roses  trained 
on  fences,  in  the  form  of  inverted  arches.  The  turf  was  good  at  this 
season,  but  the  summer  heat  is  said  soon  to  destroy  it. 

Pratolino,  about  seven  miles  from  Florence,  in  the  mountains,  is  a 
place  of  much  beauty,  belonging  to  the  grand  duke.  Here  are  very 
few  flowers,  but  delightful,  shady  walks,  miles  in  extent;  fine  lawns, 
openings,  and  vistas;  lakes,  cascades,  old  trees,  rose  gardens,  and  well- 
kept  turf.  It  has,  from  one  point,  a  superb  view  of  the  whole  valley 
of  the  Arno,  witli  the  city  of  Florence. 

The  botanical  garden  at  Florence  is  in  good  order,  and  has  some 
fine  specimens  of  trees  and  shrubs,  but  is  small,  and  cannot  compare 
with  that  at  Pisa. 

One  of  the  specialities  of  Florence  is  the  Cascina,  or  farm  of  the 
grand  duke,  through  which  is  a  drive,  well  kept,  and  flanked  by  woods 
and  broad  meadows,  on  which  some  of  his  best  cattle  and  horses  were 
grazing.  For  each  horse  a  small  stable  was  erected  in  the  middle  of 
the  field. 

PISA. 

We  found  time  to  visit  the  duke's  farm  at  Pisa,  where  are  kept  some 
two  hundred  camels.  We  could  not  discover,  however,  that  they  were 
of  much  use,  although  it  is  reported  that  they  performed  part  of  the 
farm  work.  Those  which  we  saw  were  quietly  lying  in  their  stables^ 
and  none  could  be  seen  at  work  about  the  fields.  The  farm,  which  is 
flat,  consisting  mostly  of  woods  and  pasture  grounds,  possesses  very 
little  interest.  There  were  some  fine  sheep,  and  a  few  cattle,  appar- 
ently crossed  with  Durham  stock.  The  cattle  of  Eome  and  Tuscany 
are  generally  long-horned,  large-boned  animals,  destitute  of  the  beauty 


134  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

of  tlie  English  "breeds.  The  best  were  in  the  market  at  Perugia,  where 
there  were  some  beautiful  animals,  and  on  the  road  between  Genoa  and 
Pisa,  the  pet  bullocks  being  driven  to  town  would  have  been  highly 
prized  at  any  show  with  us.  Count  Herrick  had  a  pair  of  large  cows, 
which  did  the  work  of  the  farm  and  also  supplied  him  with  milk — too 
much  duty  for  any  animals,  but  evincing  their  strength  and  valuable 
qualities  for  crossing  with  other  stock.  He  had  a  cross  between  the 
Koman  and  Swiss  cow,  which  partook  of  the  best  qualities  of  each. 
There  never  can  be  improvements,  however,  in  cattle,  or  anything  else, 
where  the  metayer  system  prevails.  There  is,  under  it,  a  very  thorough 
cultivation  of  the  land,  but  no  peasant  is  able  to  bestow  such  benefits 
on  his  one  or  two  acres  as  a  farmer  with  us  would  eagerly  introduce. 

The  country  between  Pisa  and  G-enoa  is  well  cultivated ;  wheat  pre- 
vails, and  the  vines  are  trained  upon  trees,  the  deep  roots  of  the  for- 
mer and  the  surface  roots  of  the  latter  not  interfering  with  each  other. 
Sometimes  the  center  of  the  tree  is  cut  out,  and  the  other  branches 
trained  in  the  shape  of  a  goblet,  with  the  vine  branches  interlacing 
them.  The  effect  is  pretty,  and  every  farmer  with  us  could  adopt  the 
same  plan  successfully^  by  digging  a  hole,  near  each  apple  tree,  six 
feet  square  and  three  or  four  deep,  securing  good  drainage  in  the  bot- 
tom, and  filling  in  with  rich  soil.  A  Diana  or  Delaware  vine,  planted 
there,  would  soon  cover  the  whole  tree,  and  give  an  abundance  of 
fruit.  , 

ARONA. 

I  searched  the  surrounding  country  for  the  bees  desired  by  the  de- 
partment. I  could  find  nothing  which  met  the  description  given  me, 
and  upon  examining  the  bees  of  the  country  carefully,  I  could  discover 
none  different  from  those  with  us.  Intelligent  men,  in  whose  business 
honey  formed  an  important  item,  had  no  knowledge  of  a  bee  like  that 
which  I  described,  and  I  was  almost  ready  to  doubt  its  existence.  I 
made  an  attempt  to  get  to  Milan,  to  inquire  there,  but  the  Austrians 
had  cut  off  all  communication.  A  similar  attempt  to  reach  Turin  was 
frustrated  by  the  closing  of  the  railroad^  the  advance  of  troops,  and 
the  expectation  of  an  immediate  battle.  I  was  obliged,  therefore,  to 
defer  further  search  until  hostilities  should  cease. 

The  charms  of  Lake  Maggiore  have  been  long  celebrated_,  but  no 
description  can  exaggerate  the  reality.  There  is  here  a  mode  of  train- 
ing vines  which  produces  a  fine  effect,  namely:  upon  a  sort  of  trellis, 
four  or  five  feet  high,  and  then  brought  over  at  the  top  and  tied  to 
branches  from  the  next  trellis,  the  point  of  union  being  supported  by 
a  stake.  Every  other  row  of  these  ties  is-  supported  by  a  shorter  stake 
than  its  alternate;  thus  one  row  forms  a  gothic,  and  the  next  an  in- 
verted arch. 

From  the  road,  the  field  presents  an  undulating  surface  of  green 
leaves,  the  top  branches  completely  hiding  the  trellis.  It  was  thought 
at  one  time  that  the  oidium  was  owing  to  the  age  of  the  vines.  Many 
of  the  old  vineyards  were  therefore  destroyed,  and  new  plantations 
made.  The  use  of  sulphur  has  since  proved  efficacious,  and  this 
destruction  useless. 


THE   IONIAN   ISLANDS    AND   ITALY.  135 

Another  cliarming  feature  of  the  cultivation  here  is,  that  mulben-y 
and  other  trees  are  not  disfigured  by  close  pruning,  as  in  Lombardy 
and  southern  Italy.  They  grow  with  luxuriance,  and  are  kept  down 
by  the  same  degree  of  pruning  that  we  af)ply  to  dwarf  pears.  Haw- 
thorn hedges  and  primroses,  blooming  along  the  roadside,  give  the 
country  quite  an  English  look. 

Taking  a  boat,  with  four  sturdy  rowers,  for  the  lake  had  become 
rough,  we  visited  Pallanza,  to  obtain  some  information  about  bees,  and 
then  landed  on  Isola  Madre,  one  of  the  Borromean  islands.  This 
island  is  far  out  in  the  lake,  and  beyond  the  shadow  of  the  mountains. 
It  therefore  enjoys  an  almost  tropical  climate,  and  many  New  Holland 
plants  grow  luxuriantly  in  the  open  air.  There  is  very  little  taste  dis- 
played in  its  plan,  and  many  small  places  in  England  are,  in  this 
respect,  vastly  its  superior.  But  the  combination  of  agreeable  objects 
is  unequaled.  You  stand  in  the  midst  of  trees  and  plants,  with  us 
found  only  in  green-houses.  From  this  forest-like  luxuriance,  the  eye 
passes  to  the  white  houses  of  Pallanza  opposite,  the  strongest  possible 
contrast  of  the  works  of  Nature  and  of  man.  Then  the  eye  wanders 
over  the  rippling  lake,  and,  upward,  catches  the  sloping  shores,  upward 
still,  the  crowning  hills,  covered  with  foliage,  and  above  all,  the  high- 
est peaks  of  the  Alps,  white  and  glistening  with  snow.  Here  £U'e  all 
the  elements  of  natural  beauty— rich  vegetation,  quiet  water,  hills, 
mountains,  and  snow.  Isola  Madre  contains  scarcely  more  than  foui 
or  five  acres,  yet  in  this  small  space  is  an  unrivaled  collection  of  trees 
and  plants,  and  one  could  ramble  about  for  days,  and  find  each  hour 
some  new  beauty  to  admire. 

Among  the  trees  which  with  us  require  green-house  cultivation  we 
noticed  a  Camelia,  thirty  feet  high,  and  another  of  twenty-five  feet, 
with  a  mass  of  foliage  twenty-five  feet  in  diameter,  and  covered  with 
flowers  ;  Acacia  dealbata,  fifteen  feet  high ;  an  oleander,  grafted  with 
five  sorts,  twenty  feet  high,  and  twenty-six  feet  in  diameter;  a  Wio- 
dodendron  arhoreum,  twenty  feet  high,  in  full  bloom,  incomparably 
superb;  Cactus,  on  the  rocks  which  bound  the  shore;  Palmetto;  Cycas 
revoluta;  Carob;  Indian  fig,  in  fruit;  Fabiana  imhricata;  Hakea  pugion- 
iformis;  Encalypta  saligna;  Lemons  trained  on  walls,  and  in  full  fruit; 
large  specimens  of  Magnolia  grandifiora,  some  thirty-five  feet  high ; 
Iris,  in  bloom;  Escallonia  florihunda ;  Araucaria  imhricata ;  Ericas,  fif- 
teen feet  high,  in  full  bloom;  masses  of  Azaleas;  Phillocladus  trichoma- 
noides;  Cr^p^omerm,  twenty  feet  high;  Weeping  cypress,  eighteen  feet; 
Taxus  haccata,  forty  feet ;  Arbutus  AoidracJme,  thirty  feet ;  immense 
Quercus  Ilex;  Araucaria  hrasiliensis,  thirty  feet ;  Gunningliamia,  eigh- 
teen feet ;  Euonymusjimhriatus,  six  feet ;  with  glossy  acuminate  leaves ; 
and  many  other  plants  and  trees  too  numerous  to  mention.  One  of 
the  most  striking  objects  was  made  by  four  plants  of  Juniperus  sabina 
forming  one  evergreen  mass,  four  feet  high,  and  thirty  in  diameter. 
Several  large  Lagustremias ,  twenty-five  feet  high,  are  seen  a  mile  dis- 
tant when  in  bloom.  Pinus  patida,  twenty  feet  high,  with  a  head 
twenty  feet  in  diameter,  greatly  resembled  Pinus  excelsa.  A  white 
Banksia  rose,  with  trunk  five  inches  in  diameter,  showed  well  the  fine 
efiect  of  this  variety. 


136  AGRICULTURAL  REPORT. 


ISOLA  BELLA. 

A  visit  to  Isola  Bella  was  productive  of  less  pleasure.  It  is  far  more 
expensive,  but  constructed  with,  little  taste,  being  a  succession  of  ter- 
races, with  too  great  a  predominance  of  brick  and  mortar.  It  reminds 
one  of  a  tine  piece  of  confectionary.  There  are,  however,  many  inter- 
esting objects ;  Gerasus  caroliniana,  thirty  feet  high,  and  with  foliage 
thirty  feet  in  diameter ;  groves  of  oleander,  eighteen  feet  high ;  Tree 
Box,  thirty  feet  high  ;  parterres  ;  groves  of  Magnolia  grandifiora; 
Metrosideros  alba,  twelve  feet  high,  and  eighteen  in  diameter  of  foliage ; 
Magnoliaii  hartwg,  fifteen  feet ;  Arbutus  unedo,  twenty  feet ;  Laurus 
campliora,  forty  years  old,  and  some  fifty  feet  high  ;  Cunninghamia 
sinensis,  sixty  feet ;  Cupressus  glauca  penditla,  twenty  feet ;  and  a  sin- 
gular Abies  monocaulis,  forty-six  years  old_,  and  ten  feet  high.  One 
of  the  best  things  was  a  grotto,  made  to  resemble  the  temple  of  peace, 
filled  with  ferns,  kept  damp  b}^  trickling  water,  and  apparently  sup- 
ported by  columns  of  ivy,  five  feet  in  diameter,  and  twenty-six  feet 
long,  which  grew  down  from  above,  and,  being  detached  at  the  bot- 
tom, would  swing  at  a  touch  from  the  hand. 

The  collection  in  both  these  islands  far  surpassed  that  at  the  botanic 
garden  of  Pisa^  and  although  not  so  large  as  that  at  Palermo,  con- 
sisted of  finer  specimens,  because  less  crowded. 

The  whole  country  about  Lake  Maggiore  is  full  of  delightful  features, 
and  in  our  pedestrian  excursions  among  the  mountains  in  search  of 
bees  there  frequently  burst  upon  us  scenes  of  wonderful  beauty.  The 
quiet  charm  of  the  lake  was  always  present,  and  we  would  sometimes 
walk  over  stretches  of  turf  like  an  English  lawn,  or  skirt  along  copses 
of  underwood,  ffesh  with  the  peculiar  beauty  of  young  vegetation.  At 
one  time  old  trees,  with  broad  arms,  would  shelter  us,  and  then  we 
would  be  wandering  amid  the  trained  gracefulness  of  a  vineyard,  while 
an  occasional  mountain  torrent,  foaming  and  dashing,  would  leap 
across  our  path. 

To  visit  Italy  and  not  see  the  Italian  Lakes,  is  to  look  at  a  frame 
and  not  see  the  picture.  But  the  nations  were  gathering  to  the  battle, 
troops  were  hastening  forward,  and,  bearing  in  mind  that  in  war  there 
was  lawlessness,  we  hastened  to  place  the  Alps  between  the  combatants 
and  our  defenseless  party. 


FEETILIZEES. 


BY  HON.  THOS.  G.  CLEMSON,  L.L.  D. 


From  the  day  when  the ^fiat  went  forth,  "In  the  sweat  of  thy  face 
shalt  thou  eat  bread,"  agriculture  took  its  place  among  the  arts  of  the 
world.  It  is  true,  while  population  was  sparse,  and  man  depended  first 
on  game  and  then  on  flocks  and  herds,  this  art  made  little  or  no  pro- 
gress.    The  tropical  climate,  where  the  infancy  of  man  seems  to  have 


FERTILIZERS.  '  137 

been  cradled,  would  appear  also  to  have  led  him  to  defer  the  necessity 
of  much  attention  to  it.  Very  soon,  however,  the  increasing  density 
of  population  must  have  necessitated  its  development,  since  we  find 
that  the  Egyptians,  at  the  earliest  period  to  which  history  reaches, 
were  already  skillful  agriculturists,  and  had  carried  the  art  to  such  a 
point  of  perfection  as  not  only  to  have  sustained  their  own  dense  pop- 
ulation, "but  to  have  made  Egypt  the  granary  of  the  world.  That  it 
was  not  entirely  the  fertility  of  that  favored  region  to  which  this  was 
due,  we  have  evidence  in  the  present  state  of  that  country.  The  Nile 
still  overflows  the  land  with  fatness,  and  the  sun  still  sheds  its  vivify- 
ing influence ;  yet,  there^  agriculture  has  sunk  to  its  lowest  ebb,  and 
the  country  scarce  supports  its  miserable  tribes;  its  immense  world- 
renowned  monuments  alone  remain  to  show  what  the  land  once  was. 
Egypt  is  the  most  striking  proof  which  history  presents  of  the  insep- 
arable connection  between  a  high  state  of  civilization  and  a  high  de- 
velopment of  agricultural  resources.  They  rise  and  fall  together,  and 
the  prosperity  and,  indeed,  existence  of  the  one  is  identical  with  the 
other.  Let  that  nation  beware,  whose  exhausted  fields  are  forcing  her 
population  to  emigrate.  Civilization,  in  its  highest  degree,  cannot 
exist  without  dense  population ;  nor  dense  population,  without  calling 
to  its  aid  the  highest  resources  of  agriculture. 

Egypt  stands  a  living,  or  rather  a  dead,  type  of  the  intimate  con- 
nection between  population  and  agriculture.  China  is  one  equally 
striking,  on  the  opposite  side.  For  how  many  thousand  years  has  her 
pains-taking  care  for  every  foot  of  her  soil  maintained  her  prosperous 
and  dense  legions,  in  a  region  comparatively  but  little  favored  by  Na- 
ture, and  given  a  respectable  position  among  nations  to  a  people  but 
little  intellectually  gifted !  How  many  wonderful  discoveries  do  we 
owe  to  the  necessities  of  their  compact  masses !  The  struggle  for  ex- 
istence has  always  been  one  of  the  greatest  stimulus  to  the  activity  of 
the  human  mind. 

This  continuous  prosperity,  through  a  long  series  of  centuries,  is 
owing  to  the  sedulous  care  of  the  government.  No  people,  left  to 
themselves,  will  think  of  future  generations ;  and  it  is  for  that  reason 
that  all  governments  should  foster  and  aid  the  development  of  this 
most  important  of  arts,  as  government  only  can.  This  is  so  well  un- 
derstood in  the  present  day,  by  all  nations,  that  those  who  govern  are 
turning  their  attention  daily  more  and  more  to  its  aid  and  advance- 
ment. England  has  done  so  by  direct  legislation ;  her  aristocracy, 
also  an  integral  part  of  her  government,  having,  consequently,  the 
weight  necessary  to  carry  out  a  continuous  system,  has  given  all 
the  impetus  of  this  weight  and  their  great  wealth  to  its  energetic  de- 
velopment. 

It  is  only  within  comparatively  few  years  that  science  has  revealed 
to  us  the  true  composition  of  bodies  and  the  laws  that  govern  their 
action ;  thus  developing  the  wonderful  resources  of  Nature,  and  reducing 
that  to  system  which,  in  the  time  of  our  forefathers,  Avas  ignorant 
practice  based  upon  hereditary  experience. 

It  is  true  that  this  subject  has  occupied,  from  the  earliest  times,  the 
attention  of  statesmen,  philosophers,  and  philanthropists;  but  they 
only  collected  and  reasoned  from  the  results  of  experience,  without 


138  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

entering  into  the  laws  which  led  to  and  governed  the  results  which 
they  recorded.  Agriculture,  therefore,  now  stands  upon  a  hasis  far 
different  from  what  it  has  hitherto  occupied ;  and  not  working,  as  we 
have  heretofore,  in  the  dark,  but  knowing  where  to  look  for  causes  and 
effects,  we  may  expect  in  the  next  century  to  make  a  stride  that  will 
give  to  this  art,  or  rather  convocation  of  arts,  a  place  among  the  exact 
sciences.  But  this  very  rapidity  of  advancement  will  render  it  more 
fatal  to  be  left  behind  in  the  race ;  and  neither  nations  nor  individuals 
can  stand  supinely  by,  depending  upon  the  past,  and  exhausting  the 
accumulated  resources  of  Nature,  without  individual  and  national  ruin. 
Death  is  the  award  of  improvidence,  to  nations  as  well  as  to  individu- 
als. The  continuous  march  of  civilization  to  the  west  was  the  natural 
result  of  ignorance ;  and  the  civilized  world  is  just  beginning  to  realize 
the  dire  consequences  that  are  pending  over  those  who  neglect  to  act 
upon  the  unerring  laws  which  science  reveals.  Sterility  and  depopulation 
are  consequences  not  of  use,  but  of  abuse.  Disappearance  of  man  and 
all  his  monuments,  even  to  the  entire  extinction  of  vitality,  is  the  con- 
sequence of  mistaken  cupidity,  or  the  ignorance  of  those  laws  which  gov- 
ern scientific  agriculture.  Indeed,  that  essential  art  needs  no  protection ; 
we  may  safely  leave  to  enlightened  industry,  especially  in  our  country, 
the  application  of  proper  and  well-proved  rules.  That  which  is  neces- 
sary, however,  is  to  place  within  the  reach  of  all  the  ex^perience  of  the 
world,  and  the  important  results  which  science  and  observation  are 
constantly  developing,  that  time  may  not  be  lost  in  futile  and  oft-tried 
experiments.  G-overnment,  indeed,  alone  would  seem  capable  of  es- 
tablishing and  persisting  in  a  continuous  system  of  improvement  and 
development,  not  only  for  this,  but  future  generations.  Its  influence 
and  weight  are  essential  on  the  side  of  advancement. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  important  subjects  to  the  agricul- 
turist is,  of  course,  the  means  of  keeping  up,  or  restoring  the  fertility 
of  his  land  ;  and  that  he  may  not  work  in  the  dark,  it  is  essential  that 
he  should  understand  the  nature  and  action  of  soils,  the  functions  of 
plants,  and  the  operation  of  fertilizers. 

It  is  important  we  should  always  bear  in  mind  that  this  earth  is  not 
a  heterogeneous  mixture  of  an  indefinite  number  of  illy-defined  sub- 
stances, but,  on  the  contrary,  the  different  objects  or  forms  of  matter 
which  present  themselves  to  our  senses  are  limited  in  the  number  of 
their  constituents  ;  as  far  as  our  knowledge  extends  they  do  not  exceed 
sixty-two. 

Each  substance  is  sui  generis,  and,  no  matter  from  whence  taken, 
possesses  precisely  similar  properties,  and  is  governed  by  invariable 
laws  in  its  action  upon  other  substances.  They  are  solid,  liquid,  or 
aeriform,  according  to  circumstances.  Water  is  a  familiar  example  ; 
it  is  solid  in  the  form  of  ice,  liquid  in  water,  and  aeriform  as  steam. 

Substances  have  been  created  once  and  forever ;  they  may  change 
place,  form,  and  combinations,  but  such  a  thing  as  blotting  out  of  ex- 
istence, or  re-creation,  is  impossible.  Some  are  abundant,  while  others 
are  exceedingly  rare,  and  difficult  to  procure.  To  show  the  small  or 
limited  number  of  substances  which  enter  into  the  bodies  around  us, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  remember  that  the  great  mineral  masses,  which 
form  by  far  the  largest  portion  of  the  earth,  are  composed,  as  far  as 


FERTILIZERS.  '  139 

our  IrnowledgG  extends,  of  a  few  elementary  principles.  Water  is 
composed  of  two  gases,  and  the  air  we  breathe  likewise  of  two  gases, 
one  of  which  is  common  alike  to  air  and  water.  Nor  do  they  combine 
in  an  indefinite  manner ;  they  unite  with  each  other  in  simple,  definite 
proportions,  multiples  the  one  of  the  other,  and  the  quantity  rarely 
surpasses  the  proportion  of  five  to  one.  Substances  may  be,  it  is  true, 
heterogenenusly  mixed  in  any  proportions,  and  these  mixtures  present 
endless  varieties,  but  are  not  chemical  compounds,  and  do  not  enter 
into  the  category  of  which  we  are  speaking. 

Matter  may  be  divided  into  that  which  has  life,  and  that  -which  is 
without  life.  The  principal  part  of  the  substances  which  go  to  com- 
pose organic  beings  exists  around  us,  in  the  air  we  breathe,  (water, 
carbonic  acid,  nitrogen.)  There  are  other  substances  not  less  essential 
to  organic  life,  but  which  are  found  to  enter  their  composition  in  infi- 
nitely smaller  quantities.  These  are  found  in  the  ashes,  after  incin- 
eration of  any  vegetable  or  animal  matter.  We  shall  learn  their 
composition  as  we  proceed. 

Those  things  which  are  endowed  with  vitality  are  produced,  then 
increase,  and  mature.  Inorganic  substances  increase  by  the  juxtapo- 
sition of  similar  parts,  and  their  form  is  destroyed  by  forces  exterior 
to  themselves,  while  organisms  reproduce  their  like,  and  have  a  period 
of  existence  determined  by  laws,  which  fix  their  time  of  growth^  decay, 
and  death.  Of  organic  life  there  are  two  distinct  classes,  one  receiving 
its  food  through  a  digestive  canal,  and  is  endowed  with  locomotion; 
the  other  is  fixed  by  roots  to  the  soil.  This  is  not  rigorously  correct, 
but  sufiiciently  so  for  our  present  purpose.  The  last,  or  vegetable  pro- 
ductions, receive  a  portion  of  their  food  through  their  roots,  and 
another  through  their  leaves.  The  root  answers  a  double  purpose, 
that  of  fixing  the  plant  in  the  earth,  and  drav/ing  from  it  nourish- 
ment. Yegetable  anatomy  informs  us  that  among  the  elements  of 
their  construction  there  are  cells,  which  are  found  in  all  plants,  what- 
ever character  they  may  have,  and  those  cells,  by  transformations  and 
successive  development,  form  fibres,  tubes,  or  elongated  canals.  While 
the  characteristics  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  classes  are  thus  marked, 
the  qualitative  chemical  composition  of  both  is  identical  ;  the  princi- 
pal organic  portions  of  which — I  do  not  allude  to  the  mineral  constit- 
uents, or  ash,  and  there  is  great  similarity  in  that  respect — may  be 
said  to  express  the  condensation  of  the  gases  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed. Oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  and  nitrogen  form  the  volatile 
portions  ;  and  silex,  lime,  potash,  soda,  magnesia,  iron,  sulphur,  and 
phosphorus  the  mineral  parts.  It  is  mainly  with  those  substances 
that  we  have  to  deal  in  connection  with  fertility  or  agriculture.  If 
we  can  turn  a  never-ceasing  influx  of  them  into  our  fields,  the  prob- 
lem of  fertility  is  solved,  and  it  remains  for  us  to  consider  their  prop- 
erties, their  history,  their  action  the  one  upon  the  other,  and  the  means 
that  have  heretofore  been  employed  of  making  them  subservient  to.  our 
wants . 

Plants  are  divided  into  two  distinct  classes,  those  that  receive  their 
increment  from  within  and  those  that  receive  their  growth  on  the 
exterior.  The  first  are  called  endogens,  the  latter  exogens.  All  or- 
ganized bodies  have  forms  and  properties  peculiar  and  inherent  to 


140  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

themselves,  and  those  forms  and  properties  cliaracterize  the  parts  as 
well  as  the  whole ;  and  it  is  that  particular  form  and  the  properties  of 
the  parts  that  render  it  what  it  is  and  make  it  a  living  thing.  Some 
plants  go  through  the  different  stages  of  germination,  growth,  fructi- 
fication, and  death  in  one  season  ;  they  are  called  annuals.  Others 
live  through  a  succession  of  years,  and  are  called  perennial.  Some 
of  the  minute  fungi,  on  the  contrary,  go  through  the  stages  of  their 
existence  in  a  few  hours,  and  seldom  live  loriger  than  a  few  days. 
Some  plants  are  annuals  in  a  northern  latitude,  hut  perennial  in  a 
more  southern.  The  oak,  the  yew,  the  cypress,  and  cedar  are  long- 
lived  trees,  and  flourish  for  many  centuries.  Some  remarkable  in- 
stances of  the  longevity  of  trees  are  noted  by  historians.  A  yew  tree, 
which  was  growing  in  1660  in  the  county  of  Kent,  in  England,  about 
which  all  tradition  was  lost,  measured  at  that  time  very  nearly  sixty 
feet  in  circumference  at  the  base,  and  is  believed  to  have  been  2,880 
years  old.  On  the  island  of  Nerbuddah,  in  Hindostan,  there  is  still 
standing  a  banyan  ;  the  tradition  of  the  natives  is  that  it  is  3,000 
years  old.  A  species  of  cypress,  which  grew  near  Oaxaca,  in  MexicO; 
and  which  is  said  to  have  sheltered  the  whole  army  of  Cortez,  meas- 
ured nearly  118  feet  in  circumference,  or  3*7^  feet  in  diameter,  a.nd  was 
computed  by  Decandolle  to  have  withstood  the  deluge  and  been  in 
existence  before  the  creation  of  man.  There  is  another  cypress  at 
Chapultepec,  in  the  same  region,  which  is  said  to  be  117  feet  10  inches 
round.  If  the  measurement  here  given  be  correct,  and  the  tree  con- 
sists of  one  stem,  we  are  entitled'  to  consider  the  Mexican  cypress  as 
the  most  gigantic  and  ancient  tree  discovered  on  the  globe. 

No  infallible  rule  is  known  by  which  we  can  estimate  the  age  of 
trees.  The  known  practice  of  counting  the  concentric  rings  in  the 
trunk  of  a  tree,  and  reckoning  each  for  a  year,  is  liable  to  error,  for 
a  recurrence  of  cold  after  warm  weather  may  so  check  vegetation  as  to 
occasion  the  formation  of  two  layers  in  one  season,  or  two  zones  may 
be  fused  into  one  by  some  temporary  injury.  But  it  is  nevertheless  a 
close  approximation,  and  may  be  relied  on  within  certain  limits. 

It  is  through  the  roots  that  the  ash  or  mineral  ingredient  enters, 
while  the  leaves  absorb  from  the  atmosphere  the  organic  or  combus- 
tible portion.  The  power  of  assimilation  appears  to  be  dependent 
upon  the  action  of  light.  A  plant  placed  in  water  containing  car- 
bonic acid,  and  exposed  to  the  light  of  the  sun,  absorbs  the  acid  and 
gives  off  oxygen.  At  night  the  action  is  reversed,  and  carbonic  acid 
is  emitted,  when  oxygen  is  assimilated.  Every  one  has  remarked  the 
tendency  of  plants  to  lean  towards  the  sun,  and  where  they  are  kept  in 
cellars  they  will  bend  even  several  feet  from  the  perpendicular  to  re- 
ceive the  rays  of  light  that  may  enter  through  an  aperture.  In  the 
early  stages  of  plant-life,  the  carbon  of  the  soil  enters  through  the 
roots ;  but  when  the  plant  has  risen  above  the  ground,  and  its  leaves 
are  formed,  the  carbon  of  the  soil  is  no  longer  needed,  and  it  is  pro- 
bable that  what  is  required  is  entirely  assimilated  from  the  carbonic 
acid  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  sap  rises  from  the  roots  through  the  internal  vessels  to  the  leaves, 
becomes  carbonized  by  the  decomposition  of  the  carbonic  acid  of  the 


FERTILIZERS.  141 

atmosphere,  and  passes  down  into  the  plant,  forming  ligneous  fiber,  &c. 
We  shall  not  enter  into  the  subject  of  vegetable  physiology ;  that  would 
be  foreign  to  our  purpose.  Fertility  depends  at  once  upon  the  chem- 
ical composition  and  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil ;  nor  can  it  be 
independent  of  subsoil  and  climatic  influences.  The  latter  question, 
including  the  chemistry  of  ozone,  is  one  of  great  intricacy.  It  is  so 
interwoven  with  heat,  electricity,  moisture,  and  chemical  reaction  as 
almost  to  baffle  investigation.  Plants  generate  and  evolve  heat,  and 
possess  the  power  of  preventing  their  juices  from  freezing  at  a  degree 
of  temperature  far  below  that  at  which  congelation  would  take  place 
were  the  plant  dead.  Fertility  is  a  relative  term,  and  is  dependent 
upon  multifarious  influences.  A  certain  degree  of  heat  and  moisture 
is  essential  to  life ;  without  them,  there  can  be  no  germination  nor 
maturation  of  seed ;  nor  are  these  essentials  independent  of  soil,  or 
rather  its  constituents,  we  may  say  one  constituent,  for  the  absence  or 
presence  of  one  substance  may  secure  fertility  or  produce  sterility. 

With  these  preliminary  remarks,  we  pass  to  the  consideration  of 
water  in  its  connection  with  fertility: 

Water  in  a  perfectly  pure  state  is  composed  of  two  volumes  of  hydro- 
gen gas  and  one  of  oxygen,  and  about  89  parts  of  oxygen  and  11  of 
hydrogen  by  weight.  When  you  mix  the  two  gases  they  will  remain 
uncombined  for  an  indefinite  period,  unless  the  mixture  should  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  action  of  heat  or  electricity.  The  combination  then  takes 
j)lace  with  the  manifestation  of  stupendous  force.  The  two  compo- 
nents may  be  separated  by  electricity.  Water  enters  into  the  composi- 
tion of  all  vegetable  and  animal  structures.  It  is  one  of  the  principal 
constituents  of  blood,  milk,  and  sap.  By  its  assistance,  silex  and  other 
insoluble  substances  enter  into  circulation,  and  are  assimilated  by  ani- 
mals and  vegetables.  It  is  found  to  make  part  of  all  grains,  woods, 
leaves,  &c.  Its  absence  would  jjroduce  universal  death.  It  enters 
into  all  our  domestic  operations,  and  forms  part  of  all  alcoholic  bever- 
ages and  articles  of  food.  It  is  essential  to  production,  and  it  may  be 
said  that  fertility  in  any  locality  is  in  direct  proportion  to  humidity, 
and  sterility  in  proportion  to  its  absence.  The  truth  of  this  proposi- 
tion is  verified  in  a  remarkable  degree  in  the  deserts  of  Sahara  and  the 
western  plains  of  this  continent. 

Water  is  never  obtained  pure  from  natural  sources  ;  it  is  procured 
by  distillation.  That  which  issues  from  springs,  generally  contains 
mineral  substances,  and  always  impurities  of  a  gaseous  nature.  There 
are  waters,  even  river  waters,  that  at  times  evaporate  without  residuum. 
Such  is  the  case  with  that  of  the  Schuylkill,  at  Philadelphia.  We 
have  used  it  for  months  together,  in  analysis.  Eain-water,  and  that 
which  falls  in  the  form  of  dew,  are  also  impure.  The  former,  though 
much  freer  from  impurities  than  that  which  has  flowed  over  the  ground, 
comes  down  charged  with  all  the  impurities  of  the  atmosphere,  which 
it  washes  as  it  descends.  These  substances  are  varied  and  numerous, 
consisting  of  impalpable  sand,  vegetable  and  animal  particles,  also 
salt  taken  up  from  the  ocean.  That  which  first  falls  after  a  drought 
is  often  charged  with  the  offensive  odor  of  animal  perspiration,  excre- 
ments, and  putrefaction.  It  also  brings  down  fishes  and  frogs,  and  at 
times  organisms  and  pollen,  to  the  extent  of  tinging  the  surface  of  the 


142  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

earth  witli  the  color  of  the  adventitious  matter.  Eain-water  always 
contains  ammonia  and  nitric  acid.  These  are  partly  formed  by  the 
action  of  electricity  in  the  atmosphere,  and  are  partly  the  result  of  de- 
compositions which  take  place  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  and  in  the 
air. 

Pure  water. is  insipid  and  unhealthy.  That  taken  from  springs  or 
rivers,  independent  of  any  mineral  ingredients  which  it  may  hold  in 
solution,  always  contains  a  quantity  of  oxygen  gas,  the  great  supporter 
of  life  and  combustion.  This  imparts  a  tonic-invigorating  quality  to 
cold  water,  which  when  boiled  it  does  not  possess  ;  to  the  latter,  emetic 
qualities  are  attributed.  Water,  from  its  known  quality  of  containing 
oxygen  in  weak  combination  or  in  an  evanescent  form,  together  with 
carbonic  acid,  is  a  powerful  and  essential  agent  in  chemical  action, 
which  is  ever  occurring  in  the  soil,  &g.  The  substances  held  in  solu- 
tion vary  in  different  rivers  and  different  parts  of  the  same  stream, 
both  in  Idnd  and  in  proportions  of  the  saline  ingredients.  The  follow- 
ing analysis  of  water  from  different  rivers  were  made  by  some  of  the 
most  distinguished  chemists  of  continental  Europe,  Bouchardat,  Bous- 
singault,  Dupasquier,  Tingry,  Gi-rundaub,  and  Payen : 

"  For  example,  100,000  parts  of  the  water  of  the  Seine  above  Paris 
contain  11.3  of  carbonate  of  lime,  0.4  of  carbonate  of  magnesia,  0.5 
of  silica,  3.6  of  gypsum,  0.6  of  Epsom  salt,  l.Oof  chloride  of  calcium, 
0.8  of  chloride  of  magnesium,  and  traces  of  nitrates  and  of  organic 
matter  ;  100,000  parts  of  the  water  of  the  Marne  contain  10.5  of  car- 
bonate of  lime,  0.9  of  carbonate  of  magnesia,  0.6  of  silica,  3.1  of  gyp- 
sum, 1.2  of  Epsom  salt,  l.T  of  chloride  of  magnesium,  and  traces  of 
organic  matter  ;  100,000  parts  of  the  water  of  the  Ourcq,  at  St.  Denis, 
contain  1Y.5  of  carbonate  of  lime,  2.0  of  carbonate  of  magnesia,  2.0 
of  silica,  15.3  of  gypsum,  7.0  of  Epsom  salt,  4.0  of  chloride  of  mag- 
nesium, and  traces  of  common  salt  and  of  organic  matter  ;  100,000 
parts  of  the  water  of  the  Yonne,  at  Avallon,  contain  4.3  of  carbonate 
of  lime,  1.9  of  silica,  traces  of  gypsum,  1.5  of  chloride  of  calcium, 
and  traces  of  common  salt  and  organic  matter  ;  100,000  parts  of  the 
water  of  the  Benvronne  contain  25.7  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
20.3  of  gypsum,  and  8.5  of  chloride  of  calcium;  100,000  parts  of  the 
water  of  the  Therouenne  contain  26.2  of  carbonate  of  lime,  2.0  of 
gypsum,  and  3.6  of  chloride  of  calcium;  100,000  parts  of  the  water 
of  the  Gergogne  contain  18.0  of  carbonate  of  lime,  1.5  of  gypsum, 
1.5  of  chloride  of  calcium,  and  1.9  of  common  salt ;  100,000  parts  of 
the  water  of  the  Bievre,  near  Paris,  contain  13.6  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
25.1  of  gypsum,  10.9  of  chloride  of  calcium,  and  1.2  of  common  salt; 
100,000  parts  of  the  water  of  the  Arcueil  contain  16.9  oi^  carbonate  of 
lime,  16.9  of  gypsum,  11.0  of  chloride  of  calcium,  and  1.9  of  common 
salt ;  100,000  parts  of  the  water  of  the  spring  of  Eoye,  at  Lyons,  con- 
tain 23.8  of  carbonate  of  lime,  traces  of  silica,  1.4  of  gypsum,  1.2  of 
common  salt,  and  traces  of  nitrates  and  organic  matter ;  100,000  parts 
of  the  Avater  of  the  Fountain  Spring,  at  Lyons,  contain  23.4  of  car- 
bonate of  lime,  traces  of  silica,  1.7  of  gypsum,  1,3  of  chloride  of  cal- 
cium, traces  of  chloride  of  magnesium,  0.2  of  common  salt,  and  traces 
of  organic  matter  ;  100,000  parts  of  the  water  of  the  Khone,  at  Lyons, 
in  July,  contain  10.0  of  carbonate  of  lime,  traces  of  silica,  0.6  of  gyp- 


FERTILIZERS.  143 

sum,  and  traces  of  Epsom  salt,  of  chloride  of  calcium,  of  chloride  of 
magnesium,  of  common  salt,  and  of  organic  matter ;  100,000  parts  of 
the  water  of  the  Khone,  at  Lyons,  in  February,  contain  15.0  of  car- 
bonate of  lime,  2.0  of  gypsum,  0.7  of  Epsom  salt,  0.7  of  chloride  of 
calcium,  and  traces  of  nitrate  of  lime  and  of  organic  matter;  100,000 
parts  of  the  water  of  the  spring  of  the  G-arden  of  Plants,  at  Lyons, 
contain  27.0  of  carbonate  of  lime,  25.2  of  gypsum,  16.8  of  carbonate 
of  calcium,  1.6  of  chloride  of  magnesium,  12.6  of  common  salt,  7.G 
of  nitrates,  and  traces  of  organic  matter;  100,000  parts  of  the  water 
of  the  Lake  of  G-eneva  contain  7.2  of  carbonate  of  lime,  0.7  of  car- 
bonate of  magnesia,  0.1  of  silica,  2.6  of  gypsum,  3.1  of  Epsom  salt, 
0.9  of  chloride  of  magnesium,  and  0.6  of  organic  matter;  100,000 
parts  of  the  water  of  the  Arve,  in  August,  contain  5.2  of  carbonate 
of  lime,  0.4  of  carbonate  of  magnesia,  0.1  of  silica,  3.2  of  gj^psum, 
2.9  of  Epsom  salt^  0.7  of  chloride  of  magnesium,  and  0.3  of  organic 
matter  ;  100,000  parts  of  the  water  of  the  Arve,  in  February,  contain 
8.3  of  carbonate  of  lime,  1.2  of  carbonate  of  magnesia,  0.2  of  silica, 
6.5  of  gypsum,  6.2  of  Epsom  salt,  1.5  of  chloride  of  magnesium,  and 
0.4  of  organic  matter  ;  100,000  parts  of  the  water  of  the  Loire,  near 
Orleans,  contain  1.7  of  carbonate  of  lime,  5.1  of  chloride  of  calcium, 
and  traces  of  common  salt;  100,000  parts  of  the  water  of  the  Loiret 
contain  11.9  of  carbonate  of  lime,  3.8  of  gypsum,  10.2  of  chloride  of 
calcium,  and  2.5  of  common  salt ;  and  100,000  parts  of  the  water  of 
the  artesian  Avell  at  Grenelle,  near  Paris,  contain  6.8  of  carbonate  of 
lime,  1.42  of  carbonate  of  magnesia,  2.90  of  bicarbonate  of  potash, 
1.2  of  sulphate  of  potash,  1.09  of  chloride  of. potassium,  0.57  of  silica, 
and  0.24  of  nitrogenous  organic  matter." 

It  will  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  above-named  substances  are  in 
solution  and  do  not  include  those  held  in  mechanical  suspension.  The 
waters  analyzed  above  are  not  only  limpid,  but  such  as  are  used  for 
the  kitchen  and  all  the  daily  purposes  of  life. 

Much  has  been  written  upon  the  sewerage  of  eities  throughout  the 
world.  This  is  a  subject  of  great  importance,  not  only  to  the  agri- 
cultural wealth  of  the  country,  but  imminent  to  its  sanitary  condition. 
The  value  that  is  daily  washed  into  rivulets  from  our  lands,  and  thence 
to  the  sea,  is  incalculable.  Mr.  Grey,  in  speaking  of  the  Medloch, 
says:  "it  receives  the  drainage  of  not  more  than  100,000,  and  contains 
sufficient  phosphoric  acid  to  supply  95,000  acres  of  wheat,  184,000 
acres  of  potatoes,  or  280,000  acres  of  oats,  and  to  hold  in  solution  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  silica  to  supply  50,000  acres  of  wheat." 

A  distinguished  agricultural  writer  in  1845  makes  the  following 
remarks  upon  the  subject  of  the  sewerage  of  London : 

"By  carefully  conducted  experiments  and  very  accurate  gaugings  it 
has  been  found  that  the  chief  London  sewers  convey  daily  into  the 
Thames  about  115,000  tons  of  mixed  drainage,  consisting  on  an  average 
computation  of  one  part  of  solid  and  twenty-five  absolutely  fluid  matters ; 
but  if  we  only  allow  one  part  in  thirty  of  this  immense  mass  to  be  com- 
posed of  solid  substances,  then  v/e  have  the  large  quantity  of  more  than 
3,800  of  solid  manure  daily  poured  into  the  river  from  London  alone, 
consisting  principally  of  excrements,  soot,  and  the  debris  of  the  London 
streets,  which  is  chiefly  carbonate  of  lime;  thus,  allowing  twenty  tons 


144  AGRICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

of  the  manure  as  a  dressing  for  an  acre  of  ground,  tliere  is  evidently 
a  quantity  of  solid  manure  annually  poured  into  the  river  equal  to 
fertilizing  more  than  50,000  acres  of  the  poorest  cultivated  land!  The 
quantity  of  food  thus  lost  to  the  country  hy  this  heedless  waste  of 
manure  is  enormous ;  for  only  allowing  one  crop  of  wheat  to  be  raised 
on  these  50,000  acres  that  would  be  equal  to  the  maintenance  (calcu- 
lating upon  an  average  produce  of  three  quarters  of  wheat  per  acre)  of 
150,000  persons.  London,  too,  is  only  one  huge  instance  of  this 
thoughtless  waste  of  the  agricultural  riches  of  the  soil  of  England. 
From  every  other  English  city,  every  town,  every  hamlet,  is  hourly 
passing  into  the  sea  a  proportionate  waste  of  liquid  manure ;  and  I 
have  only  spoken  of  the  solid  or  mechanically  suspended  matters  of 
the  average ;  the  absolutely  fluid  portion  is  still  rich  in  urine,  ammo- 
niacal  salts,  soda,  &c." 

The  earth  is  surrounded  by  water  in  a  state  of  vapor,  and  the  quan- 
tity varies  according  to  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  and  other 
circumstances.  Vomer  found  as  a  mean  of  fifty  experiments,  in  1,000 
parts  of  air,  8.47  parts  of  vapor.  In  the  forenoon,  and  before  two 
o'clock,  the  mean  was  7.97;  and  between  tvv^o  p.  m.  and  evening, 
8.85.  There  is  more  humidity  in  the  atmosphere  during  the  day  than 
at  night ;  and  more  during  the  summer  than  winter ;  more  in  low  flat 
countries  than  in  mountainous  regions ;  and  less  in  the  interior  of  con- 
tinents far  removed  from  rivers,  lakes,  or  the  ocean.  A  slight  change 
in  the  temperature  of  an  atmosphere,  saturated  with  humidity,  pro- 
duces fogs,  clouds,  and  rains ;  and  by  congelation,  snow,  &c.  A  con- 
tinuous evaporation  takes  place  from  the  ocean,  lakes,  rivers,  and  the 
soil,  and  a  return  to  the  earth  in  form  of  dew  and  rain.  Tlie  amount 
of  evaporation  that  takes  place  in  a  country  is  greatly  influenced  by 
the  operations  of  the  farmer.  In  a  report  made  by  Andrew  Brown  and 
Dr.  M.  W.  Dickeson  to  the  American  Association,  in  1849,  those  gentle- 
men remark  "that  the  annual  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  in  the  valley 
of  the  Mississippi  maybe  estimated  at  169,128,960,000,000  cubic  feet, 
which  is  about  llf,  or  11.3636,  times  the  quantity  which  is  discharged 
by  the  river.  Tliere  can  be  but  two  ways  by  which  this  immense  quan- 
tity of  water  can  make  its  escape  from  the  valley ;  one  is  by  the  course 
of  the  river^  and  the  other  by  evaporation  ;  -^j  parts  are  carried  off  by 
the  river  and  |-f-  parts  by  evaporation.  Thus,  we  arrive  at  a  fact  of  the 
most  momentous  importance  to  the  planting  interests  of  Louisiana  and 
Mississippi;  for  it  v/ill  be  at  once- perceived  that  the  more  exhalations 
are  promoted,  the  less  liable  will  the  low  or  bottom  lands  of  these  two 
States  be  to  the  periodical  inundations  by  the  river. 

"If  it  be  asked  by  what  process  it  is  expected  that  evaporation  can  be 
proinoted  over  such  an  extensive  area  as  the  Mississippi  valley,  so  as 
visibly  and  permanently  to  affect  the  planting  interests  of  the  above- 
named  States ;  the  answer  will  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  process 
has  been,  and  is  now,  in  the  most  rapid  and  successful  progress,  and 
of  that  kind  which  is  the  best  calculated  to  produce  so  desirable  a 
result,  viz:  the  clearing  of  such  large  portions  of  the  valley  of  its 
forests  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture,  and  the  consequent  exposure 
of  the  lands  to  the  action  of  the  sun  and  winds,  the  very  best  promotors 
of  the  evaporating  process,  particularly  on  a  large  scale. 


FERTILIZERS.  145 

' '  So  rapid  is  the  progress  of  this  increased  exposure  and  its  consequent 
evaporating  tendency,  and  so  visible  have  been  its  effects  on  the  Missis- 
sippi river,  that  we  may  hazard  the  assertion  with  safety,  that  there  is 
not  now  by  twenty-five  per  cent,  as  much  water  passing  down  the  Mis- 
sissippi as  there  was  twenty-five  years  ago  ;  for  at  and  prior  to  that 
time,  there  were  annual  inundations  of  many  feet,  and  long  periods 
of  submergence  of  almost  all  the  bottom  lands,  from  the  bluiTs  on  one 
side  of  the  river  bottom  to  those  on  the  other  side.  Such  lands  were 
at  that  period  accounted  valueless,  and  to  such  a  degree  that  but  little 
or  no  hopes  were  entertained  of  the  practicability  of  their  redemption 
by  any  artificial  means — that  is  on  any  general  scale  ;  but  such  has 
been  the  diminution  in  the  annual  quantity  of  water  discharged  from 
the  valley,  that  those  lands  have  been  progressively  and  rapidly 
redeemed  from  overflow,  until  very  great  portions  of  them  are  now  in 
the  highest  state  of  cultivation,  and  with  but  slight  assistance  from 
art  in  the  v/ay  of  embankments,  and  these  such  as  could  not  have  been 
at  all  available  against  the  overwhelming  effects  of  floods  and  the 
length  of  time  of  their  continuance  ;  for  then  there  were  annual  inun- 
dations, both  deep  and  expansive,  of  the  waters,  over  almost  all  the 
bottom  lands,  but  now  the  river  seldom  rises  to  the  same  elevation  as 
formerly,  and,  when  it  does,  it  is  of  much  shorter  duration,  and  the 
waters  are  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  channel  of  the  river,  in 
place  of  being  spread  over  almost  all  the  bottom  lands  the  whole  spring 
and  early  part  of  the  summer." 

Such  changes  are  progressing,  generally  unsuspected  and  overlooked, 
but  not  the  less  sure. 

The  art  of  producing  large  crops  by  means  of  artificial  supplies  of 
water,  has  been  practised  from  remote  ages  in  the  warm  countries  of 
the  world.  It  was  used  by  the  aborigines  of  America,  by  the  Incas, 
the  inhabitants  of  Mexico,  extensively  practised  by  the  Egyptians,  the 
Romans,  and  at  the  present  day  in  France  and  Germany.  The  Hin- 
doos make  no  attempt  at  cultivation  without  artificial  irrigation.  The 
rivers  of  Italy  are  made  subservient  to  agricultural  v/ants  wherever  it 
is  practicable.  Arthur  Young  gives  an  account  of  an  hour's  run  of 
water  through  a  gutter,  near  Turin,  which  produced,  in  1778,  1,500 
livres.  The  rent  of  irrigated  lands  in  Italy  is  much  larger  than  upon 
land  not  watered.  Moses,  in  speaking  to  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
■ness,  said  :  "  The  land  v/hither  thou  goest  in  to  possess  it,  is  not  aa 
the  land  of  Egypt,  whence  ye  came  out,  where  thou  sowedst  thy  seed, 
and  water edst  with  thy  foot,  as  a  garden  of  herbs."  Here  the  law- 
giver alludes  to  the  machines  that  v/ere  used  in  Egypt,  which  they 
worked  with  their  feet,  for  raising  water.  Virgil  tells  how  to  bring 
down  the  waters  of  a  rivulet  upon  the  sown  corn,  and  when  suffer- 
ing from  heat,  to  convey  the  vivifying  liquid  from  the  crown  of  the 
declivity,  in  channels,  to  the  roots  of  the  plants.  Columella,  Pliny, 
Cato,  Yarro,*  &c.,  all  dwell  upon  the  importance  of  irrigation.  It  is 
found  profitable  in  England  to  irrigate  plantations  of  willows  and 
other  semi-aquatic  trees  upon  dry  soils.     The  efficiency  of  irrigation  is 

*  Sine  aqua  omnis  agricultura  est  miserabilis  et  sine  efFectu. — Varro,  d.  r.  r. 
10 A 


146  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

dependent  upon  many  considerations  ;  one  of  the  principal  is  the  na- 
ture of  the  subsoil.  When  it  is  a  tenacious  clay,  the  preparation 
consists  in  suitable  under-draining,  that  would  be  useless  where  the 
subsoil  is  sand  or  open  gravel. 

Some  waters  are  injurious.  Certain  salts  of  iron  are  known  to  be 
unfavorable  to  vegetation.  Waters  issuing  from  factories  impregnated 
with  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  such  as  the  waters  of  distilleries, 
breweries,  slaughter-houses,  &c.,  are  highly  fertilizing  ;  others  issuing 
from  chemical  establishments,  calico  printing  factories,  are  injurious. 
Salt  water  in  small  quantities  may  be  found  useful  upon  certain  plants, 
such  as  the  grasses,  asparagus,  &c.,  while  they  are  positively  injurious 
to  such  plants  as  rice.  The  sa,lt  marshes  of  France  are  known  to  pro- 
duce a  superior  quality  of  mutton,  which  commands  a  high  price,  and 
is  known  in  the  French  market  under  the  name  of  "pres  sale." 

Waters  impregnated  with  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  lime  are  very 
fertilizing.  In  certain  parts  of  Germany,  a  weak  solution  of  sulphuric 
acid  has  been  employed  for  irrigating  grass  lands  with  great  ad- 
vantage. Those  v/hich  liold  in  suspension  mud  and  other  detritus, 
are  highly  useful,  particularly  on  sandy  soils;  the  fine  mud  settles  in 
the  pores,  and  gives  consistency,  but  any  soil  would  be  benefited  by 
water  holding  mud  in  suspension,  and  that,  of  course,  in  proportion  to 
the  amount  of  organic  and  saline  matter  in  the  mud. 

Sir  Humphrey  Davy  thought  that  the  protection  of  grasses  from  frost 
during  the  winter  season  was  of  great  importance,  for  a  meadow 
irrigated  in  winter  is  preserved  from  sudden  alternations,  and  from  the 
effect  of  the  roots  being  thrown  out  of  the  ground  by  alternate  freezings 
and  thawings.  Tlie  water  immediately  in  contact  with  the  roots  of  the 
grass  is  rarely  belovv^  40°  Fahrenheit.  In  the  month  of  March,  in  a 
meadow  near  liungerford,  the  air  was,  at  7  o'clock,  A.  M.,  at  29°. 
The  water  vv^as  frozen  above  the  grass,  and  the  temperature  of  the  soil 
below  the  water  in  which  the  roots  were  growing  was  43°.  While  the 
temperature  is  thus  prevented  from  falling  during  the  winter,  it  is 
kept  cool  during  the  summer. 

Irrigation  supposes  water  in  motion ;  if  it  be  allowed  to  stand  and 
stagnate^  its  effects  would  destroy  the  objects  sought  to  be  accomplished. 
Instead  of  fine  grasses  we  would  have  a  growth  of  carices,  junci,  and 
other  coarse  plants  of  no  value. 

Sir  John  Sinclair  says  that  the  advantages  of  meadow  irrigation  are" 
chiefly  as  follows : 

First.  With  the  exception  of  warjDing,  it  is  by  far  the  easiest,  cheaj)- 
est,  and  most  certain  mode  of  improving  poor  land,  particularly  if  it  is 
of  a  dry  and  gravelly  nature. 

Second.  Land  once  improved  by  irrigation,  is  put  into  a  state  of 
perpetual  fertility,  without  any  occasion  for  manure  or  trouble  of  weed- 
ing or  any  other  material  expense. 

Third.  It  becomes  so  productive  as  to  yield  the  largest  bulk  of  hay, 
beside  abundance  of  the  very  best  support  for  ewes  and  lambs  in  the 
spring,  and  for  cows  and  other  cattle  in  the  autumn  of  every  year. 

Fourth.  In  favorable  situations,  it  produces  very  early  grass  in  the 
spring,  when  it  is  doubly  valuable. 

Fifth.  Not  only  is  the  land  thus  rendered  fertile  without  having  any 
occasion  for  manure,  but  it  produces  food  for  animals,  which  is  con- 


FERTILIZERS.  147 

verted  into  manure,  to  be  used  on  other  lands,  thus  augmenting,  in  a 
compound  proportion,  that  great  source  of  fertility. 

The  subject  of  irrigation  is  one  of  immense  importance,  in  a  dry, 
arid  climate,  such  as  characterizes  portions  of  the  western  plains  par- 
ticularly. It  is  paramount,  and  may  be  employed  throughout  the  con 
tinent  with  advantages  greater  than  any  other  agricultural  application. 
It  is  an  important  art  of  itself,  and  one  that  requires  special  acquire- 
ments for  its  adaptation.* 

The  direct  action  of  the  fertilizing  constituents  of  water  are  not  the 
only  influences  Avhich  that  substance  exerts  upon  our  fields  and  grow- 
ing crops.  Its  simple  percolation  through  a  soil  has  an  important 
influence,  by  displacing  gases  and  thus  creating  circulation  of  air  and 
bringing  a  fresh  supply  of  ameliorating  agents. 

A  little  reflection  will  teach  us  how  to  prevent  the  disastrous  conse- 
quences of  the  sudden  and  powerful  rains  that  fall  in  our  climate.  If 
the  ground  is  cultivated  shallow,  we  must  suffer  from  washing.  A 
hill-side  plowed  two  or  three  inches  would  meet  with  the  same  fate 
that  we  would  expect  if  we  were  to  expose  an  inclined  looking-glass, 
upon  which  we  had  sprinkled  sand.  The  deeper  a  ,soil  is  stirred  the 
better  rain  will  be  absorbed,  instead  of  running  off;  and  the  deeper 
the  furrow  the  longer  will  the  moisture  be  retained.  The  alternate 
influence  of  showers  and  sunshine  upon  deeply-stirred  land  brings 
about  another  important  eftect,  which  cannot  be  obtained  without  it : 
we  allude  to  aeration,  an  influence  of  great  importance,  by  which  not 
only  the  organic  portions  of  the  soil  are,  by  aid  of  air  circulation, 
brought  into  a  state  of  decomposition  ;  gases  are  evolved,  new  com- 
binations formed,  the  inert  mineral  constituents  are  also  decomposed, 
new  salts  are.created,  and  numerous  chemical. actions  take  place,  pro- 
ducing active  food  for  plant-life. 

It  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  distinguish  between  a  wholesome  hu- 
midity and  destructive  saturation  ;  while  the  one  is  to  be  cherished, 
the  other  must  be  avoided.  On  the  subject  of  under-draining  we  shall 
not  enter  ;  its  importance  is  too  great  for  a  cursory  notice  in  a  paper 
of  this  kind,  and  we  refer  our  readers  to  the  many  valuable  publica- 
tions written  upon  the  subject. 

Liebig  makes  the  following  beautiful  remarks : 

''There  is  not  to  be  found  in  chemistry  a  more  wonderful  phenome- 
non, and  which  more  confounds  all  human  wisdom,  than  is  presented 
by  the  soil  of  a  garden  or  field. 

"By  the  simplest  experiment,  any  one  may  satisfy  himself  that  rain- 
water, filtered  through  field  or  garden  soil,  does  not  dissolve  out  a 
trace  of  potash,  ammonia,  silicic,  or  phosphoric  acid.  The  soil  does 
not  give  up  to  the  water  one  particle  of  the  food  of  plants  which  it 
contains.  The  most  continuous  rain  cannot  remove  from  the  field, 
except  mechanically,  any  of  the  constituent  elements  of  its  fertility. 
The  soil  not  only  retains  firmly  all  the  food  of  plants  which  is  actually 
in  it,  but  its  power  to  preserve  all  that  may  be  useful  to  them  extends 
much  further.     If  rain,  or  rather  water,  holding  in  solution  ammonia, 

*See  Stephens's  Practical  Irrigator,  Smith's  Observations  on  Irrigation,  Brown's  Treatise 
on  Irrigation,  Sir  John  Sinclair's  Code  of  Agriculture,  Voyage  en  Espagne,  par  M.  Jaubert 
de  Passa,  Anlcitnng  zum  praktischen  Ackerbau  von  Schwerz,  Lr   1 


148  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

potash,  phosijlioric,  and  silicic  acids,  be  brought  in  contact  with  the 
soil,  these  substances  disappear  almost  immedia-tel}^  from  the  solution. 
The  soil  withdraws  them  from  the  water.  Only  such  substances  are 
completely  withdrawn  by  the  soil  as  are  indispensable  articles  of  food 
for  plants.     All  others  remain  wholly  or  in  part  in  solution." 

In  connection  with  this  interesting  subject,  it  may  be  remarked  that 
the  absorbent  power  of  soils  varies  according  to  their  composition.  It 
is  greater  in  clays  than  those  which  are  silicious  or  sandy,  but  belongs 
to  all,  more  or  less,  not  excepting  those  of  a  calcareous  nature.  Liebig 
tells  us  that  if  the  phosphate  of  lime  be  dissolved  in  weak  carbonic 
acid  water,  and  the  solution  filtered  through  a  soil,  the  phosphate  of 
lime  is  removed  from  solution,  and  the  same  result  takes  place  with  the 
jihosphate  of  magnesia' and  ammonia.  This  is  a  fact  of  great  agri- 
cultural importance,  from  the  constant  occurrence  of  those  substances 
in  organic  manures. 

The  complete  absorption  of  potash,  ammonia,  and  j)hosphoric  acid 
by  the  soil,  a,nd  thus  entering  into  combination  and  forming  insoluble 
compounds,  would  appear  to  militate  against  the  received  opinion,  viz: 
that  plant  food  must  necessarily  be  in  a  soluble  state  for  assimilation. 
This  is  contradicted  by  tjic  above  facts.  It  is,  besides,  well  known  that 
plant  vitality  has  the  power,  as  it  were,  of  corroding  insoluble  sub- 
stances, and  absorbing  them  by  the  roots.  Varieties  of  plants  growing 
upon  rocks  contain  large  quantities  of  the  substance  of  which  the  rock 
is  cotnposed.  Such  is  known  to  be  the  case  with  lichens  growing  on 
calcareous  rocks.  Again,  the  roots  of  the  grape-vine  have  been  found 
surrounding,  and  its  rootlets  insinuated  in  every  manner  through, 
around,  and  enveloping  a  piece  of  bone,  which  finally  disappears. 
Nor  does  it  seem  that  assimilable  food  should  necessarily  be  soluble, 
provided  it  be  in  a  state  of  atomic  division. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  constituents  of  plants  are  divided  into 
two  classes,  organic  and  inorganic.  The  first  named  are  derived  from 
water,  carbonic  acid,  nitric  acid,  and  ammonia,  and  may  come  from 
the  air  through  the  leaves,  or  from  the  soil  through  the  ropts.  The 
inorganic  constituents  are  of  a  different  character,  and  can  only  be 
received  from  the  soil  and  through  the  roots.  It  then  becomes  impor- 
tant that  there  should  be  deep  preparation  of  the  soil,  in  order  to  com- 
mingle the  surface  with  that  which  underlies,  that  the  roots  in  their 
search  for  food  (for  it  is  proved  that  it  does  not  circulate  in  the  soil  as 
it  becomes  fixed  by  combination)  may  more  readily  come  in  contact 
with  all  the  substances  the  j^lant  requires  to  form  the  wonderful  com- 
pound necesse.ry  to  its  growth  and  development.  Deep  preparation 
insures  aeration,  and  the  decomposition  of  the  constituents  of  the  soil 
is  thus  attained  by  the  action  of  the  atmospheric  agents.  Both  car- 
bonic and  nitric  acid,  which  are  known  to  exist  in  the  air  and  water, 
have  a  powerful  action  upon  the  soil,  but  unfortunately  our  knowledge 
upon  that  subject  leaves  much  to  be  desired.  The  importance  of  minute 
division  of  the  soil,  and  the  manures  which  may  be  added,  must,  on 
reflection,  be  evident  to  every  one.  Plants  assimilate  food  in  a  state 
of  atomic  division,  and  the  nearer  we  approach  that  point  the  better ; 
beside  which,  they  will  more  readily  undergo  those  chemical  changes 
v^hich  are  ever  taking  place  in  Nature's  great  laboratory,  the  earth. 


FERTILIZERS.  149 

By  breaking  the  clods  mechanically,  by  exposure  to  the  air,  and  the 
freezing  efiects  of  water,  the  mass  is  pulverized,  and  thus  food,  before 
locked  up,  is  appi'oaclioil  and  used  by  the  tender  roots  of  the  plant. 

"Plants  cannot  obtain  from  the  soil  more  food  than  it  contains. 
Further,  its  fertility  is  not  to  be  measured  by  the  whole  quantity  pres- 
ent in  it,  but  only  by  that  portion  of  the  whole  quantity  which  exists 
in  the  smallest  particles  of  soil,  for  it  is  with  such  portions  alone  that 
the  rootlets  can  come  into  close  contact. 

"A  piece  of  bone  weighing  one  ounce,  in  iX  cubic  foot  of  earth,  pro- 
duces no  marked  effect  on  its  fertility.  But  if  this  one  ounce  of  phos- 
phate of  lime  be  uniformly  distributed  throughout  the  earth,  it  will 
suffice  for  the  nourishment  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  wheat  plants. 

•'Of  two  fields  with  the  same  amount  of  food,  one  may  be  very  fer- 
tile, and  the  other  very  unfruitful,  if  the  food  is  more  uniformly 
distributed  throughout  the  ibrmer  than  the  latter.  The  common 
plow  breaks  and  turns  up  the  soil  without  mixing  it.  It  only  dis- 
places, to  a  certain  extent,  the  spots  on  which  plants  have  already 
grown,  but  the  spade  breaks,  turns,  and  mixes  it  thoroughly."* 

Those  plants  which  reach  maturity  in  a  short  time  are  materially 
affected  by  the  preparation  of  the  soil.  Their  powers  of  absorption 
are  much  greater  in  the  spring  tha,n  in  the  summer,  when  the  leaves 
are  being  formed,  and  when  the  plant  is  in  the  full  vigor  of  growth, 
than  when  it  has  reached  its  maturity.  We  have  a  familiar  instance 
of  the  importance  of  preparation  in  our  corn  crop,  and  the  stimulus 
that  is  imparted  to  it  by  constant  working,  by  which  food  is  contin- 
ually renewed  and  brought  into  close  contact  with  the  roots,  and  the 
soil  kept  in  a  well  pulverized  state,  thus  increasing  its  absorbing 
powers.  The  descent  of  water  through  the  soil,  and  its  escape  upward 
as  vapor,  tend  to  the  same  end,  and  hence  the  great  importance  of 
under-draining. 

Chemists  employ  sulphuric  acid  in  their  experiments  for  absorbing 
moisture.  Lime  and  caustic  potash  .are  also  used:  Soils  possess  the 
absorbent  power  in  an  eminent  degree,  and  it  is  by  that  inherent 
quality  that  plants  are  enabled  to  resist  extreme  droughts.  The 
power  of  absorption  depends  gre<atly  upon  division,  color,  &c.  A  dark 
soil  absorbs  heat  more  readily  than  a  light-colored  one ;  it  also 
radiates  heat  quicker.  When  the  sun  sets,  the  earth  begins  to  radiate  ; 
in  proportion  as  it  cools,  will  be  the  amount  of  dew  deposited.  When 
a  gas  passes  to  a  liquid  state,  caloric  is  evolved  ;  such  is  also  the  effect 
when  a  liquid  passes  to  a  solid.  The  reverse  occurs  when  a  solid  be- 
comes liquid,  or  a  liquid  a  gas.  By  the  condensation  of  vapor,  or  the 
formation  of  dew,  heat  is  evolved  ;  by  the  absorption  of  dew,  a  further 
degree  of  sensible  heat  is  produced.  This  process  prevents  a  too  sud- 
den change  of  temperature  in  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  which 
otherwise  would  have  been  sensibly  aff'ected  by  the  too  great  radiation 
of  heat.  This  equalization  is  brought  about  in  a  manner  to  excite  oun 
admiration.  Evaporation  is  far  more  rapid  in  a  dry,  than  in  a  moist, 
atmospljere,  and  more  rapid  in  a  current  of  air  than  when  it  is  still  or 
stagnant.     Dry,  porous,  and  thoroughly-pulverized  soils  radiate  heat 

*  Liebig's  Letters  on  Modern  Agriculture,  p.  108. 


160  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

from  a  vastly  greater  number  of  points  than  v/et  and  compact  soils, 
and  receive  more  abundant  depositions  of  devf .  Sands  are  powerful 
absorbents,  and  some  countries  depend  almost  wholly  upon  this  for 
the  support  of  vegetation.  The  sandy  plains  of  Chili  seldom  receive 
any  rain,  yet^  in  consequence  of  their  excessive  radiation  of  heat  and 
the  heavy  dews  at  night,  they  maintain  a  liigli  fertility.  If  a  soil  be 
sufficiently  permeable  to  the  air,  condensation  may  take  j)lace  below 
during  the  day,  at  the  same  time  that  the  surface  may  be  giving  ofi' 
both  heat  and  moisture,  which  is  due  to  the  relative  degree  of  heat  be- 
tween the  tv/o. 

To  the  farmer  and  the  gardener,  the  soil  is  that  portion  of  the 
earth's  surface  or  crust  which  supports  vegetation,  or  that  is  sus- 
ceptible of  cultivation,  and  is  rich  or  poor  accordingly  as  it  is  well 
or  illy  adapted  to  production.  Soils  are  formed  from  the  decom- 
position and  disintegration  of  rocks,  and  are  either  from  those  im- 
mediately underlyiiig,  or  may  have  been  brought  from  a  distance  by 
causes  still  acting,  or  that  have  ceased  to  operate.  The  tendency  of 
all  high  land  to  depression,  and  the  consequent  elevation  of  low 
grounds,  is  a  never  ceasing  action  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth;  winds 
and  tides,  currents  and  volcanic  perturbations,  elevations,  the  depres- 
sions and  ejectments,  continuous  action  of  the  atmospheric  agents, 
changes  of  temperature,  moisture;,  &c.,  and  those  causes  acting  from 
eternity,  have  caused  the  present  state  of  the  surface  of  the  earth.  But 
the  soil  contains  more  or  less  of  plant  and  animal  life^,  or  the  result  of 
their  decomposition.  Traces  of  obscure  microscopic  life  first  manifest 
themselves  ;  these  objects  live,  assimilate  food,  procreate,  and  die. 
From  their  remains  other  and  a  higher  order  of  organisms  aj^pear  ; 
they  run  their  course  and  disappear,  and  their  substance  is  by  grada- 
tion finally  transformed  into  the  bone  and  muscle  of  man. 

The  soil  has  a  varied  composition,  according  to  locality  and  circum- 
stance. The  decomposition  or  disintegration  of  an  argillaceous  rock 
would  naturally  give  rise  to  a  soil  in  which  aluminous  properties  would 
prej)onderate.  If  the  soil  originated  from  a  silicious  rock,  then  it 
v\^ould  be  sandy ;  if  from  limestone,  we  should  expect  it  to  be  calca- 
reous. These  and  other  substances,  variously  intermixed  with  organic 
matters  in  different  states  and  stages  of  decomposition,  form  soils. 
They  owe  their  properties  to  the  distinctive  minerals  from  which  they 
are  derived. 

These  inorganic  constituents  do  not  exist  in  the  atmosphere,  aiid  are 
supplied  by  the  earth,  as  they  do  not  grow ;  and  having  been  created 
once  and  forever,  it  follows  that,  if  removed,  they  must  be  replaced. 
It  does  not  matter  how  removed,  v/hether  in  the  form  of  grass,  grain, 
milk,  flesh,  or  bone,  if  taken  away  they  are  gone,  so  far  as  the  farmer 
is  concerned.  This  principle  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all  successful 
agriculture,  and  is  the  fundamental  axiom  for  which  Liebig  and  others 
have  so  long,  so  laboriously,  and  ably  contended. 

It  would,  be  as  ridiculous  for  the  miner  to  suppose  that  his  exhausted 
placer  would.yield  as  much  gold  by  re-working,  as  for  the  farmer  to 
think  that  his  exhausted  lands  would  be  recuperated  without  the  addi- 
tion of  the  substances  extracted  from  it. 

All  the  constituents  of  soil  are  compounds  :  they  are  oxydes  of  some 


FERTILIZERS.  151 

metallic  base,  the  organic  portions  are  animal  and  vegetable  substances 
in  a  decomposing  state,  complex  and  passing  by  degrees  to  simple 
forms.  Soils,  then,  in  complexion  and  composition  vary.  Two  soils 
originating  from  the  same  rock  may  differ  widely,  in  consequence  of 
mechanical  condition,  subsoil,  situation,  climate,  and  cultivation.  But 
as  rocks  are  the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  so  must  they  give  rise 
to  a  similarity  of  soil.  In  one  hundred  and  forty-six  soils  analyzed  by 
the  geological  surveyor  of  Massachusetts,  taken  from  every  variety  of 
rock  formation,  the  most  remarkable  uniformity  was  presented.  These 
again,  as  compared  with  forty-eight  soils  from  Germany,  Holland, 
Belgium,  Hungary,  and  Bohemia,  offer  the  same  striking  uniformity, 
differing  but  slightly  from  American  soils. "^^  These  facts  would  appear 
to  shoAV  that  there  is  not  only  a  great  similarity,  but  that  their  compo- 
sition is  independent  of  the  variety  of  rocks  which  they  overlie.  Some 
of  the  most  fertile  are  those  formed  by  deposits,  and  the  amount  of 
fertilizing  material  carried  from  one  spot  to  another,  or  entirely  lost 
in  the  ocean,  defies  any  estimate.  Drs.  Dickeson  and  Brown  estimate 
the  annual  deposit  from  the  Mississippi  river  to  amount  to  the  enor- 
mous quantity  of  28,188,053,892^-  cubic  feet  of  solid  matter.  That 
amount  is  independent  of  the  coarse  sand  and  gravel  transported  by 
the  river  current,  which  they  were  unable  to  estimate. 

Mr.  Leonard  Horner  estimates  that  "the  Ehine  carries  down  every 
year  1,973,433  cubic  yards  of  earth,  and  if  this  process  has  been  going 
on  at  the  same  rate  for  the  last  two  thousand  years,  and  there  is  no 
evidence  that  the  river  has  undergone  any  material  change  during  that 
period,  then  the  Khine  must  in  that  time  have  carried  down  materials 
sufficient  to  form  a  stratum  of  stone  a  yard  thick,  extending  over  an 
area  more  than  thirty-six  miles  square.'' 

From  the  nature  of  the  constituents  of  silt,  and  the  finely  comminuted 
state  in  which  it  is  deposited,  we  should  expect  it  to  be  fertile ;  and  so 
long  as  the  deposits  continue,  so  long  will  their  richness  rj^main.  Such 
soils  are  among  the  richest  known.  The  low  grounds  bordering  on 
the  Nile,  the  Mississippi,  the  Khone,  the  Danube,  the  Po,  the  Wolga, 
Orinoco,  &c.,  are  examples,  and  maintain  their  fertility  without  appa- 
rent diminution.  The  composition  of  alluvium  depends  upon  the  geo- 
logical formations  and  the  character  of  the  country  through  which  the 
waters  pass;  and  the  nature  of  the  deposit  again  depends  upon  the 
current.  If  the  stream  be  sluggish,  the  pa-rticles  are  much  finer  than 
if  the  water  be  rapid  or  turbulent.  When  the  uplands  of  our  country 
have  been  impoverished  by  successive  croppings  or  injudicious  tillage, 
the  low  grounds  will  resist  longer,  and  continue  to  be  a  resource.  But 
the  amount  of  low  ground  is  insufficient  to  supply  the  requirements  of 
a  dense  population;  hence  the  necessit}^  of  fertilizers.  Organic  ma- 
nures, those  of  a  nitrogenous  nature,  have  been  used  from  time  imme- 
morial. It  is  said  "that  the  barn-yard  yields  a  panacea  for  all  the 
farmer' s  ills. ' '  This  is  not  rigorously  correct ;  for  there  are  soils  which 
never  can  be  rendered  fertile  by  the  application  of  barn-yard  manure, 
but  which  may  be  improved  by  correctives,  and  the  addition  of  organic 
substances. 


*  Dana's  Miiclc  Manual. 


152  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


LIME. 

Next  to  manm-e,  tlie  most  common  fertilizer  used  throughout  the 
United  States,  wherever  it  can  be  procured,  is  lime,  either  hurnt  from 
limestone  or  oyster  shells,  or  in  the  state  of  a  sulphate  commonly  called 
gypsum  or  plaster  of  Paris.  It  appears  to  iiave  been  used  from  remote 
antiquity,  and  there  are  few  soils  which  are  not  benefited  by  its  appli- 
cation. It  does  not  seem  to  be  of  very  great  importance  whether  it  be 
added  to  the  soil  in  the  shape  of  lime  direct  from  the  kiln,  slaked,  or  in 
the  form  of  carbonate,  as  it  occurs  in  chalk,  marble,  or  marl.  The 
essential  point  is  extreme  fineness.  The  finer  it  is,  the  more  easily  it 
enters  into  combination  and  produces  its  effect.  This  purpose  is  always 
better  attained  by  burnt  lime,  whatever  it  may  be  burnt  from,  whether 
limestone,  marble,  or  shells.  Lime  has  a  great  affinity  for  carbonic 
acid,  which  is  one  of  the  ever-present  constituents  of  the  atmosphere; 
so  that,  upon  the  exposure  of  caustic  lime,  it  soon  becomes  carbonated; 
Caustic,  or  fresh-burned  lime,  when  put  in  contact  with  organic  matter, 
either  animal  or  vegetable,  causes  immediate  action  and  rapid  decom- 
position. Carbonate  of  lime  is  less  active;  and,  although  it  has  lost- 
its  caustic  pov/er  by  the  absorption  of  carbonic  acid,  still  it  produces 
important  changes  in  soils.  As  we  have  seen,  soils  are  mixtures  of 
salts  and  organic  matter,  containing  air  and  water  in  their  pores.  Here 
lime  acts,  decomposing  the  organic  matter,  and  freeing  carbonic  acid. 
It  again  acts  upon  the  alkaline  and  earthy  salts,  decomposing  them, 
and  enabling  them  to  form  such  combinations  as  the  plants  require. 

Chemistry  has  rendered  important  services  to  agriculture  in  many 
ways;  none  more  than  by  analysis  of  soils;  not  by  informing  us  of  the 
difference  between  poor  and  rich  soils,  nor  by  pointing  out  the  specific 
wants  of  the  farmer,  or  the  particular  applications  to  each  soil  so  hoped 
for  by  him  ;  but  by  showing  us  that  certain  combinations  exist  in  the 
soil;  that  a  simple  silicate  of  alumina  is  barren,  experience  proving 
that  the  mere  application  of  manure  to  it  will  not  give  fertility ;  though, 
lime  being  added  on  common  clay,  a  double  silicate  of  alumina  and  lime 
will  be  found,  which,  in  the  course  of  time_,  with  manure^  becomes 
fertile.  Lime  added  to  a  clay  soil  destroys  that  sticky,  waxen  consist- 
ence that  makes  it  so  difficult  to  work,  and  prevents  the  baking  and 
hardening  so  fatal  to  vegetable  life.  The  addition  of  lime  is  not  so 
beneficial  from  its  mere  presence  in  a  soil,  for  generally  there  is  enough 
for  plant  food ;  but  its  good  effect  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  chemical 
changes  it  causes  among  the  substances  forming  and  existing  in  the 
soil. 

It  has  been  long  knovfii  that  a  mixture  of  lime,  earth,  and  rich 
organic  matter,  such  as  manure  and  decomposing  vegetable  substances, 
causes  the  production  of  nitric  acid.  Such  a  mixture  is  used  in  many 
parts  of  the  world  to  produce  saltpeter,  which  is  a  nitrate  of  potash. 
It  is  collected  from  the  earthy  mixture  by  dissolving  it  in  water,  which 
is  evaporated,  leaving  the  salt  in  crystals.  The  same  thing  takes 
place  in  the  earth ;  when  lime  is  added  to  it,  nitric  acid  is  formed, 
v/hich  combines  v/ith  the  alkalies  and  earths  in  the  soil,  forming 
nitrates.     These  are  all  excellent  fertilizers. 


FERTILIZERS.  .  153 

The  exact  manner  in  whicji  lime  acts  upon  the  soil  is  not  entirely 
understoocl,  but  that  it  does  produce  a  wonderful  effect,  and  a  very  ben- 
eficial one^.  is  well  known.  The  limestone  formations  in  the  United 
States  are  of  very  great  extent.  Our  best  wheat  soils  overlie  them.  By 
analysis,  we  find  no  carbonate  of  lime  in  these  limestone  clays;  yet  it 
does  not  follow  that  lime  is  not  there  in  some  shape.  Accordingly  we 
discover  it  in  the  state  of  phosphate  and  silicate.  Upon  these  lime- 
stone soils  lime  has  been  largely  applied,  and  the  result  has  been  ex- 
cellent. We  owe  much  to  Mr.  Edvfard  Eufiin,  of  Virginia,  for  his 
])ractical  application  of  lime,  and  for  his  publications  in  regard  to  it. 
By  his  efforts  in  this  respect  a  revolution  has  been  created  in  agricul- 
ture throughout  the  tide-water  regions  of  Virginia. 

Some  of  the  soils  in  the  United  States,  overlying  limestone  rocks, 
contain  carbonate  of  lime,  while  others  are  formed  of  a  decomposing 
limestone,  or,  as  it  is  called  in  Alabama,  "rotten  limestone.''  Here, 
of  course,  we  have  lime  largely  in  the  soil.  This  is  not  the  case  with 
soils  overlying  the  blue  limestone  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Mary- 
land, and  Virginia.  The  composition  of  these  soils  shows  a  different 
origin.  The  numerous  and  large  springs  throughout  this  region  form 
a  great  source  to  the  soil  of  carbonate  of  lime.  This  is  insoluble ;  but 
the  bi-carbonate,  in  which  the  lime  has  a  double  quantity  of  carbonic 
acid,  is  soluble  and  easily  gives  off  a  part  of  its  carbonic  acid,  re- 
turning to  a  carbonate,  and  to  an  insoluble  state.  The  springs  bring 
up  the  lime  in  solution,  in  a  state  of  bi-carbonate,  which,  upon  expo- 
sure to  the  atmosphere,  loses  a  portion  of  its  carbonic  acid,  and  is  de- 
posited in  the  earth  in  the  shape  of  limestone.  The  most  familiar 
example  of  this  occurs  in  a  tea-kettle,  which  soon  becomes  incrusted 
with  limestone,  if  limestone  water  be  used  in  it,  from  the  caijse  we  have 
mentioned  above. 

By  far  the  largest  portion  of  the  soils  east  of  the  Alleghany  and  Blue 
Ridge  are  formed  from  the  older  and  crystaline  rocks,  and  consequently 
contain  less  lime  than  soils  of  a  different  origin^  there  being  neither 
limestone  nor  springs  from  limestone  rocks  to  impart  it  to  them.  All 
these  soils,  without  exception,  would  be  benefited  by  the  application 
of  lime.  When  using  the  word  lime,  we  would  not  wish  to  be  under- 
stood as  meaning  the  result  of  burnt  limestone  or  shells  only,  but  in 
whatever  shape  it  maybe  found,  as  marls,  &c.  Lime,  added  in  small 
quantities  annually,  would  seem,  from  experience,  to  have  a  better 
effect  than  when  put  on  the  land  heavily  at  once.  It  is  stated,  on  reli- 
able authority,  that  so  small  an  amount  as  a  bushel  to  the  acre  has 
produced  good  effect.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  it  is  customary  to 
add  burnt  lime  in  great  quantities,  as  high  as  two  hundred  and  more 
bushels  per  acre.  Utter  sterility  for  sometime  has  been  the  result  of 
such  profusion.  Prudonce  and  economy  would  suggest  smaller  sup- 
plies. Some  care  should  '  '<'.  used  in  selecting  the  limestone  from  which 
to  make  lime,  as  it  is  seldom  pure,  often  containing  large  portions  of 
magnesia  and  sand,  and  always  more  or  less  phosphate  of  lime.  The 
magnesia,  if  not  in  too  large  quantities,  can  hardly  be  objectionable. 
The  phosphate  of  lime  is  very  desirable,  and  too  much  of  it  can  scarcely 
be  applied.  The  sand  in  limestone  might  be  objectionable  on  the  score 
of  economy,  otherwise  its  use  on  a  stiff  clay  would  be  beneficial.    Oys- 


164  ^     AGRICULTORAL    REPORT. 

ter  shells  miglit  naturally  be  expected  to  contain  phosphate  of  lime  in 
considerahle  quantity,  and  these  are,  perhaps,  the  best  materials  from 
which  to  make  lime  for  the  farm. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  lime  of  itself  will  not  give  fertility  to 
soil.  The  materials  upon  which  it  can  act  must  be  present,  or  its 
greatest  effect  will  be  lost.  There  must  be  organic  matter  in  the  soil. 
either  as  decomposing  manure  or  as  vegetable  mold,  upon  which  it  can 
operate.  Lime  brings  into  play  the  constituents  of  the  soil,  and 
enables  the  plant  to  feed  on  them,  while,  as  a  salt,  it  forms  the  food 
of  plants,  yet  its  great  effect  is  upon  the  different  parts  of  the  soil 
itself.  The  richer  this  may  be,  the  better  will  prove  the  effect  of  lime ; 
the  poorer  the  soil,  the  slower  and  worse  the  effect.  It  is  owing  to 
this  cause  that  lime  has  been  condemned  in  many  cases,  it  having  been 
put  upon  poor  soils,  where  there  was  nothing  for  it  to  operate  upon. 
The  effect  of  lime,  it  will  be  observed  from  what  we  have  sa,id  above, 
is  long  continued.  Its  benefits  can  be  seen  for  crop  after  crop.  As 
long  as  there  is  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  it  slowly  decomposes  it, 
forming  new  combinations  and  fresh  food.  Those  results  which  we 
produce  in  the  laboratory,  fall  far  short  of  the  endless  changes  going 
on  in  the  earth.  Pie  who  undertakes  to  explain  every  operation  of 
Nature  will  fail  most  lamentably.  There  are  causes  at  work  we  but 
little  understand.  Who  can  explain  vitality?  It  has  much  to  do 
with  the  marvelous  actions  and  reactions  going  on  in  the  earth.  By 
it  inert  matter  becomes  part  of  life,  fills  its  functions^  decays,  forms 
new  life,  and  thus  runs  on  in  an  eternal  round. 

MARL. 

Next  to  lime,  marl  has  the  most  extensive  use,  as  a  fertilizer,  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  It  has  been  found  from  New  York, 
along  the  coast,  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  We  have  heard  of  none 
between  the  Eocky  and  Alleghany  mountains,  unless  it  might  be  on 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  composition  of  m.arls  is  various,  most  of 
them  abounding  in  carbonate  of  lime.  .  To  this  they  ov/e  a  great  cause 
of  their  usefulness.  The  word  marl  has  various  significations  in  the 
United  States.  In  New  Jersey,  the  green  sand  is  called  marl,  while 
on  the  Chesapeake  the  calcareous  earth,  so  largely  used  there,  bears 
the  same  name.  In  Europe,  the  word  marl  vv^ould  appear  to  be  ap- 
plied to  substances  as  often  vfithout  lime  as  v/ith  it,  and  not  by  any 
means  confined  to  a  class  of  calcareous  earths.  The  application  of 
marl,  or  a  variety  of  substances  under  that  name,  is  of  quite  ancient 
date.  Marling  was  practised  by  the  Greeks  and  the  Komans,  and 
Pliny,  in  his  Natural  History,  evidently  alludes  to  and  mentions  chalk, 
under  the  head  of  marl.  He  says  the  Gauls  and  Britons  sunk  shafts 
to  the  depth  of  a  hundred  feet  for  the  extraction  of  Avhite  chalk.  It 
was  used  to  scour  silver,  and  is  the  whiting  of  the  present  day.  The 
same  substance,  on  being  put  on  land,  produces  fertilizing  effects  for 
eighty  years.  In  England  and  on  the  continent,  chalking  and  marl- 
ing are  synonymous  terms ;  and  it  is  probable  that  substances  of  an 
unctuous,  soapy  feeling  came  into  use  because  they  v/ere  supposed  to 
possess  properties  similar  to  chalk. 


FERTILIZERS.  156 

The  ]3ure  green  sand  marl  of  New  Jersey,  according  to  the  analysis 
of  Mr.  Henry  Seybert,  contains  no  lime.     He  obtained  as  follows  : 

Silica 49.83 

Alumina COO 

Magnesia 1.83 

Potassa 10.12 

Water 9.80 


p;q 


Protoxyd  of  iron 21.5 

Loss 0.89 


1,000 

But  the  substance  varies  very  materially,  as  is  shown  by  the  folloAv- 
ing  analysis,  copied  from  Professor  Cook's  Keport  on  the  G-eology  of 
New  Jersey.  We  give  the  analysis  with  the  decimals  abridged  from 
two  figures  to  one  : 

1.         2.         3.      4.       5.        6. 

Protoxyd  of  iron 8.3     16.8     21.3  14.9 

Alumina 6,1 

Lime 2.4 

Magnesia 4 

Potash 2.5       4.9       7.1      1.1    4.3     3.37 

Soluble  silica 20.2 

"  Insoluble  silica  and  sand 49.9 

Sulphuric  acid 9 

Phosphoric  acid 1.4       1.1       1.3        .2    2.6     6.9 

Carbonic  acid 2 

Water 7.1 

Soluble  in  water 1.9       1.4       1.1      1.1    1.9     4.7 

Marl  from  the  State  of  Delaware,  according  to  Mr.  Booth,  does  not 
differ  very  much  from  that  of  New  Jersey.  But  in  Delaware  there 
are  two  varieties,  proximate  one  to  the  other,  and  one  of  which  con- 
tains as  high  as  25  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Mens.  P.  Berthier, 
professor  of  Docimacie,  in  the  royal  school  of  mines,  of  France,  has 
analyzed  several  varieties,  which  are  more  or  less  analogous  in  compo- 
sition to  the  green  sand  of  New  Jersey.  The  bluifs  called  Cape  La 
Heve,  near  Havre,  in  France,  are  mainly  formed  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
through  which  are  interspersed  nodules  and  grains  of  a  dark-greenish 
substance,  which  yielded : 

Silica 50.00 

Protoxyd  of  iron 21.00 

Magnesia 7.00 

Alumina 11.00 

Potassa 10.00 


16.8 

21.3 

6.6 

8.0 

12.5 

1.0 

2.6 

2.0 

4.9 

7.1 

31.2 

45.9 

5.6 

4.0 

.6 

.4 

1.1 

1.3 

9.3 

8.9 

8.1 

1.4 

1.1 

99.00 


The  grains  of  chlorite  are  found  isolated  and  distinct  in  the  lime- 
stone at  Havre.  Analysis  represents  the  composition  of  those  grains 
free  from  the  mass  in  which  they  occur.  The  analysis  of  Mr.  Seybert 
exhibits,  as  I  have  understood,  the  average  of  the  deposit  as  it  came 


L56  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

from  the  ground.  If  it  be  otherwise,  and  the  particles  of  chlorite  were 
selected  previous  to  analysis,  the  green  sand  of  New  Jersey  would  he 
infinitely  less  valuahle  as  a  fertilizer  than  is  indicated  hy  the  above 
analysis.  In  other  parts  of  the  United  States,  other  substances  of  an 
entirely  different  composition  have  received  the  name  of  marl,  and  been 
applied  to  the  soil  with  marked  advantage.  Such  a  substance  is  found 
in  the  environs  of  Pendleton,  in  South  Carolina,  where  it  has  attracted 
attention.  It  is  a  variety  of  kaolin,  or  decomposed  feldspar,  one  of  the 
constituents  of  granite,  containing  little  or  no  lime,  but  sometimes  as 
high  as  17  per  cent,  of  potassa.  At  Fort  Hill,  the  residence  of  the 
late  J.  C.  Calhoun,  this  substance  was  found  in  digging  a  well.  It 
was  used  in  dressing  the  lawn  in  front  of  the  dwelling,  where  its  fer- 
tilizing effects  are  manifest  to  this  day  in  a  luxuriant  sward,  contrast- 
ing vividly  with  the  surrounding  vegetation  on  which  the  application 
was  not  made.  In  1837,  some  years  after  the  experiment,  it  was 
pointed  out  by  Mr.  Calhoun  as  an  illustration.-!  of  the  adaptability  oi 
that  country  to  produce  luxuriant  grass,  if  the  soil  were  properly 
treated. 

We  speak  of  marl  as  always  containing  the  calcareous  principle,  in 
which  sand,  clay,  or  carbonate  of  lime  may  predominate,  it  accordingly 
receiving  the  appellation  of  sandy  or  clay  marl,  as  either  principle  may 
be  in  excess.  Few  marls  are  free  from  admixture  with  the  above- 
named  substances,  and  sometimes  others  are  found,  sucn  as  oxyd  of 
iron,  sulphuret  of  iron,  manganese,  sulphate  of  lime,  &c.  'i'jio  ma- 
jority of  our  soils  east  of  the  mountains,  originate  from  the  old  granitic 
schistose  and  sandstone  rocks,  which  are  wanting  in  the  proper  pro- 
portions of  lime  to  make  them  as  fertile  as  those  soils  having  a  different 
origin.  Animals  fed  on  the  grass  grown  upon  limestone  land,  or 
those  artificially  limed,  thrive  much  better  than  when  pastured  upon 
lands  of  a  different  character.  It  is  also  known  that  wheat  weighs 
heavier,  has  a  much  better  appearance,  and  is  invariably  preferred  by 
millers  v/hen  grown  upon  calcareous  soils.  It  is,  then,  of  importance 
to  the  agriculturist  that  he  should  possess  a  knowledge  of  the  pres- 
ence or  absence  of  lime  in  his  soil,  and  how  to  make  examinations, 
both  qualitative  and  quantitative,  for  that  substance  or  minerals  sup- 
posed to  contain  carbonate  of  lime. 

No  mineral  varies  more  in  its  physical  character  than  marl.  It 
occurs  of  all  colors,  from  black  to  white  ;  and  frequently  in  the  same 
bed  you  have  a  variety  of  tones,  as  inhere  may  be  present  more  or  less 
oxyd  of  iron ;  or  according  to  the  state  of  oxydation  oi  that  metal,  you 
may  have  the  red,  yellow,  brown,  blue,  and  the  different  shades  which 
a  mixture  of  these  would  create  when  variously  mixed  with  white, 
black,  &c.  Sometimes  it  is  smooth  and  without  grit  ;  at  others  it  has 
a  coarse  grain,  with  crystals  of  other  mineral  substances  disseminated, 
such  as  sulphate  of  lime  and  quartz.  Chalk  is  a  marl,  through  which 
nodules  of  flint  occur,  sometimes  in  large  quantities,  and  sometimes 
the  carbonate  of  lime  disappears  altogether,  and  is  replaced  by  silicious 
matter.  Very  often  the  bed  may  be  wholly  composed  of  shells,  broken 
or  entire,  or  even  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  but  revealing  through 
the  microscope  the  remains  of  minute  organisms  forming  the  complete 
mass.  It  is  sometimes  soft  and  unctuous  to  the  touch,  friable,  or  hard. 
But  it  has  one  general  property,  of  falling  into  powder  when  exposed 


FERTILIZERS.  157 

to  tlie  air,  or  forming  pasty  mud  when  saturated  witli  water,  and  acts 
very  like  lime  in  the  process  of  slacking,  without  giving  off  heat. 

A  marl  is  valuable  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  carbonate  of  lime 
that  it  contains.  Take  a  piece  of  the  substance  suspected  to  contain  the 
carbonate,  large  as  an  acorn,  throw  it  into  a  tumbler  or  wine-glass,  and 
cover  it  with  water  ;  after  the  air  has  escaped  from  the  interstices,  add 
a  few  drops  of  any  acid,  say  nitric  or  muriatic,  or  either  of  these  being 
wanting,  strong  vinegar  may  sufhce  ;  then,  if  there  should  be  a  disen- 
gagement of  gas,  or  etfervescence,  it  is  pretty  sure  evidence  of  the  pres- 
ence of  carbonate  of  lime.  In  order  to  ascertain,  rigorously,  the  amount 
of  carbonate  that  may  exist  in  the  mass,  we  should  select  an  average 
sample.  The  first  operation  consists  in  drying  perfectly,  to  drive  off 
the  hygrometric  humidity,  which  varies  according  to  the  state  of  the 
atmosphere.  Eeduce  the  matter  to  powder,  if  it  requires  it,  and  place 
it  upon  a  plate.  By  setting  the  plate  upon  a  vase  containing  boiling 
water,  and  maintaining  the  temperature  for  a  sufiicient  time,  all  the 
water  not  combined  will  be  driven  off ;  and  this  may  be  ascertained  by 
placing  over  the  powder  a  glass  funnel,,  on  the  inside  of  which  the  hu- 
midity will  be  condensed  until  it  entirely  ceases  to  appear.  The  funnel 
serves  another  purpose,  that  of  excluding  any  accidental  impurities, 
and  preventing  the  steam,  which  naturally  escapes  from  the  water  be- 
low, being  condensed  upon  the  powder.  When  the  substance  is  thus 
perfectly  dried,  weigh  fifty  or  one  hundred  grains,  and  place  them  in  a 
silver  or  iron  spoon,*  and  heat  over  a  few  live  coals  to  a  dark  cherry- 
red.  If  the  presence  of  organic  matter  be  suspected,  the  powder  may 
be  carefully  stirred  with  apiece  of  clean  wire,  in  order  to  bring  the  dif- 
ferent parts  in  contact  with  the  atmosphere,  when  any  carbonaceous 
matter  will  thus  be  burned.  Now  let  the  powder  cool,  weigh  it  care- 
fully, and  you  have  the  amount  of  combined  water  or  volatile  matters 
driven  off.  The  heat  should  not  be  so  great  as  to  drive  off  the  carbonic 
acid  from  the  lime. 

Throw  the  powder  thus  calcined  into  a  glass  tumbler,  and  cover  it 
to  the  depth  of  half  an  inch  with  rain-water,  to  which  add,  by  de- 
grees, a  few  drops  of  nitric  or  muriatic  acid,  until  you  find  that  the 
addition  of  the  acid  produces  no  more  effect.  Mix  the  vfhole  with  a 
glass  tube,  cover  the  glass,  and  let  it  stand  for  several  hours.  'Now 
fill  the  glass  two  thirds  with  water,  and  let  it  settle.  When  the  sedi- 
ment, or  insoluble  portion,  has  subsided,  and  the  liquid  is  perfectly 
limpid,  decant  it  carefully  into  a  large  bottle,  and  put  more  rain-water 
on  the  sediment,  allow  it  to  settle,  decant  again,  and  repeat  the  opera- 
tion, until  the  sediment  is  entirely  cleansed  of  the  acid  solution.  This 
may  be  verified  by  taking  a  piece  of  clean  glass,  and  putting  a  drop 
of  the  solution  upon  it.  Now^  if  you  hold  this  glairs  over  the  fire 
until  the  drop  of  water  is  evaporated,  you  will  find  it  sufficiently 
washed  when  there  is  no  residuum  left  on  the  glass.  The  lime,  mag- 
nesia, some  alumina  and  iron,  if  they  are  present,  will  be  found  in 
solution  in  the  water  decanted.  The  sediment,  which  was  not  dis- 
solved by  the  acid,  contains  the  sand  and  insoluble  substances.  This 
may  be  collected  upon  a  filter,  carefully  dried,  separated  from  the  filter, 
calcined  in  a  spoon,  as  before,  and  cooled  and  weighed. 

*  We  mention  the  iron  spoon  as  a  substitute  for  the  preferable  platina  crucible. 


158  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

If  the  solution  be  very  acid,  or  the  amount  of  water  too  large  to 
manage  well,  they  may  l3e  collected  and  evaporated  to  dryness  over  a 
slow  fire ;  by  this  operation  the  excess  of  water  and  acid  is  driven  off 
which  may  also  be  performed  in  a  porcelain  capsule,  but  by  no  means 
employ  a  metallic  vase,  as  the  acid  would  dissolve  the  metal,  and  your 
labor  would  be  useless.  Vfhen  the  excess  of  water  has  been  driven, 
off,  together  with  the  excess  of  acid,  if  the  heat  has  not  been  carried 
too  far,  the  whole  will  be  found  to  re-dissolve  in  rain-water,  to  which  a 
drop  or  two  of  acid  may  be  added  to  insure  that  result.  You  now 
have  nearly  a  neutral  solution  of  the  salts  dissolved  by  the  acid. 

The  next  operation  consists  in  precipitating  all  the  constituents  held 
in  solution,  less  the  lime.  For  this  purpose  use  lime-water.  To  pre- 
jDare  lime-water,  put  lime,  say  a  piece  as  large  as  a  walnut,  in  a  bottle 
of  rain-water,  shake  it  well,  and  allow  it  to  settle;  decant,  and  you 
have  a  limpid  solution  of  lime  in  water.  This  water,  added  to  the 
solution  containing  the  soluble  substances  of  the  marl  until  a  further 
addition  produces  no  further  precipitate,  throws  down  everything  in 
solution  but  the  lime.  Let  the  precipitate  settle  and  decant.  Throw 
the  precipitate  in  a  filter,  and  carefully  collect,  dry,  and  weigh.  Your 
analysis  will  stand  thus : 

Volatile  matter,  water,  organic  matter,  &c. W 

Insoluble  residuum,  sand,  silicates,  &c X 

Precipitate  by  lime-water,  iron,  magnesia^  &c Y 

Carbonate  of  lime,  by  difference Z 

Equal 100 


If  it  should  be  thought  desirable,  either  of  the  quantities  X  and  Y,- 
may  be  taken  up  separately  and  examined  in  detail.  If  phosphoric 
acid  be  present,  it  will  be  found  combined  in  tiie  precipitate  Y,  in  com- 
bination with  the  iron  or  magnesia. 

The  above  method  is  one  that  we  have  practised  very  often,  and  is 
the  most  simple  that  we  can  offer  to  the  inquiring  reader,  who  has  not 
devoted  much  of  his  time  to  chemical  examinations.  If  performed 
well,  the  results  v/ill  be  found  as  exact  as  any  other  method;  and  the 
reader  will  please  understand  that,  in  giving  this,  we  do  not  write  for 
the  professed  chemist,  but  to  enable  the  educated  farmer  to  make  an 
analysis  in  which  he  can  confide,  rather  than  pay  a  sum  of  money, 
often  for  false  returns,  with  which  the  charlatan  is  always  ready. 

In  deposits  of  marl  there  are  frequently  different  layers,  varying  in 
appearance,  thipkness,  and  composition.  The  lower  strata  are  often 
richer  in  lime  than  the  upper.  An  argillaceous  layer  sometimes  over- 
lies one  that  is  sandy,  and  one  or  the  other  will  be  selected  as  the  land 
to- which  it  is  to  be  applied  may  be  sandy  or  stiff.  Sea-sands  are,  in 
many  cases^  applied  to  the  soil  with  great  advantage,  and  it  is  not 
surprising,  for  they  are  frequently  composed  of  minute  fragments  of 
shells,  comminuted  corals,  and  the  remains  of  minute  organisms, 
which  are  found  inhabiting  the  ocean— Nature's  great  reservoir  of  life. 

But  the  action  of  marl  cannot  be  entirely  owing  to  the  carbonate  of 
lime.     There  are  effects  due  to  other  causes,  and  it  would  be  strange 


FERTILIZERS.  169 

indeed,  considering  the  origin  of  these  fertilizers,  if  they  did  not  con- 
tain some  of  the  more  evanescent  principles  of  organic  life.  Mr.  Pay  en 
and  Boussingault,  both  celebrated  chemists,  instituted  a  series  of  in- 
quiries into  the  composition  of  marls,  from  different  localities,  and 
found  nitrogen  in  all.  "^It  were  therefore  very  proper,  in  analyzing 
marls,  chalk,  &c.,  to  have  an  eye  to  their  organic,  or  azotic,  as  well 
as  to  their  mineral  constituents.  There  can  be  very  little  question 
of  the  azotized  elements  being  at  the  bottom  of  the  really  wonderful 
fertilizing  influences  of  the  marls  of  certain  districts."* 

It  would  be  still  more  surprising  if  a  substance  less  ephemeral  in 
its  nature,  and  not  less  important,  should  not  be  found  more  con- 
stantly in  limestones  and  marls  than  former  analysis  has  shown. 
Phosphoric  acid  at  all  times  complicates  analysisj  is  difficult  to  appre- 
ciate correctly,  and  has  doubtless  been  largely  overlooked.  But  there 
is  higher  evidence  of  its  almost  universal  presence  than  chemical  tests, 
for  wherever  organic  remains  are  found,  it  is  a  sure  indication  of  that 
singularly  interesting  substance,  phosphorus,  to  which  we  attach  as 
important  a  role,  if  not  a  higher  one,  than  that  attributed  to  nitrogen, 
by  the  celebrated  authorities  mentioned  above. 

Marl,  after  extraction  from  the  pit,  should  be  exposed  as  long  as 
possible  to  the  action  of  the  a^tmospheric  agents.  A  summer's  heat 
and  a  winter's  cold,  previous  to  spreading,  make  its  immediate  action 
manifest ;  but  its  durability  is  dependent  upon  its  contents  and  the 
quantity  applied.  According  to  Mr.  Parvis,  who  has  written  an  in- 
teresting and  useful  paper  upon  marl,  the  quantity  to  be  applied 
depends  upon  the  quantity  of  lime  already  existing  in  the  soil  and  the 
richness  of  the  marl  in  lime.  He  says  that  any  soil  which  contains 
less  than  nine  to  ten  per  cent,  of  lime  may  receive  a  dose,  or  successive 
doses,  until  they  are  brought  up  to  that  point.  Lord  Kames  mentions 
a  particular  instance  of  the  continued  beneficial  effects  of  calcareous 
manure  for  one  hundred  and  twenty  years,  and  Johnson  quotes  the 
vrords  of  an  intelligent  and  experienced  farmer,  that  certain  lands  in 
Scotland  "would  never  forget  an  application  of  forty  to  sixty  bushels 
of  lime  to  the  acre." 

Lime  appears  to  change  the  inert  organic  matters  in  the  soil  and 
give  durability  to  their  action  far  beyond  what  would  have  been  the 
case  without  the  presence  of  that  mineral.  It  also  changes  the  rela- 
tions between  the  other  mineral  constituents  of  the  soil,  and  is  an 
essential  element  of  plant  food;  but  there  are  other  substances  quite  as 
necessary  to  healthy  vegetation.  It  follows,  then,  that  whoever  may 
expect  to  harvest  large  crops  immediately  from  the  addition  of  lime  to 
poor  land  will  surely  be  deceived.  The  proportion  of  marl  or  lime  to 
be  added  to  a  soil  should  be  in  accordance  with  the  amount  of  organic 
matter  already  existing  in  it,  or  that  maybe  contributed;  in  other 
words,  the  lime  should  progress  jpari  passzij;  and  by  following  such  a. 
course,  the  land  may  be  brought  to  a  state  of  permanent  fertility^  to 
which  it  never  could  be  carried  by  farm-yard  manure  alone.  What 
would  be  an  over-dose  of  lime  to  one  field  would  be  a  light  dressing 
for  another.    An  over-dose  of  marl  or  lime  may  altogether  prevent  the 

*  Boussingault,  Rural  Economy 


160  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

appearance  of  vegetation,  or  cause  a  sickly  growth.  Mr.  Kuffin  says 
tiiat  manure  is  a  remedy  for  such  effects.  Interesting  and  important 
as  the  subject  certainly  is  to  the  farmer,  the  nature  of  this  article  will 
not  permit  us  to  extend  our  observations  further,  and  the  reader  is 
once  more  referred  to  Mr.  Kuffin's  work  on  calcareous  manures,  in  v/hich 
will  be  found  much  detail  not  written  elsewhere. 

Limestone  is  one  of  the  principal  rocks  which  forms  the  solid  crust 
of  the  globe.  It  has  a  large  development,  and  is  intercalated  witli 
the  primitive  rocks.  It  occurs  there  in  a  saccharoidal  form  of  different 
colors — grey,  blue,  red,  &c.,  but  never  black.  A  notable  fact  is  that 
no  fossils  of  any  descrij)tion  have  ever  been  discovered  in  primitive 
limestone.  It  is  often  found  schistose  in  its  structure,  from  a  mixture 
with  other  rocks,  particularly  mica  schists.  As  we  rise  in  the  geologi- 
cal series,  the  limestones  preponderate,  and  become  by  far  the  most 
important  of  rocks.  Instead  of  being  subordinate  and  alternating  with 
others,  they  now  form  independent  developments,  of  vast  extent,  con- 
stituting mountain  ranges.  The  character  of  the  rock  is  also  changed. 
It  occurs  of  all  colors,  from  black  through  every  shade  to  v/iiite.  The 
mixture  of  foreign  minerals  is  less  notable ;  but  there  the  first  appear- 
ance of  organic  remains  is  a  most  significant  and  interesting  fact.  At 
times,  no  fossils  are  to  be  found;  and  one  may  travel  for  miles  without 
meeting  with  a  single  specimen;  when,  all  at  once,  they  occur  in  pro- 
digious quantities.  The  fossils  of  this  formation  are  all  characteristic; 
and  without  giving  a  detailed  list,  I  will  mention  Orthoceratites, 
Spiriferes,  Encrinites,  and  Trilobites.  In  the  secondary  forma.tion,  the 
carbonate  of  lime  may  be  said  to  constitute  the  almost  entire  series  of 
superpositions.  The  secondary  formations  are  divided  into  several 
series  known  by  different  names  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  The 
lowest  of  these  formations  immediately  overlying  the  intermediary  is 
called  Zechstein  by  the  Germans,  and  occurs  compact  of  a  greyish- 
black  color,  sometimes  bituminous,  and  gives  off  a  fetid  odor  when 
rubbed  or  receiving  the  shock  of  the  hammer.  It  is  characterized  by 
certain  fossils,  and  is  separated  from  the  formations  immediately 
underlying,  as  those  overlying,  by  arenaceous  sandstones  of  a  peculiar 
nature.  The  red  marl  or  great  mushelkalk  limestone  is  the  next  series 
as  we  travel  up.  In  general,  this  stone  is  found  less  highly  colored, 
and  contains  fossils,  all  of  which  differ  from  the  Zechstein,  and  occur 
in  much  greater  abundance.  In  traveling  over  Germany  we  have  often 
spent  hours  in  studying  this  interesting  rock  through  its  fossils,  which 
would  show  themselves  at  diflereat  localities  on  our  journey.  There 
is  one  in  particular,  the  Encrinites  Liliformis,  of  singular  beaut3\ 
They  are  rarely  found  entire,  but  v/hen  they  do  so  occur  they  cannot 
fail  to  excite  the  admiration  of  the  observer.  Earely  as  the  entire 
plant  is  found  in  one  specimen,  so  common  are  parts  of  it,  that  the 
rock  at  times  would  appear  to  be  formed  of  them. 

A  third  deposit  now  occurs,  and  is  known  in  England  by  the 
name  of  Lias,  also  characterized  by  particular  fossils ;  and  here,  for 
the  first  time,  we  see  Belemnites,  and  Ammonites,  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  shells,  peculiar  to  that  formation.  Another  deposit,  which 
is  known  as  the  Jura  limestone  in  France,  oolite  and  coral  rag 
in  England,  and  which  subdivides  again,  is,  with  its  antedivi- 
sions,   distinguished,   the    one  from   the   other,   by    the    fossil    re- 


FERTILIZERS.  '161 

mains  found  in  them.  In  the  upper  part  of  this  division  we  have 
certain  varieties  of  marl,  such  as  that  at  Havre,  in  which  the  chloritic 
grains  occur,  as  analyzed  by  M.  Berthier  ;  and  in  England,  at  Pur- 
beck  and  Portland,  are  found  marls,  where  fresh  water  shells  show 
themselves  for  the  first  time.  The  fifth  deposit  of  the  secondary  se- 
ries, separated  from  the  last  described  by  iron  sands,  is  the  chalk 
formation,  which  may  be  divided  into  green  sand  and  true  chalk. 
These  formations  contain  fossils  which  are  characteristic  and  such  as 
are  found  nowhere  else. 

The  next  in  order,  and  superimposed  upon  the  preceding,  is  the  ter- 
tiary formation,  so  interesting  for  the  number  and  character  of  its 
organic  remains.  Around  the  city  of  Paris,  the  student  has  an  oppor- 
tunity of  studying  this  formation  perhaps  better  than  at  any  other 
locality.  Montmartre,  so  celebrated  for  its  geology  and  paleontology, 
as  well  as  for  other  reasons,  is  really  classic  ground.  The  remains  of 
extinct  animals,  buried  from  incalculable  time,  were  frequently  ex- 
tracted by  the  workmen  engaged  in  quarrying  out  material  for  con- 
struction. From  the  study  of  such  remains  the  genius  of  Cuvier  opened 
a  new  creation.  Fragments  of  bones  of  extinct  animals,  that  were 
gazed  upon  by  the  curious,  and  received  no  other  explanation  than 
^'lusus  nattcrce,"  were  classified,  each  bone  to  its  proper  place  ;  and 
each  animal  according  to  its  habits,  which  were  pointed  out  by  its 
teeth  or  its  osteology,  was  assigned  its  appropriate  position  in  the 
gradation  of  animated  Nature.  Though  extinct,  their  general  habits 
are  known  as  certainly  as  if  they  were  domesticated  under  man,  and 
belonged  to  the  present  time.  Science  has  placed  a  wreath  around  the 
brow  of  Cuvier,  that  will  endure  to  his  honor  so  long  as  civilization 
shall  be  in  the  ascendant. 

The  first  plaster  of  Paris  used  in  America  for  fertilization  came  from 
the  hill  of  Montmartre,  and  was  imported  under  the  auspices  of 
Franklin.  Above  the  tertiary  formations  are  others  of  a  much  more 
recent  date,  and  now  forming  under  our  eyes.  Many  of  these  are 
mainly  composed  of  limestone,  made  up  from  the  destruction  of  other 
calcareous  rocks.  Along  our  sea-coast  such  rocks  are  forming,  and 
even  furnish  building  material.  Tufaceous  deposits  are  making  in  our 
valleys,  by  the  deposition  of  carbonate  of  lime  from  water  issuing 
from  limestone  rocks.  Immense  beds  of  shells,  such  as  are  living  in 
our  waters,  are  found  along  our  coast.  In  Prince  G-eorge's  county, 
Maryland,  the  marl-beds  are  well-known,  and  the  celebrated  lands  of 
that  region  owe  their  fertility  to  these  remains  of  a  former  life.  Among 
these  fragments,  bones  and  teeth  of  animals  are  not  uncommon  ;  and 
whole  skeletons  have  been  disinterred  and  set  up  to  be  wondered  at. 
The  remains  of  the  mastodon,  (an  animal  of  the  elephant  tribe,  but 
much  more  gigantic,)  are  frequently  met  with,  and  an  almost  entire 
specimen  was  taken  up  in  the  interior  of  the  State  of  New  York. 
Sharks'  teeth  are  also  common,  sometimes  of  enormous  size.  We  have 
one  in  our  possession,  taken  from  a  bed  in  Prince  George's  county, 
that  measures  about  four  inches  in  breadth  at  its  base  and  nearly 
five  inches  in  length.  It  is  in  perfect  condition,  its  cutting  edges  as 
finely  and  sharply  serrated  as  if  just  taken  from  the  monster's  mouth. 
Nor  is  the  limestone  formation  of  our  continent  confined  to  the 

11 A 


162  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

recent  deposits  of  wliicli  we  have  spoken.  The  blue  limestone  forma- 
tion, so  celebrated  for  its  excellent  wheat  lands  in  Pennsylvania,  Mary- 
land, and  Virginia,  continues  through  Georgiaj  comes  to  the  surface 
near  Clarksville,  in  Habersham  county,  and  extends  to  the  Island  of 
Cuba,  where  we  have  traced  it  again  for  miles. 

The  limestone  lands  of  the  State  of  New  York  are  celebrated  for 
their  fertility  and  the  magnesian  limestone  of  the  great  west  has 
prodigious  extension. 

In  closing  our  observations  uj)on  lime,  we  Avill  remark  that  of  all 
mineral  substances  it  is  among  the  most  extensively  diffused,  so  much 
so  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  find  a  soil  without  it.  An  amateur 
asked  us  if  we  had  ever  found  lime  in  the  soil  on  which  we  lived;  he 
thought  it  absent.  We  answered  that,  even  if  we  had  failed  to  detect 
it  with  the  aid  of  reagents,  there  was  higher  evidence  of  its  presence, 
which  could  not  be  contradicted,  namely:  the  bones  of  the  animals 
reared  u]3on  the  place,  the  eggs  of  our  hens,  and  the  houses  which 
snails  carried  upon  their  backs. 

Those  who  desire  details  upon  the  green  sand  marl  of  New  Jersey 
and  Delaware,  will  do  well  to  consult  the  reports  of  Messrs.  Eogers 
and  Booth ;  the  former  was  charged  with  the  geological  survey  of  New 
Jersey,  the  latter  with  that  of  Delaware. 

PLASTER,    OR    GYPSUM. 

It  is  probable  that  the  "marl"  of  the  ancients  was  plaster  of  Paris, 
or  gypsum,  but  it  was  not  until  near  the  close  of  the  last  century  that 
its  incontestible  utility  became  known ;  since  that  period  it  has  become 
almost  a  necessity ;  nor  is  it  surprising  that  such  should  be  the  case, 
when  we  consider  its  efficacy  on  certain  crops,  the  small  amount 
required  to  produce  a  great  increase,  and  the  facility  with  which  it  can 
be  procured  and  prepared.  The  first  authentic  experiments  of  which 
we  have  record  were  made  by  a  German  clergyman,  named  Meyer. 
These  were  repeated  in  France,  when  it  soon  grew  into  extensive  use. 
Sulphate  of  lime,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  composed  of  sulphuric  acid, 
lime,  and  water. 

Sulphuric  acid 46  ) 

Lime 33  V  =:  100 

Water 21) 

It  is  unusually  soft,  and  may  be  scratched  with  the  finger  nail. 
When  pure,  it  is  generally  of  a  whitish  color,  but  according  as  it  is 
found  mixed  with  foreign  matter  its  color  varies.  It  assumes  a  variety 
of  forms,  compact,  granular,  fibrous,  pulverulent,  crystaline,  &c.  Its 
crystals  are  sometimes  perfectly  limpid.  Gypsum  is  plentifully  and 
widely  disseminated  throughout  the  crust  of  the  globe,  and  is  confined 
to  no  age  or  particular  formation.  In  some  cases  it  would  appear  to 
owe  its  existence  to  the  decomposition  of  the  sulphuret  of  iron  in  con- 
tact with  limestone  or,  again,  to  the  action  of  sulphurous  vapors  upon 
that  rock.  It  is  not  often  fossiliferous ;  but  that  which  is  found  at 
Montmartre,  in  the  environs  of  Paris,  is  an  exception.     At  that  locality 


FERTILIZERS.  163 

tlie  remains  of  mammiferous  animals,  of  birds,  and  reptiles,  are  very 
common.  In  certain  formations  the  sulphate  of  lime  is  usually  found 
accompanying  common  salt.  It  is  also  a  constituent  of  some  of  the 
marls,  which  occur  along  our  sea-coast,  but  only  to  a  limited  amount, 
comparatively.  In  the  State  of  New  York  it  is  found  in  large  quantities, 
and  also  in  Novia  Scotia,  whence  it  is  imported  into  the  United  States, 
forming  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  that  which  is  used  by  the  farmers 
of  the  Atlantic  shore. 

Notwithstanding  all  the  experiments  that  have  been  made,  and  all 
that  has  been  written  upon  the  subject,  our  knowledge  of  the  action  of 
gypsum  is  limited  and  very  unsatisfactory. 

Sir  Humphrey  Davy  analyzed  the  ashes  of  clover,  and  concluded, 
from  the  presence  of  sulphate  of  lime,  that  the  application  of  gypsum 
acted  as  direct  food.  But  subsequent  investigations  show  that  the 
amount  of  sulphate  of  lime  in  the  ash  of  clover,  grown  upon  gypsumed 
land,  was  not  greater  than  the  quantity  of  the  same  salt,  found  in  the 
ash  of  clover,  grown  on  ungypsumed  land. 

Professor  Liebig  explains  the  action  of  gypsum,  as  a  means  through 
which  ammonia  is  presented  to  the  plant.  It  is  known  that  ammonia 
and  nitric  acid  are  found  in  the  atmosphere,  and  that  salt  and  carbon- 
ate of  ammonia  are  brought  down  by  rains.  That  fact  may  be  easily 
verified  by  evaporating  snow,  or  rain  water,  to  which  a  few  drops  of 
muriatic  acid  have  been  added ;  crystals  of  muriate  of  ammonia  will  be 
found.  Indeed,  without  consulting  the  agency  of  electricity  for  the 
formation  of  ammonia,  it  is  a  natural  consequence  of  the  decomposition 
of  animal,  matters,  which  is  ever  progressing  upon  the  surface  of  the 
globe,  and  many  jolants  emit  pungent  odors,  apparently  containing 
more  or  less  of  that  alkali.  According  to  the  eminent  professor,  the 
action  of  gypsum  would  be  confined  to  the  absorption  of  that  gas,  to 
be  held  in  readiness,  according  to  the  wants  of  the  |)lant.  But  his 
ingenious  theory  is  no  less  satisfactory,  for  it  is  stated  that  gypsum  has 
no  action  whatever  on  the  natural  gases,  which  are  stimulated  by 
organic  manures.  Nor  does  it  appear,  from  careful  experiments  made 
by  M.  Boussingault,  that  gypsum  has  the  least  action  upon  wheat, 
oats,  or  rje,  upon  which  it  is  known  that  nitrogenous  manures  act 
most  favorably.  Eigaud  de  Lisle,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Paris 
Society  of  Agriculture,  in  1843,  maintained  that  gypsum  only  operates 
upon  vegetation  grown  upon  soils  without  a  sufficient  amount  of  car- 
bonate of  lime,  and  his  declaration  is  borne  out  by  the  practice  in  Flan- 
ders of  applying  slaked  lime,  instead  of  gypsum,  with  equally  good 
results.  We  have  heard  the  same  opinion  expressed  by  practical  farm- 
ers, who  knew  nothing  of  the  discussion.  Having  limed  their  lands 
to  the  full  requirement,  they  would  look  upon  the  application  of  plaster 
as  a  useless  expense. 

SULPHATE    OF   BARYTES. 

Another  assertion,  which  has  its  advantages,  gives  the  entire  credit 
of  the  action  of  gypsum  to  the  sulphuric  acid  which  it  contains ;  and 
this  ajipears  to  be  supported  by  the  fact  that  the  addition  of  the  sulphate 
of  barytes  is  followed  by  as  strongly  marked  results  as  those  that  are 


164  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT! 

derived  from  the  application  of  the  sulphate  of  lime.  Experiments 
were  made  some  years  since  in  Eockhridge  county,  Virginia,  hy  Dr. 
Barton,  upon  whose  farm  a  deposit  of  the  sulphate  of  barytes  v^as  found. 
It  was  ground  and  applied.  We  are  informed  by  an  intelligent  ob- 
server that  the  effect  was  manifest  five  years  after.  A  paper  was  writ- 
ten at  the  time,  and  published  in  one  of  the  agricultural  periodicals  of 
Virginia.  We  have  not  had  access  to  the  article,  but  Dr.  Barton 
received  the  award  of  a  gold  medal  for  his  investigations.  Should  the 
usefulness  of  sulphate  of  barytes  be  confirmed,  it  will  be  a  notable  and 
important  addition  to  the  list  of  fertilizers.  It  is  sometimes  called  heavy 
spar,  owing  to  its  specific  gravity,  which  is  almost  double  that  of  gyp- 
sum or  the  sulphate  of  lime;  the  first  being  4.7,  and  the  latter  2.72. 
Generally  it  is  found  white,  or  reddish,  yellowish,  white,  grey,  and 
even  black,  compact,  granular,  crystaline,  &c.  Insoluble  in  water, 
and  when  decomposed,  as  may  be  done  by  calcining  together  powdered 
charcoal,  or  sugar,  starch,  resine,  &c.,  with  sulphate  of  barytes,  the 
barytes  will  dissolve  in  nitric  or  muriatic  acid,  from  which  it  will  always 
be  precipitated  by  the  addition  of  sulphuric  acid.  It  will  be  recollected 
that  the  sulphate  of  lime  is  sensibly  soluble  in  water,  more  so  than 
lime,  for  when  suli^huric  acid  is  added  to  limewater  no  precipitate  is 
thrown ;  whereas,  when  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  are  added  to  a 
solution  of  the  nitrate,  muriate,  or  to  the  oxyd  of  barytes  in  solution, 
a  white  precipitate  never  fails  to  fall.  The  carbonate  of  barytes  may 
be  easily  distinguished  from  the  sulphate  by  its  effervescing,  as  it  does 
slowly  on  the  application  of  nitric  acid.     It  is  composed  of — 

Sulphuric  acid 34.37  \  __  -,0^  ' 

Barytes 65.63  ^  ~"  ^^^ 

It  is,  however,  often  found  mixed  with  different  substances,  such  as 
sulphate  of  strontian,  sulphate  and  carbonate  of  lime,  silex,  oxyd  of 
iron,  and  alumine.  It  occurs  in  veins  in  the  primitive  and  secondary 
rocks,  and  is  most  always  found  in  veins  of  lead,  copper,  silver,  and 
mercury ;  in  the  metalliferous  regions  of  Europe,  in  the  Hartz,  Sax- 
ony, Hungary,  Almaden,  in  Spain  ;  in  the  United  States,  in  New 
York,  Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Virginia, 
Missouri,  &c. 

Owing  to  the  great  analogy  that  exists  between  the  characters  of  the 
salts  of  strontian  and  those  of  barytes,  it  would  be  surprising  if  the 
fertilizing  properties  attributed  to  the  one  were  not  common  to  both, 
particularly  if  the  acid  were  found  to  be  the  active  fertilizing  principle 
as  well  in  the  sulphate  of  lime  as  that  of  barytes ;  other  sulphates,  such 
as  the  sulphate  of  iron,  (green  vitriol,)  when  much  diluted  with  water, 
without  the  presence  of  lime,  have  extraordinarily  advanced  the  growth 
of  plants,  including  beans,  potatoes,  rye,  Indian  corn,  carrots,  &c.  Weak 
sulphuric  acid  has  also  a  favorable  effect  when  applied  to  clover,  but 
in  botli  cases  it  may  be  argued  that  the  sulj^hate  of  iron,  (which  is  solu- 
ble,) and  the  sulphuric  acid  come  in  contact  with  lime  in  the  soil,  and 
sulphate  of  lime  is  then  formed,  and  may  act  in  that  state  upon  crops; 
or  the  acid,  in  one  case  or  the  other,  may  combine  with  ammonia, 
already  existing  in  and  combined  with  the  earth,  and  form  sulphate 


FERTILIZERS.  165 

of  ammonia,  wliicli  is  a  valuable  and  well-known  fertilizer.  But  we 
will  liere  remark  that,  in  our  laboratories,  tlie  sulphate  of  barytes  is 
found  to  be  one  of  the  most  stable  of  salts,  and  its  combination  is  in  no 
instance  decomposed  by  lime  or  ammonia.  Nor  does  barytes  form  a 
constituent  of  any  vegetable  or  animal  organism  within  our  knowledge. 
A  small  quantity  of  the  nitrate  of  barytes  will  destroy  vegetable  life 
very  quickly ;  yet  nitric  acid  is  a  strong  fertilizer,  and  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal liirnishers  of  nitrogen  to  plants. 

MAGNESIA. 

Magnesia  is  a  common  substance,  largely  disseminated,  existing  in 
most  soils,  is  one  of  the  constituents  of  many  rocks,  and  is  most  always 
present  in  vegetables  and  animal  bodies.  It  is  a  white,  light^  and 
odorless  powder,  infusible  at  the  highest  temperature  of  our  furnaces, 
and  slightly  soluble  in  water.  It  forms  soluble  salts,  with  nitric, 
muriatic,  or  sulphuric  acid,  and  may  be  easily  distinguished  from  lime, 
by  the  fact  that  it  is  precipitated  from  its  solution  by  limewater.  It 
is  generally  found  in  combination  with  lime  in  all  calcareous  rocks, 
and  in  certain  varieties  it  is  a  constant  constituent  ;  such  are  the 
dolomites,  or.magnesian  limestones,  which  are  largely  developed  in 
Europe,  as  well  as  in  America,  and  have  received  the  name  of  metalli- 
ferous limestone,  from  the  mineral  substances  which  they  contain. 
Magnesian  limestones  are  found  to  an  immense  extent,  in  the  western 
Sta.tes,  and  constitute  the  lead  and  copper-bearing  rocks  of  Missouri, 
&c.  They  are  also  found  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  &c.  Magnesia 
is  moreover,  one  of  the  constituents  of  serpentine  and  talcose  slate, 
which  last-mentioned  rock  extends  continuously  from  Pennsylvania  to 
G-eorgia,  and  through  the  West  Indies,  to  the  continent  of  South 
America.  It  is  remarkable  as  being  the  formation  in  which  gold, 
silver,  copper,  chromate  of  iron,  &c.,  are  contained.  The  carbonate 
of  magnesia  and  the  carbonate  of  lime  have  many  properties  in 
common,  the  one  replacing  the  other,  and  those  plants  which  grow 
upon  magnesian  soils,  contain  the  carbonate  of  magnesia  instead  of 
the  carbonate  of  lime.  Those  two  salts  being  isomorphous,  according 
to  Bergmann,  magnesia  forms  an  important  part  of  some  of  the  most 
fertile  soils,  and  of  the  mud  of  the  Nile.  Einoff  mentions  a  marl  of 
extraordinary  merit,  which  yielded  him  as  high  as  twenty  per  cent,  of 
the  carbonate  of  magnesia.  Stockhardt  says  that  the  most  famed  lime 
stone  in  Saxony  is  a  dolomite  ;  and  eighteen  analyses,  each  specimen 
being  from  a  different  quarry,  yielded  from  forty-one  to  forty-four  per 
cent,  of  carbonate  of  magnesia.  It  is  carried  from  the  quarries  to  a 
great  distance,  because  these  limes,  from  undoubted  and  universal  ex- 
perience, act  more  powerfully  and  at  the  same  time  more  ]3ermanently 
than  other  kinds  of  Saxon  lime,  although  many  of  these  latter  are 
extraordinarily  pure.  The  same  eminent  observer  states,  that  well- 
known  recent  investigations  of  the  ashes  of  various  kinds  of  corn 
grains  show  a  percentage  of  magnesia  of  11.1  grains,  against  3.4  of 
lime  ;  and  the  analysis  of  the  ashes  of  twenty  kinds  of  peas,  grown  in 
the  most  varied  soils  and  districts,  of  8.3  to  4.5.  With  very  few  excep- 
tions, a  similar  preponderance  of  magnesia  is  exhibited  by  other  kinds 


166  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

of  seed,  so  far  as  tlieir  mineral  constituents  liave  yet  been  examined, 
for  the  proportion  of  magnesia  exceeds  that  of  lime,  in  approximative 
round  numbers,  two  to  one  in  peas,  beans,  vetches,  quince,  bucli'vvheat, 
linseed,  &c.  ;  two  and  a  half  or  three  to  one  in  wheat,  rye,  oats,  coffee, 
&c.  ;  six  or  eight  to  one  in  maize,  millet,  and  in  the  seeds  of  pines, 
firs,  &c. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  opposite  condition  occurs  regularly  in  the 
leaves  and  stems  of  plants,  and  in  the  wood  of  trees,  in  which  lime  has 
always  the  superiority  over  magnesia,  and  exists  in  two  to  eight  times 
greater  quantity,  whence  he  deduces  the  law,  that  magnesia  is  espe- 
cially necessary  for  the  maturation  of  the  seed,  and  lime  for  the  devel- 
opment of  the  herbaceous  and  woody  structure.*  Lampadius  also 
thinks  this  substance  particularly  favorable  for  the  production  of  rye. 

We  have  dwelt  upon  this  subject,  because  much  injury  has  been 
caused  to  agriculture  by  the  prevalent  opinion  that  the  presence  of 
magnesia  in  limestone,  when  calcined  and  applied  to  land,  was  followed 
by  bad  consequences.  Much  has  been  written  to  explain  the  cause  of 
this,  as  we  consider  it,  imaginary  evil.  Caustic  magnesia,  or  magnesia 
without  carbonic  acid,  may  absorb  carbonic  acid  much  more  slowly 
than  lime,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  latter  substance,  it  will  not  com- 
bine, until  the  lime  has  been  saturated;  yet  after  all  that  has  been 
stated,  it  would  appear  less  than  j)robable,  that  the  presence  of  caustic 
magnesia  should  play  so  unfavorable  a  part,  and  so  contrary  to  expe- 
rience. 

The  salts  of  magnesia  may  be  employed,  as  the  salts  of  lime,  for 
fixing  ammonia,  but  in  that  case  its  apjDlication  will  depend  u]30ri  its 
cost.  When  a  salt  of  that  base  is  added  to  urine,  it  produces  a  preci- 
pitate of  the  phosphate  of  magnesia  and  ammonia.  Caustic  lime,  con- 
taining magnesia,  is  used  for  this  purpose ;  but  owing  to  the  bulk  of 
lime,  the  amount  is  rendered  less  portable.  The  phosphates  of  mag- 
nesia and  ammonia,  when  applied  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  and  thirty 
to  two  hundred  and  sixty  pounds  per  acre,  had  a  powerful  effect  upon 
the  production  of  Indian  corn ;  at  the  rate  of  three  hundred  weight  per 
acre,  it  increased  the  crop  of  grain  six  times,  and  of  straw  three  times. f 

Magnesia  is  a  constant  and  important  constituent  of  sea-water.  It 
is  also  found  in  many  mineral  waters,  and  to  this  fact  their  virtues  are 
attributed.  As  it  usually  exists  in  the  ashes  of  cultivated  plants,  its 
presence  in  the  soil  is  a  requisite  to  fertility,  and  its  addition  of  mani- 
fest necessity  wherever  it  may  be  wanting. 

PHOSPHORUS. 

Of  the  substances  with  which  the  farmer  has  to  do  we  think  phosphorus 
the' most  important.  It  is  found  in  all  animals  and  vegetables ;  without 
it  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  could  live.  It  is  detected,  if  not  pure,  as 
has  been  stated  frequently,  in  combination  with  a  particular  organic  sub- 
stance, in  the  brain,  the  spinal  marrow,  the  spermatic  liquid,  in  the  melt 
of  fishes,  certain  mollusca,  &c.  It  is  also  diffused  very  widely,  and 
is  discovered  in  combination  with  oxygen  in  all  rocks,  in  all  soils,  and 

*  Stockhardt's  Agricultural  Chemistry, 
t  Johnston's  Agricultural  Chemistry. 


FERTILIZERS.  167 

in  tlie  flesli,  bones,  &c.,  of  fisli,  reptiles,  insects,  birds,  animals,  and 
their  secretions.  Some  of  the  fossil  excrements  of  extinct  animals  are 
extensively  and  advantageously  used  as  fertilizers.  Wherever  there 
are  organisms,  either  vegetable  or  animal,  or  their  remains,  it  is  very 
strong  evidence  of  the  presence  of  phosphoric  acid.  It  is  detected  in 
almost  all  limestone  rocks,  and  particularly  in  those  containing  fossil 
remains.  Close  investigations  show  its  presence  in  the  older  crystaline 
rocks ;  and  where  it  has  not  appeared  as  a  constituent  in  any  analysis 
made  hitherto,  we  do  not  look  upon  that  as  evidence  of  its  absence,  for 
the  reason  that  this  substance  was  not  suspected,  and  the  analysis  were 
generally  conducted  in  a  manner  to  ignore  its  presence.  Besides,  all  who 
have  analyzed  much  know  that  i:)hosphoric  acid  is  a  great  complicator, 
and  requires  special  attention  and  care  to  appreciate.  In  small  quanti- 
ties (and  all  analyses  of  minerals  must  be  made  upon  small  quantities  to 
give  exact  results)  it  may  be  overlooked,  and  its  presence  not  even 
suspected.  "We  feel  confident  that  future  research  will  prove  what  we 
have  stated  to  be  perfectly  true. 

Organisms  exist,  procreate,  live,  and  die,  wherever  there  is  heat, 
air,  and  moisture.  They  are  in  the  air,  in  fresh  and  salt  water,  in  the 
arable  soil ;  and  their  remains  constitute  the  principal  mass  of  immense 
calcareous  formations.  It  would  appear  that  they  are  found  from  the 
equator  to  the  regions  of  eternal  ice ;  and  according  to  the  observations 
of  the  learned  Ehrenberg,  have  been  discovered  at  work  in  certain 
localities  to  the  depth  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet.*  If  they  make  a  portion 
of  all  animated  bodies,  it  follows  that  this  interesting  substance  is 
omnipresent,  and  plays  a  part  in  fertilization  much  more  important 
than  has  hitherto  been  attributed  to  it.  An  alchemist  in  Hamburg 
first  discovered  phosphorus  by  evaporating  urine  and  calcining  the 
residuum.  Though  this  was  done  in  1669,  by  Brandt,  it  was  not 
known  to  the  public  until  many  years  after,  when  Gahn  and  Scheele 
extracted  it  from  animal  matters,  and  explained  their  process  of  obtain- 
ing it  from  the  bones  of  animals,  a  mode  pursued  up  to  the  present 
time.  It  is  a  simple  substance,  of  a  yellow  color,  tough,  and  resemb- 
ling wax.  It  may  be  procured  in  three  states,  solid,  liquid,  and 
gaseous.  At  the  temperature  of  freezing  water,  it  is  hard,  brittle,  and 
even  friable.  It  crystalizes,  and  its  density  is  about  1.77.  Phospho- 
rus, when  exposed  to  the  air,  is  luminous,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it 
absorbs  oxygen  and  undergoes  a  slow  combustion.  Hence  its  name, 
from  two  Grreek  words,  which  signify  light-producer.  When  inflamed 
in  the  air,  or  in  oxygen  gas,  it  produces  white  fumes,  and  when  col- 
lected free  from  humidity,  is  white,  pulverulent,  and  absorbs  the  hu- 
midity of  the  atmosphere,  or  deliquesces,  and  becomes  liquid.  This 
combination  of  phosphorus  with  oxygen  is  called  phosphoric  acid.  It 
inflames  easily,  and  produces  obstinate  wounds ;  therefore,  it  is  kept 
under  water,  and  handled  with  pinchers.  In  this  condition  it  may  be 
melted  without  danger,  and  is  purified  by  distillation  and  filtration 
through  buckskin  under  hot  water.  Phosphorus  combines  with  oxy- 
gen in  several  proportions ;  but  we  shall  only  dwell  upon  that  whicl? 

*  See  Ehrenberg  on  Infusoria,  and  his  researches  as  to  the  cause  of  the  instability  of  found 
ations  under  the  city  of  Berlin. 


1G8  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT 

contains  five  atoms  of  oxygen  and  one  of  pLosphorus.  Phosplioric 
acid,  when  perfectly  pure,  and  tlirown  into  water,  combines  with  that 
liquid  with  so  much  rapidity  that  it  produces  a  noise  like  that  caused 
by  plunging  a  red-hot  iron  in  water,  and  the  temperature  of  the  liquid 
is  elevated.  It  is  found  in  Nature,  combined  with  Taanj  other  sub- 
stances, forming  phosphates:  thus  we  have  the  phosphates  of  lime, 
magnesia,  lead,  manganese,  iron,  uranium,  &c. 

The  phosphate  of  lime  is  known  under  the  mineralogical  term  apa- 
tite, and  is  found  crystalized  in  stalactites^  granular,  fibrous,  compact, 
and  friable.  It  is  sometimes  colorless,  or  yellow,  blue,  violet,  and 
green,  transparent,  translucid,  and  opaque.  It  occurs  among  crystal- 
ized rocks,  such  as  the  granite,  gneiss,  chlorite,  and  talcose  slates ; 
also  in  the  trap  and  basalts,  and  is  frequently  met  with  in  metallifer- 
ous deposits  connected  with  copper,  lead,  &c.,  in  the  slates  of  coal,  in 
chalk,  and  in  the  tertiary  formations,  as  well  as  in  the  sedimentary 
and  tufaceous  deposits  forming  at  the  present  day. 

A  fact  worthy  of  note  is  the  connection  of  fluoric  acid  with  phos- 
phoric in  its  combinations,  and  these  two  substances  are  not  only  found 
associated  together  in  the  mineral  kingdom,  but  in  vegetable  and 
animal  matters.  The  teeth  of  animals  contain  both.  We  are  disposed 
to  believe  that  fluoric  acid  is  much  more  common  than  has  been  re- 
marked, and,  owing  to  its  singular  properties^  has  been  doubtless  often 
overlooked.  One  of  the  most  extensive  deposits  of  the  phosphate  of 
lime  is  found  in  Estremadura,  in  Spain,  and  was  visited  and  examined 
by  Dr.  Daubeny  and  CajDtain  Widdington,  with  a  view  to  its  intro- 
duction into  England  as  a  fertilizer.  That  mineral,  according  to  their 
analysis,  contains  eighty-one  per  cent,  of  phosphate  of  lime,  and  is  so 
abundant  that  it  is  used  as  a  building  material.  In  the  United  States, 
mineral  phosphates  are  found  in  many  localities,  particularly  in  Morris 
county,  New  Jersey,  and  at  Crown  Point,  in  the  State  of  New  York. 
The  mineral  was  crushed  and  sold  in  our  markets  as  a  fertilizer,  but, 
for  some  cause  not  known  to  us,  it  appears  to  have  gone  out  of  use. 

Since  writing  the  above,  we  have  received  the  following  interesting 
communication  from  Mr.  F.  Alger;  as  it  contains  a  more  full  account 
of  the  native  phosphorite  of  New  Jersey  and  that  of  New  York  than 
we  have  seen  elsewhere^  we  append  it  entire. 

"1  send  you  a  few  facts,  as  requested,  in  regard  to  the  deposit  of 
mineral  phosphate  of  lime  (phosphorite)  discovered  by  Dr.  Jackson 
and  myself  in  Hurdstown,  Morris  county,  New  Jersey,  in  1850.  Crys- 
tals of  apatite  had  been  found  there  for  several  years  previous,  but  the 
massive  mineral  had  escaped  the  notice  of  all  who  had,  up  to  that  time, 
visited  the  locality.  I  purchased  the  right  to  explore  the  minerals 
with  which  the  phosphorite  was  associated,  viz :  magnetic  iron,  iron 
and  magnetic  pyrites,  and  early  in  1851  I  made  several  shipments  of 
it  to  Messrs.  Jevons  &  Co.,  of  Liverpool,  by  whom  it  was  sold  to 
various  parties  for  agricultural  and  manufacturing  purposes  at  prices 
varying  from  twenty  to  thirty-Jive  dollars  per  ton  in  its  crude  state. 
Fine,  large  masses  of  the  substance  were  placed  in  the  great  London 
exhibition,  at  its  firat  opening,  and  attracted  much  attention,  from 
their  rocky  character,  and  being  unlike  any  specimen  of  the  mineral 
before  seen.     Professors  Daubeny,  Johnstone,  and  others  became  much 


FERTILIZERS.  169 

interested  in  the  discovery,  and  the  latter  opened  a  correspondence 
with  me  on  the  subject,  setting  forth  the  advantage  which  would  accrue 
to  British  agriculture,  if,  as  a  substitute  for  bone  phosphate,  guano,  or 
coprolites^  it  could,  at  a  fair  price,  be  introduced  into  England.  At 
his  suggestion.  Dr.  Richardson,  the  celebrated  manufacturer  of  arti- 
ficial manures  at  Newcastle,  made  a  successful  trial  of  the  mineral^ 
and  proposed  to  negotiate  for  large  importations  of  it  into  England 
for  his  own  use.  It  was  also  used  in  the  lead  smelting  establishments, 
in  the  making  of  cupels  in  the  porcelain  works,  and  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  pure  phosphorus.  For  the  latter  purpose,  its  purity  over  bone 
phosphate  highly  recommended  it,  and  afforded  a  most  expeditious 
method  of  obtaining  the  beautiful  glacial  phosphate  in  the  hands  of 
Dr.  Jackson,  who  was  also  the  first  chemist  who  made  pure  phosphorus 
from  it.  In  its  application  to  the  production  of  phosphate  of  soda,  for 
which  it  has  been  recommended,  I  have  received  no  information,  though 
it  is  probable  some  of  the  calico  printing  and  dying  establishments, 
where  this  article  is  largely  used^  may  have  made  a  trial  of  it.  Should 
they,  or  others,  feel  desirous  of  trying  it,  I  shall  be  glad  to  supply  the 
mineral  in  moderate  quantity,  having  yet  a  supply  of  it  on  hand.  But 
I  have  disposed  of  my  interest  in  the  mine  to  other  parties,  who  have 
now  ceased  to  work  it.  The  application  of  the  mineral  in  the  United 
States  has  been  only  to  agriculture,  and  to  that  by  no  means  exten- 
sive, though  with  the  best  results.  For  this  purpose  it  is  ground  very 
fine,  treated  with  sulphuric  acid  to  produce  super-phosphate,  and  then 
mixed  with  wood  ashes  and  thrown  into  the  compost  heap,  or  other- 
wise distributed  upon  the  land.  In  some  cases  the  pulverized  mineral 
has  been  taken  alone  and  mixed  with  the  compost,  but  in  this  way  a 
much  longer  time  must  elapse  before  any  beneficial  effects  can  be  wit- 
nessed. One  of  our  practical  agriculturists,  who  has  long  supplied 
milk  and  meat  for  the  m.arket,  said  that  he  had  been  sending  jjIios- 
phate  of  lime  away  from  his  farm  for  twenty  years,  and  now  he  meant 
to  carry  some  back  again.  He  believed  that  it  w^ould  pay,  even  if 
applied  only  to  grass  lands,  as  he  had  no  doubt  it  Avould  find  its  way 
into  the  bones  of  his  animals,  and  thus  prevent  the  impoverishment  of 
his  land.  The  American  chemists  who  have  analyzed  and  written 
upon  the  New  Jersey  phosphate  are  Dr.  Jackson,  Dr.  Chilton,  Pro- 
fessor Mapes,  Dr.  Antisell,  and  Mr.  Wells,  the  editor  of  the  Annals 
of  Scientific  Discovery.  Dr.  Jackson's  analysis  of  a  very  pure  speci- 
men, gave  of — 

Phosphate  of  lime 92 .405 

Chloride  of  calcium 0.540 

Peroxyd  of  iron 0.040 

Oxyd  of  manganese 0.003 

Fluoride  of  calcium 7.012 

By  difference 

'''Professor  Mapes  found  no  fluorine  in  the  specimens  he  analyzed. 
He  obtained : 


170  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Lime 61.50 

Phosplioric  acid 33.85 

Chlorine 3.50 

Silica 0.09 

Iron  peroxyd 0.10 


Loss .96 


"  The  mineral  phosphate  from  Crown  Point,  New  York,  has  been 
examined  by  Mr.  Wells.  It  contained  92.85  per  cent,  of  phosphate 
of  lime,  only  a  trace  of  fluoric  acid,  5.20  oxyd  of  iron,  0.50  silica, 
1.50  water.  Later  analyses  make  it  much  more  impure.  This  has 
been  shipped  to  England  by  Professor  Emmons,  who  was  the  first  to 
make  it  known  under  its  mineralogical  name,  Eupyrchroite.  It  is  no 
longer  obtained.  The  phosphorite  from  the  province  of  Estremadura, 
in  Spain,  where  it  was  at  first  supposed  to  exist  in  large  quantity,  was 
analyzed  by  Professor  Daubeny,  who  was  commissioned  by  the  British 
government  to  visit  the  locality,  with  the  view  of  supplying  the  Eng- 
lish market.     He  obtained : 

Phosphate  of  lime 81.15 

Peroxyd  of  iron .' 3.15 

Fluoride  of  calcium 14. 00 

Silica 1.70 

Chlorine  of  calcium .31 

''The  Spanish  mineral  proved  veins  in  clay  slate,  and  was  formerly 
so  abundant  as  to  be  used  for  a  building  stone.  It  seems,  hoAvever, 
never  to  have  been  sent  to  England.  The  New  Jersey  deposit  is  in 
hornblende  rock,  as  metamorphic  sienite,  and  when  discovered,  formed 
a  vein  from  three  to  five  feet  in  thickness,  running  parallel  with  a  vein 
of  magnetic  pyrites  of  about  the  same  dimensions,  the  two  being  fre- 
quently intermixed. 

"¥.  ALaER." 

The  coprolites,  so  extensively  sought  after,  and  used  as  fertilizers, 
are  found  in  various  formations,  occurring  in  limited  quantity  in  the 
mountain  limestone;  but  the  lias,  green  sand,  &c.,  are  the  sources 
whence  by  far  the  largest  amount  is  obtained.  These  nodules,  in  form 
and  even  appearance,  indicate  their  origin.  The  undigested  portions 
of  fishes,  scales,  bones,  and  distinct  parts  of  things  tliat  once  lived, 
show  them  to  be  excrementitious  matter,  solidified  by  time  and  jjres- 
sure.  The  coprolites  vary  considerably  in  their  composition,  according 
to  the  locality,  and  partly  owing  to  the  variety,  some  yielding  as  high 
as  seventy  per  cent,  of  phosphate  of  lime,  while  others  give  as  low  as 
ten  per  cent.  Some  contain,  beside  phosphate  of  lime,  phosphate  of 
iron,  and  phosphate  of  alumine.  According  to  Mr".  Nisbit,  the  analysis 
of  five  varieties  produced : 


FERTILIZERS.  171 

Tertiary  deposit 19.19  to  22.17 

London  clay 15.96  to  28.00 

Chalk 19.00  to  26.92 

Green  sand 7.72  to  18.81 

Green  marl 16.47  to  26.56 

Coprolites  always  contain,  beside  pliosphate  of  lime  and  pliosphate 
of  magnesia,  carbonate  of  lime,  and  different  substances  in  varied 
quantities. 

It  is  needless  liere  to  state  that  the  phosphate  of  lime,  or  we  might 
say,  the  phosphoric  acid,  whether  taken  from  the  mineral  apatite,  or 
any  other  mineral  phosphate,  from  coprolites  fossilized  or  recent 
bones,  is  the  same  substance  and  may  be  applied  with  the  same  advan- 

We  have  said  that  phosi3horic  acid,  according  to  our  estimate,  is  the 
most  valuable  substance  with  which  the  farmer  has  to  do.  Silica,  lime, 
magnesia,  and  alumine  are  found  in  abundant  quantities  in  all  parts 
of  the  earth ;  nor  does  it  appear  that  soda  and  potash  require  great  so- 
licitude, for  the  latter,  which  is  the  most  important  of  the  two,  enters 
into  the  composition  of  different  mineral  substances,  all  very  common, 
and  forming  portions  of  the  great  mass  of  the  globe.  We  allude  to 
feldspar  and  mica,  both  constituents  of  granite,  and  of  most  of  the  crys- 
taline  rocks.  Feldspar  contains  as  high  as  seventeen  per  cent.,  while 
sometimes  mica  has  not  less  than  twenty  per  cent,  of  potash.  Of  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  and  carbon,  therefore,  it  hardly  requires  that  we  should 
feel  much  anxiety  about  them.  The  two  former  substances  combined 
form  water ;  the  latter  independent  of  other  supplies^  is  one  of  the  con- 
stituents of  carbonic  acid,  a  constant  part  of  the  atmosphere.  Nor  do 
we  think  that  fertility  fails  so  much  owing  to  the  want  of  nitrogen,  for 
that  gas  is  an  ingredient  of  the  atmosphere.  Wherever  it  has  been 
taken,  at  every  height,  and  from  every  locality,  the  air  we  breathe  is 
composed  of  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbonic  acid,  holding  79.00  parts 
of  nitrogen.  We  shall  not  enter  into  the  discussion  of  how  nitrogen 
is  assimilated,  whether  directly  or  indirectly,  whether  through  ammo- 
nia or  nitric  acid,  or  other  nitrogenized  components ;  suffice  it  to  say, 
that  both  ammonia  and  nitric  acid  are  ever  forming  in  the  air  and  in 
the  soil,  and  that  either  of  those  compounds,  the  admitted  purveyor  of 
nitrogen  to  plants,  is  a  consequence  of  the  existence  and  decay  of  or- 
ganized matters  in  the  air,  or  near  the  surface  of  the  earth.  By  far 
the  larger  part  of  organized  matter  is  composed  of  the  condensed  gases. 
Even  during  life  these  gases  are  given  oif  and  replaced  by  others. 
After  death,  de(my  speedily  ensues,  and  they  return  to  the  great  reser- 
voir to  be  assimilated  by  other  vegetables  or  animals,  and  thus  con- 
tinue the  circle.     • 

Phosphoric  acid,  though  extensively  diffused,  and  sometimes  in  large 
quantities,  does  not  appear  to  be  found  in  the  same  profusion  as  the 
other  substances  mentioned.  The  phosphate  of  lime  is  a  fixed  salt, 
neither  soluble  nor  volatile,  and  when  removed  from  the  soil  must  be 
replaced.  This  is  done  in  the  shape  of  manures,  both  organic  and 
inorganic;  the  main  sources  of  the  latter  we  have  alluded  to.  The 
amount  returned  from  the  barn  yard  is  infinitely  less  than  that  carried 


172  AGEICULTURAL   REPORT. 

away  in  grain,  hay,  milk,  Lone,  and  flesli,  even  on  the  most  economi- 
cally regulated  farms  ;  and,  notwithstanding  all  our  care,  there  must 
he  a  constant  decrease  of  that  suhstance,  unless  recourse  he  had  to 
exterior  supplies.  True,  small  farms  near  large  cities,  may  even  add 
more  than  is  taken  away,  hringing  hack  the  refuse  of  the  supplies 
which  are  sent  to  market ;  hut  that  kind  of  circulation,  from  the 
garden  to  the  market,  to  the  refuse  heap,  and  again  to  the  field,  is 
limited  hy  distance  and  cost  of  transportation.  Kemote  lands,  from 
which  such  supplies  are  stopped,  must  in  the  course  of  time  hecome 
impoverished,  unless  provision  he  made  to  replace  the  continual  drain. 
Exhaustion  is  hut  an  affair  of  time ;  knowing  the  amount  of  nutriment 
in  the  soil,  we  may  make  an  approximate  calculation,  and  decide  when, 
under  different  modes  of  treatment,  it  will  work  sterility.  Strong 
symptoms  of  a  downward  tendency  in  that  direction  hegin  to  manifest 
themselves  throughout  the  .whole  cultivated  portion  of  our  country. 
Indeed,  it  would  he  difficult  to  find,  in  any  part  of  the  civilized  world, 
a  more  melancholy  picture  than  is  presented  to  the  traveler  in  certain 
parts  of  our  Union.  The  exhaustion  has  not  only  heen  caused  hy 
continued  cropping,  and  the  extraction  of  phosphoric  acid;  injudicious 
culture  has  had  much  to  do  with  it,  and,  perhaps,  much  the  greater 
part  of  the  fertility  has  heen  carried  into  the  streams,  thence  to  rivers, 
and  finally  to  the  ocean.  There  can  he  no  civilization  without  popu- 
lation, no  population  without  food,  and  no  food  without  phosphoric 
acid.  Indeed  it  might  he  easily  shown,  that  the  march  of  civilization 
has  followed  the  direction  of  supply  of  that  material.  There  are  lands 
which  will  not  hetray  the  effects  of  continued  cropping,  hut  these  are 
exceptions,  and  they  receive  ahundant  supplies  of  plant  food  from  some 
local  circumstance.  The  valley  of  the  Nile  is  a  familiar  example;  here  the 
annual  deposits  from  the  overflow  of  the  river  counterhalance  the  drain. 
Other  lands,  composed  from  the  detritus  of  fossiliferous  formations, 
rich  in  phosphates,  maj  resist  during  an  indefinite  period.  The  slopes 
of  volcanoes  are  instances  of  a  different  character,  where  the  supplies 
are  restored  from  ejectments  coming  from  the  interior  of  the  earth. 
The  history  of  the  world  shows,  heyond  cavil  or  douht,  that  population 
cannot  endure  where  the  supplies  are  wanting.  Each  return  of  the 
seasons  hrings  another  draft  upon  the  phosphates,  and  when  these  fail, 
civilization  takes  up  another  dwelling  place.  It  is  not  necessary  that 
we  should  travel  far  to  verify  these  sad  truths.  Within  the  period  of 
a  short  life,  lands  were  called  inexhaustible,  which  are  now  worthless; 
and  a  great  portion  of  the  boundless  west  is  naturally  sterile.  We  are 
on  the  eve  of  a  movement  from  the  west  hack  to  the  east,  where  a 
different  work  is  in  prospective,  that  of  the  regeneration  of  worn- 
out  land.  Perhaps  science  may  be  adequate  to  the  task,  hut  the  re- 
cuperation of  a  soil  will  surely  he  more  difiicult  than  cropping  it  to 
exhaustion. 

If  we  examine  the  commercial  and  agricultural  statistics  of  England 
for  the  last  fifty  years,  or  even  for  a  much  shorter  period,  we  shall  he 
convinced  that  she  never  could  have  attained  her  present  prosperous 
condition,  hut  from  two  causes:  emigration  and  the  importation  of 
foreign  fertilizers.  The  hones  introduced  have  increased  to  an  enormous 
extent,  during  the  last  few  years.     "They  are  principally  brought/' 


FERTILIZERS.  173 

says  Macullocli,  ''from the Netlierlands,  Gferman}^,  anclSoutli  America. 
At  the  present  time,  however,  they  form  a  part  of  the  export  trade  of 
nearly  every  port  in  the  north  of  Europe."  From  a  report  on  agri- 
cultural shipping  and  produce,  printed  by  order  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, in  1842,  we  learn  that,  out  of  eleven  ports  of  the  northern 
countries  of  Europe,  bones  were  exported  to  a  large  amount,  from  the 
following  nine:  Hamburg,  Eotterdam,  Bremen,  Lubeck,  Kiel,  Rostock, 
Stettin,  Elsinore,  and  Danzic.  So  far  back  as  the  year  1827,  two 
hundred  and  forty-eight  vessels  entered  the  one  port  of  Hull,  carrying 
seventeen  thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighteen  tons  of  bones,  which 
were  derived  from  Eussia,  Prussia,  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark,  Hanse 
Towns,  Netherlands,  Mechlenburg,  Hanover,  and  Oldenburg.  In  1835^ 
the  importations  into  Hull  alone,  had  increased  to  twenty-five  thousand 
seven  hundred  tons.  The  value  of  bones  imported  into  Scotland  in 
1841,  was  seventy-four  thousand  nine  hundred  pounds  sterling.  In 
1837,  the  total  value  of  bones  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom 
amounted  to  two  hundred  and  fifty-four  thousand  six  hundred  pounds 
sterling.*  This  is  independent  of  the  home  supply  which  is  estimated 
at  not  less  than  five  hundred  thousand  pounds  sterling. 

The  extensive  importations  of  bones,  and  the  application  of  the  na- 
tive mineral  phosphates,  (coprolites,  &c.,)  together  with  the  introduc- 
tion of  guano,  have  been  the  main  dependence  of  agriculture  in  Great 
Britain  during  the  last  twenty-five  years.  Science,  indeed,  has  aided 
in  making  these  supplies  more  active  and  efficient,  great  economy 
having  been  secured  by  improved  machinery  for  crushing  bones  to  fine 
powder,  (for  the  finer  the  dust  the  more  immediately  active  it  becomes;) 
but  the  dissolution  of  bones  with  acid  has  been  of  still  greater  benefit. 
Farm  as  you  may,  upon  the  majority  of  soils,  without  the  use  of  ex- 
traneous fertilizers,  your  crops  will  certainly  diminish,  until  total 
impoverishment  shall  leave  no  other  alternative  than  starvation  or 
emigration. 

Science  teaches  that  the  principal  fertilizing  element  of  the  bone  is 
phosphoric  acid,  and  thus,  much  is  saved  in  transportation  and  the 
economy  of  application. 

Bones  vary  much  in  their  composition,  according  to  the  age  or 
variety  of  the  animal.  The  amount  of  mineral  matter  is  less  in  a 
young  animal  than  in  an  old  one,  and  the  quantity  increases  gradually 
with  age.  Schreger  tells  us  that  the  bones  of  a  child  contain  one  half 
of  phosphate  in  the  entire  mass  of  earthy  matter,  while  those  of  a  full- 
grown  person  give  four  fifths,  and  an  aged  person  not  less  than  seven 
eighths.  The  bones  of  adults  contain  less  water  than  those  of  chil- 
dren. When  h,  bone  is  sufiiciently  digested  in  muriatic  acid,  the 
mineral  part  is  dissolved,  leaving  the  gelatin^  or  cartilage,  intact, 
which  retains  the  original  form  of  the  bone.  Large  amounts  of  gela- 
tin, or  glue,  are  thus  made.  That  portion  of  the  bone  dissolved  in 
the  acid  consists  of  phosphate  of  lime  and  magnesia_,  fluoride  of  cal- 
cium, and  carbonate  of  lime,  with  small  quantities  of  salts  of  potash 
and  soda. 

*Morton's  Cyclopaidia  of  Agriculture 


174 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


We  copy  from  Berzelius  the  following  analysis  of  the  hones  of  man 
and  those  of  the  ox  : 

Man.  Ox, 

Gelatin,  (soluhle  in  water,) 32.17?  ^o  oa 

Vessels 1.13  ]  '''^•''^ 

Neutral  phosphate  of  lime 51.04  55.45 

Carbonate  of  lime 11.30  3.85 

Fluoride  of  calcium 2.00  2.90 

Phosphate  of  magnesia 1.16  2.05 

Soda  and  muriate  of  soda 1.20  2.45 


100.00     100.00 


The  experiments  made  by  Barras  inform  us  that  the  proportion  of 
carbonate  of  lime  varies  in  different  animals,  as  well  as  in  the  bones 
of  the  same  individual.     He  found,  for  every  100  parts — 

Carbonate  of  lime 

Bones  of  a  lion 2.03 

sheep 24.12 

chicken 11.70 

frog 5.76 

fish 2.52 

Chevreuil,  Dumeril,  Marchand,  and  other  chemists,  have  analyzed 
the  bones  of  various  fishes ;  they  vary  considerably,  as  will  be  seen  by 
the  following  results  obtained  by  the  three  first  mentioned: 


Skull  of  a 
cod. 


Bones  of  a 
pike. 


Bones  of  a 

"vvliale. 


Organic  matter 

Phosphate  of  lime 

Sulphate  of  lime , 

Carbonate  of  lime 

Phosphate  of  magnesia 

Sulphate  of  soda 

Soda  and  common  salt 

Fluoride  of  calcium  and  loss . 


43.94 
47.96 


5.50 
2.20 


0-.60 


100.20 


37.36 

55.26 


6.15 


1.23 


100.00 


78.46 

14.20 

0.83 

2.61 


0.70 
2.46 
0.74 


100.00 


The  gelatinous  part  of  the  bone  consists  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
nitrogen,  and  sulphur.  One  hundred  parts  of  gelatin  of  bones  pro- 
duce, when  fermented,  twenty-two  pounds  of  ammonia,  together  with- 
carbonic  acid.  The  sulphur,  as  we  have  seen,  is  also  an  ingredient  of 
plants. 

The  phosphate  of  lime  is  soluble  in  all  acids,  and  we  may  say  that 
all  the  phosjDhates  are  soluble  in  an  excess  of  acid.  When  bones  are 
surrounded  by  fermenting  organic  matter,  such  as  is  offered  in  a 
manure  or  compost  heap,  the  phosphate  of  lime  is  dissolved  in  the 
humidity  by  the  carbonic  acid  which  is  constantly  being  evolved  by 


FERTILIZERS.  175 

tlie  fermenting  mass.  This  operation  is  more  or  less  prompt  according 
to  tlie  activity  of  the  fermenting  heap.  In  the  field,  where  carbonic 
acid  is  always  present,  this  process  is  constantly  going  on ;  hut,  owing 
to  the  presence  of  the  cartilaginous  or  gelatinous  portion  which  sur- 
rounds the  particles  of  phosphate,  the  action  is  less  apparent  on  a  large 
hone  than  if  it  were  in  powder,  and  the  finer  the  powder  the  more 
rapid  the  decomposition. 

Many  farmers  are  in  the  habit  of  collecting  the  refuse  bones  of  their 
farms  and  covering  them  up  in  the  accumulating  manure  in  the  barn- 
yard, where,  in  the  course  of  time,  they  become  soft  and  pliable,  as  if 
they  had  been  immersed  in  muriatic  acid.  Such  an  addition  gives  in- 
creased strength  to  the  manure  in  proportion  as  the  quantity  of  bones, 
which,  thus  dissolved,  becomes  immediately  active,  but  endure  a  less 
time  than  when  added  to  the  land  without  preparation.  For  when 
bones  in  large  pieces  are  applied  to  the  soil  the  action  is  slow ;  when 
divided;,  more  rapid,  according  to  the  state  of  division,  and  still  greater 
when  dissolved,  as  the  state  of  division  is  then  perfect,  provided  the 
operation  has  been  well  conducted. 

The  crushing  of  bones,  owing  to  their  tenacity  and  hardness,  is 
attended  with  feome  difficulty  and  expense,  and,  therefore,  where  the 
operations  are  large,  steam-mills  are  employed.  But  in  other  places 
the  bones  are  steamed  or  boiled,  after  which  they  are  easily  reduced  to 
powder.  By  that  process,  however,  the  gelatinous  and  fatty  matters 
are  extracted  and  used;  the  grease  for  making  soap,  and  the  gelatin 
for  fabricating  size  or  glue.  We  have  seen  that  the  organic  portion 
of  bones  contained  fertilizing  matter,  (nitrogen,  sulphur,  carbon,  &c.) 
If  this  be  previously  extracted,  so  much  is  lost  to  the  land ;  and  it  is  a 
question  of  loss  to  the  farmer  if  the  dust  be  sold  by  weight.  Some 
burn  the  bone  in  order  to  reduce  it  to  extreme  division .  Here  again 
the  organic  portion  is  entirely  destroyed,  save  only  a  part  of  the  carbon. 
It  is  known  that  animal  black  (charred  bones)  is  a  great  deodorizer 
and  antiseptic,  largely  used  by  sugar  boilers  for  refining  sugar,  and 
by  chemists  for  whitening  sulphate  of  quinine,  &c.  It  has  the  property 
of  condensing  gases;  and  charcoal_,  derived  from  the  calcination  of 
bones,  possesses  this  property  to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other  sub- 
stance; it  will  absorb  ninety  times  its  volume  of  ammoniacal  gas. 
Hence,  it  becomes  a  consideration  with  farmers  to  know  whether  they 
do  not  gain  more  by  charring  the  bones  than  they  lose  by  chasing  off 
the  volatile  matters.  If  the  bones  be  burned  in  contact  with  the  air, 
the  greater  portion  of  the  carbon  will  be  driven  off  with  the  other 
combustible  parts  of  the  bone ;  and  in  order  to  avoid  that  result  the 
bones  should  be  charred  in  air-tight  vessels.  Iron  cylinders  are  used 
for  the  purpose. 

Whatever  method  may  be  employed,  it  is  important  that  the  bone, 
previous  to  treatment  with  acid,  should  be  divided  ;  otherwise  the 
operation  will  be  imperfect,  and  particularly  so  if  sulphuric  acid  be 
used  to  form  the  compound  called  bi-phosphate,  super-phosphate,  or 
acid-phosphate  of  lime,  known  to  farmers  under  those  appellations. 
*For  if  the  bone,  without  being  reduced  to  powder,  be  treated  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  gypsum  or  sulphate  of  lime  is  formed,  and  that  substance 
being  insoluble,  surrounds  and  prevents  the  further  action  of  the  acid 


176  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

upon  those  parts  of  the  hone  not  already  acted  on.  If  muriatic  acid 
he  employed,  that  difficulty  does  not  present  itself,  hecause  the  muriate 
of  lime  which  is  formed  is  very  soluble,  and  so  long  as  acid  may  be 
present  the  decomposition  of  the  hone  continues  until  the  operation  is 
complete.  In  the  latter  case,  the  phosphates  and  muriates  would  be 
in  solution,  which  is  less  convenient  of  application  ;  this,  added  to 
other  reasons  not  necessary  to  mention,- makes  it  preferable  to  employ 
sulphuric  acid,  which  is  largely  manufactured,  and  may  be  obtained 
everywhere.  It  is  important,  however,  that  the  farmer  should  look  to 
the  density  of  the  article,  for  it  is  by  no  means  immaterial  whether  it 
be  strong  or  weak  ;  otherwise,  in  the  case  of  the  weak  or  diluted  acid, 
he  will  be  paying  for  water  instead  of  acid.  By  the  addition  of  sul- 
phuric acid  to  crushed  bones  they  are  decomposed,  and  effervescence 
takes  place,  arising  from  the  escape  of  carbonic  acid,  which  has  been 
liberated  by  the  sulphuric  acid  combining  with  the  lime  and  forming 
sulphate  of  lime,  or  gypsum. 

The  insoluble  phosphate  of  lime  is  decomposed,  a  part  of  the  lime 
combining  with  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  liberating  the  phosphoric  acid, 
which  combines  with  that  portion  of  the  phosphate  of  lime  not  decom- 
posed, forming  a  phosphate  of  lime  with  excess  of  phosphoric  acid, 
called  bi-phosphate,  super-phosphate,  or  acid-phosphate.  The  sul- 
phuric acid  also  combines  with  the  potash,  soda,  and  magnesia.  Heat 
is  evolved,  the  excess  of  water  (if  there  be  not  too  much)  is  absorbed, 
and  the  mass,  when  the  operation  has  been  well  conducted,  remains  in 
a  dry,  pulverulent  form.  The  gelatinous  portion  of  the  bone  is  also 
modified  by  the  action  of  the  acid,  becoming  more  assimilative.  The 
operation  is  simple,  offering  no  difficulty  whatever.  Any  farmer  may 
fabricate  his  own  super-phosjohate  with  the  implements  he  may  have 
at  hand,  and  avoid  the  necessity  or  risk  of  paying  for  an  impure 
article  ;  for  every  one  knows  that  frauds,  to  an  enormous  extent,  have 
been  perpetrated  upon  the  confiding  farmer,  who  has  often  paid  high 
prices  for  that  which  was  of  no  value  as  a  manure,  and  might  he  had 
for  the  collecting. 

Sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vitriol)  is  a  substance  to  be  procured  in  all 
our  markets,  and  its  value  depends  upon  its  density,  specific  gravity, 
or  its  state  of  concentration.  The  weaker  it  is,  the  less  valuable.  The 
proper  density  should  be  about  1.85. 

The  quantity  of  acid  required  for  the  decomposition  of  one  hundred 
pounds  of  bones  depends  upon  whether  they  are  in  meal,  half  inch,  or 
entire,  or  whether  they  are  in  their  natural  state,  boiled,  or  burned. 
The  finer  the  powder  the  more  perfect  the  action,  and  the  more  acid 
will  be  required.  If  the  bones  are  in  their  raw  state,  they  contain,  as 
has  been  said,  an  amount  of  animal  or  organic  matter,  which  varies 
according  to  the  age  or  species  of  animal  from  which  they  have  been 
derived.  The  amount  of  bone-ash  obtained  from  the  calcination  or 
burning  of  bones  in  contact  with  the  air,  may  beset  down,  on  an  aver- 
age, at  fifty  per  cent.  For  every  hundred  pounds  of  bone-ash,  eighty- 
seven  or  eighty-eight  pounds  of  sulphuric  acid  will  be  required.  The 
operation  may  be  practiced  in  a  hogshead,  on  a  tight  floor,  or  on  the  * 
ground,  or  in  the  field  where  the  mixture  is  to  be  used. 

Take,  for  instance,  one  hundred  pounds  of  powdered  bone-ash,  throw 


FEETILIZERS.  177 

into  a  liogsliead,  to  wliicli  add  from  five  to  six  gallons  of  ■water,  and 
mix  witli  a  stout  wooden  shovel  or  paddle.  Then  pour  on  about  eighty- 
eight  pounds  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  The  mass  should  now  be 
well  turned  and  mixed.  It  will  effervesce  and  foam  up,  give  off  steam 
in  profusion,  and  the  temperature  will  be  found  to  have  risen  sometimes 
as  high,  or  higher,  than  212°  Fahrenheit.  Instead  of  adding  the  entire 
amount  of  acid  at  once,  it  maybe  divided  into  two  portions,  and  added 
separately.  In  handling  acid,  have  a  little  care,  otherwise  an  eye  or 
the  clothes  maybe  the  forfeit,  as  such  accidents  have  happened.  After 
mixing  for  some  time,  the  mass  will  stiffen,  when  it  should  be  covered, 
and  allowed  to  stand  for  a  day.  It  may  now  be  thrown  out  in  a  dry 
place^  to  remain  sufficiently  long  to  be  ready  for  powdering,  or  it  may 
be  mixed  with  dry  peat,  charcoal,  calcined  plaster  of  Paris,  or  even  dry 
mold,  or  saw-dust,  and  powdered,  when  it  is  ready  for  use. 

A  mode  which  is  extensively  practiced  on  farms  in  England  was  first 
suggested  by  Mr.  Pusey,  and  is,  briefly,  very  similar  to  making  mor- 
tar out  of  sand  and  lime.  The  circular  wall  of  sand  may  be  replaced 
by  coal  ashes,  or  bone-dust  itself.  The  bone-dust  is  deposited  in  the 
middle  of  the  circle,  then  thoroughly  saturated  with  water,  when  the 
sulphuric  acid  is  added,  and  the  mass  well  and  frequently  turned  over, 
until  there  is  no  further  action.  The  decomposition  is  more  perfect  when 
the  temperature  is  high,  and  this  is  obtained  by  making  the  wall  of  ashes 
as  lofty  as  possible.  The  operation  is  more  or  less  well  conducted  as  the 
mixture  has  been  the  more  evenly  made,  and  the  parts  thoroughly 
mixed.  The  mineral  phosphorite,  coprolites,  and  varieties  of  guano, 
rich  in  phosphoric  acid,  may  be  treated  with  acids,  and  will  produce 
super-phosphate  of  lime,  having  all  the  efficiency,  and  with  preciselj' 
the  same  properties  of  that  manufactured  from  bones,  the  only  differ- 
ence being  that  the  one  may  contain  salts,  which  are  absent  from  the 
the  other,  and  more  or  less  phosphoric  acid. 

The  super-phosphate  of  lime,  from  its  comparatively  high  value, 
leads  to  adulteration.  Water  is  added  to  increase  the  weight ;  earths, 
chalks,  lime,  old  plaster,  oyster  shells,  &c.,  are  sometimes  mixed  in  a 
manner  to  deceive  the  eye.  Some  of  these  substances  may  be  detected, 
with  the  aid  of  a  magnifier,  by  acids,  or  by  simple  washing  with  water, 
and  examining  the  residue  after  decanting.  If  old  plaster  is  suspected, 
the  hair  will  be  seen ;  if  oyster  shells  or  chalk,  the  effervescence  and 
particles  of  shells  will  furnish  indications  which  will  lead  to  closer 
scrutiny.  The  sulphate  of  barytes,  or  sulphate  of  lime,  increases  the 
weight  of  the  mixture,  and  the  former  particularly  will  fall  to  the 
bottom,  when  thrown  into  a  tumbler  of  water,  more  rapidly  than  the 
super-phosphate.  Eecourse  may  be  had  to  a  chemist,  whose  familiarity 
with  the  properties  of  different  substances  will  enable  him  to  arrive  at 
conclusions  not  to  be  expected  from  those  whose  occupations  are^  of  an 
entirely  different  character. 

The  loss  that  is  taking  place  in  this  most  essential  ingredient  to- life 
(phosphorus)  is  enormous,  unavoidable,  and  impossible  to  estimate 
with  any  correctness.  Independent  of  that  continuous  drain  which 
takes  place  by  the  washing  of  the  soil,,  together  with  the  waste  ever 
occurring  in  provisions  of  all  kinds,  grains,  vegetables,  and  animals 
exported,  and  but  a  small  part  of  which  finds  its  way  back  to  the  place 
12 A 


178  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

whence  it  came,  tliere  is  another  gradual  yet  certain  loss  which,  in  time, 
will  be  felt — I  allude  to  the  amount  of  phosphorus  in  our  bodies — a 
loss  to  be  attributed  to  the  respectful  and  pious  custom  followed  in  all 
civilized  countries,  that  of  burying  the  dead.  By  this  practice  much 
is  entirely  withdrawn  from  circulation ;  for  the  depth  at  which  the 
bodies  are  deposited  in  the  ground  is  below  the  reach  of  vegetation. 
Supposing  the  inhabitants  of  the  United  States  at  this  time  to  amount 
to  twenty-five  millions,  and  that  each  individual  contains,  on  an  aver- 
age, four  pounds  of  phosphate  of  lime,  (which  will  be  found  not  far 
from  the  truth,)  when  this  population  shall  have  passed  away,  one 
hundred  millions  of  pounds  of  the  phosphate  of  lime  will  have  been 
abstracted  from  the  soil,  or  from  activity  in  the  endless  change  of  life.* 
It  will  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  extinction  of  the  present  generation 
does  not  limit  the  loss ;  for  population  increases  much  more  rapidly 
than  supplies ;  and  if  we  reflect  how  wonderful  has  been  its  augmenta- 
tion in  the  United  States  since  its  settlement,  and  its  probable  continu- 
ance, even  in  a  greater  ratio,  we  shall  be  less  apt  to  underrate  the 
future  consequences. 

The  ocean  is  a  vast  reservoir  of  life's  requirements,  from  which 
science  may  find  means  of  recovering  supplies,  especially  of  this  valua- 
ble ingredient. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  remark  that,  while  phosphoric  acid  is  an 
essential  part  of  all  fertile  soils,  it.  is  not  the  only  substance  required, 
for  the  application  of  the  phosphates  may  be  made  without  any  apparent 
good  result,  owing  to  the  absence  of  other  substances  not  less  necessary. 
With  a  view  to  supply  every  important  quality,  much  ingenuity  has 
been  employed  in  making  artificial  and  saline  mixtures,  not  only  to 
furnish  special  manures  for  special  crops,  but  such  also  as  would  satisfy 
the  wants  of  all  vegetation.  Many  saline  mixtures  may  be  compounded 
to  increase  the  efficiency  of  each  other,  and  at  the  same  time  to  accele- 
rate, promote,  and  supply  the  requirements  of  plants ;  but  we  cannot 
refrain  from  cautioning  the  farmer  against  the  exaggerated  accounts 
now  everywhere  published  in  favor  of  certain  fertilizers.  They  are  far 
from  being  always  what  they  are  described,  either  in  composition  or 
effect,  and  are  very  often  quite  the  contrary.  At  best,  composts  would 
frequently  appear  to  be  mere  dilutions,  or  attempts  at  making  the  truly 
useful  do  more  service  than  is  possible.  The  most  shameful  impositions 
are  being  daily  practiced.  From  the  nature  of  the  substances  employed, 
these  frauds  may  not  easily  be  detected  by  the  farmer ;  but  he  should 
rather  trust,  if  he  will  have  unusual  mixtures,  to  such  as  he  may 
manufacture  on  his  own  ground;,  and  under  his  own  eye,  from  materials 
of  positive  utility,  and  purchased  from  dealers  of  undoubted  character. 

*  Monsieur  Elie  de  Beaumont,  who  has  made  a  similar  calculation,  in  detail,  for  theamount 
of  phosphate  of  lime  aBstracted  from  culture,  by  burial,  estimates  that  France  has  thus  lost 
not  less  than  two  millions  of  tons. — See  Etude  sur  les  Gisements  Geologiques  du  Phosphore. 

The  reader  will  thank  us  for  directing  his  attention  to  the  above-named  work,  recently  pub- 
lished by  our  distinguished  friend  and  professor,  M.  M.  L.  Elie  de  Beaumont.  We  have 
read  it  with  great  interest,  and  are  indebted  to  the  learned  author  for  many  valuable  sugges- 
tions. 


V^ETERINARY   SCIENCE   AND   ART.  179 

VETERINARY  SCIENCE  AND  AET. 


BY   CAPTAIN   JOHN   C.  RALSTON,  PRESIDENT   OF   THE   COLLEGE    OP   VETERINARY 

SURGEONS,  NEW  YORK. 


In  this  country,  tlie  veterinary  art  appears  to  have  suffered,  and  is 
still  allowed  to  suffer,  unaccountable  and  most  undeserved  neglect,  in 
an  educational  or  duly  qualified  point  of  view.  Its  practice  has  mainly 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  stable-man,  the  shoeing  smith,  and  the 
charlatan ;  for  the  number  of  educated  practitioners,  derived  from  for- 
eign schools,  (chiefly  from  the  Eoyal  Veterinary  College,  London,  or 
the  Veterinary  College  of  Edinburgh,)  is  very  limited,  when  con- 
trasted with  the  forcible  occasions  and  wide  field  for  their  services,  at 
once  to  be  found  in  the  larger  cities  and  in  the  farming  districts  every- 
where. Grave  considerations,  alike  creative  of  surprise  on  the  one 
hand  and  of  regret  on  the  other,  are  thereby  involved,  when  due  reflec- 
tion comes  to  be  directed  to  this  state  of  things  :  of  surprise,  because 
this  country  has  been  so  quick  and  ardent  as  relates  to  the  introduction 
or  improvement  of  whatsoever  otherwise  has  presented  any  aspect  of 
benefit  or  utility ;  and,  assuredly,  veterinary  science  prefers  very  high 
claims,  whether  in  relation  to  agriculture,  stock  raising,  or  any  other 
public  or  social  interest,  and  may  be  said  to  be  only  second  to  those 
claims  which  appertain  to  the  science  of  human  medicine  and  surgery: 
of  regret,  because  the  horse,  first,  and  after  him  all  other  domestic 
animals,  requires,  and  should  have,  intelligent  and  scientific  care  and 
treatment  in  health  and  sickness,  and  which  can  never  prove  the  case 
where  the  means  of  education  and  right  information  are  wanting.  The 
aforesaid  neglect  seems  the  more  singular  when  the  vivid  example  pre- 
sented by  other  countries  is  considered.  The  veterinary  schools  of 
Europe  are  numerous  and  highly  valued ;  have  been  sustained  by  mon- 
archs,  governments,  associations,  and  individuals;  and  are  acknowl- 
edged on  all  hands  to  have  been  the  sources  of  no  ordinary  general 
benefit;  while  the  attainments  and  skill  of  the  members  of  these 
schools  have  conferred  high  professional  respect,  alike  in  private  life, 
public  or  governmental  employ,  and  in  the  capacity  of  commissioned 
veterinary-medical  officers  of  the  cavalry  and  artillerj'"  services. 

In  the  early  times  of  Europe  and  Asia,  veterinary  art  was  assidu- 
ously cultivated.  In  ancient  G-reece,  especially,  it  obtained  a  leading 
place,  along  with  the  general  pursuit  of  medical  and  surgical  knowl- 
edge. The  physicians  of  those  days  seem  to  have  given  coequal  atten- 
tion to  anatomical  and  physiological  research  and  pathological  investi- 
gation, human  and  veterinary,  and  have  left  behind  numerous  treatises 
upon  the  latter  art.  By  the  Komans,  veterinary  art  was  also  held  in 
much  esteem,  and  their  medical  and  agricultural  writers  have  treated 
of  it  with  acumen.  Among  the  Moors,  particularly  during  their  domi- 
nation in  Spain,  solicitous  attention  was,  in  like  manner,  bestowed  on 
the  subject.  But  it  were  not  fitting,  here,  to  seek  to  enlarge  on  these 
remoter  chronicles  of  this  estimable  science,  except  to  note  the  forcible 


180  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT, 

impressions  wliich  prevailed  in  favor  of  its  cultivation  in  those  early 
times,  wlien  flocks  and  herds  held  a  prominent  place,  and  the  welfare 
of  all  the  domestic  animals  was  well  nigh  the  most  important  of  con- 
siderations on  the  part  of  communities.  The  downfall  of  Eome_,  and 
the  oblivion  of  learning  during  the  dark  ages,  overvN^helmed  veterinary, 
as  it  did  all  other  science.  During  the  later  and  still  rude  middle 
ages,  the  iron  defense,  termed  the  shoe,  was  adopted  for  horses'  feet, 
(or,  at  least,  came  to  he  somewhat  more  used,)  and  the  horse-shoeing 
of  the  farrier  began  to  he  recognized  as  an  operative  art.  It  was  at 
this  period  that  this  craft  appears  to  have  appropriated  veterinary  sur- 
gery, (in  like  manner  as  the  barber  craft  had  become  the  surgeons  and 
j)hlebotomists  of  those  days,)  and,  unfortunately,  it  continues  to  be 
only  too  generally  accepted,  that  the  operator  who  makes  and  nails  on 
a  horse's  shoes,  has  thereby  acquired  a  knowledge  of  his  diseases  and 
their  treatment,  which,  otherwise,  can  only  be  obtained  by  means  of 
education  and  the  well-trained  pursuits  and  investigations  of  science. 

In  the  sixteenth  century,  some  effective  degree  of  revival  of  this 
always  important  though  so  decayed  art  began  to  take  place.  In 
France,  the  spark  thus  rekindled  v/as  worthily  fostered  by  Francis  I, 
in  a  very  marked  manner.  This  sovereign  caused  translations  of  Ye- 
getius  and  other  ancient  writers  to  be  made  and  disseminated,  both  in 
the  Latin  and  modern  languages.  From  this  period,  in  Europe,  the 
step-by-step  advancement  of  veterinary  science  is  to  be  discerned.  In 
1761,  the  French  king  and  government  founded  a  veterinary  college  at 
Lyons,  which  still  is  flourishing,  and  in  1776  the  present  noble  insti- 
tution of  Alfort,  near  Paris,  was  opened  to  the  public.  Subsequently 
other  schools,  at  Strasbourg,  Montpelier,  Toulouse,  &c.,  were  founded; 
and  these  examples  were  followed  by  most  of  the  other  European 
states,  until  now  none  are  to  be  found  vfithout  one  or  more  veterinary 
institutions,  enjoying  state  and  public  approbation  and  support. 

Great  Britain,  somewhat  singular  to  be  observed,  was  slow  to  follow 
in  the  footsteps  of  improvement,  in  this  direction,  although  a  country 
which,  it  would  seem,  should  have  early  recognized  the  importance  ot 
aught  relating  to  the  care,  treatment,  or  improvement  of  stock  gene- 
rally, and  of  horses  more  especially.  The  art  of  equitation,  which 
had  earlier  taken  a  strong  hold  in  England,  more  particularly  from 
the  time  of  Henry  VIII,  seems  to  have  (from  among  its  professors,  and 
similarly  on  the  part  of  one  or  two  human  anatomists  and  surgeons, 
still  later,)  contributed  better  information  and  practices,  and  also  some 
publications  on  veterinarianism.  It  was  not,  however,  until  toward 
the  close  of  the  last  century  that  any  general  movement  ensued,  in 
England,  as  to  laying  the  educational  foundations  of  this  art.  Seve- 
ral efforts  to  establish  a  school  had  successively  proved  abortive ;  until, 
in  1792,  the  present  Koyal  Veterinary  College  was  founded.  This  in- 
stitution was  projected  by  M.  St.  Bel,  who  had  been  educated  at  the 
school  of  Lyons,  and  who  became  its  first  professor.  He  died  in  1793, 
having  hardly  had  time  to  see  the  tree  he  had  so  striven  to  ingraft  give 
promise  of  fructification.  St.  Bel,  by  whom  some  treatises  of  merit 
were  left,  was  succeeded  by  the  late  Professor  Coleman,  with  Mr.  More- 
head  as  colleague ;  the  latter,  however,  soon  resigning  in  order  to  go 
to  India,  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company,  where,  not  long 


VETERINARY   SCIENCE    AND    ART.  181 

after,  lie  died.  By  degrees  the  college  began  to  flourisli.  It  was 
warmly  promoted  by  George  III,  who  made  appointments  of  its  grad- 
uates to  the  various  regiments  of  cavalry  and  corps  of  artillery,  as 
commissioned  veterinary-medical  officers;  and  it  was  also  aided  by 
annual  government  grants.  The  press  and  public  evinced  the  most 
favorable  approbation  of  its  objects ;  and  the  medical  teachers,  and  the 
profession  in  general,  cordially  acknowledged  this  affiliation  claim. 
The  great  John  Hunter  was  a  veterinary  examiner,  and  an  early  and 
zealous  friend ;  and  Sir  Astley  Cooper,  who  was  brother-in-law  of  the 
veterinary  professor,  exerted  earnest  and  active  service  in  its  behalf. 
The  school  gradually  became  confirmed  in  repute,  and  increased  year 
by  year  in  the  attendance  of  pupils,  until,  in  1841,  after  the  death  of 
Professor  Coleman,  the  profession  was  chartered  by  an  act  of  Parliament 
as  the  Koyal  College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons.  This  corporate  body,  the 
Koyal  Veterinary  College,  the  Veterinary  College  of  Edinburgh,  the 
veterinary  professorships  of  the  London  University,  Dublin,  and  the 
Andersonian  University,  of  Glasgow,  combine  to  afford  the  means  and 
to  be  the  guarantee  of  that  veterinary  knowledge  which  is  claimed  in 
behalf  of  the  domestic  animals.  What  benefit  Great  Britain  has  de- 
rived from  these  veterinary  schools,  her  farmers,  stock  raisers,  horse 
owners,  and  the  public  generally,  can  avouch.  Of  her  horses,  it  can 
be  said  that,  despite  a  climate  not  favorable  to  raising  the  finest  races, 
without  certain  artificial  appliances,  they  are  unsurpassed,  and  sought 
for  throughout  the  world;  while  her  cattle  and  sheep  stock  have  been 
the  sources  of  improvement  everywhere. 

And  now,  let  it  be  asked,  how  is  all  this  in  the  United  States?  The 
answer  must  be  both  perplexing  and  mortifying.  Four  or  five  years 
back,  there  was  not  even  the  apparent  germ  of  a  veterinary  school. 
Some  three  years  since,  one  was  opened  in  Boston,  but  which  has  lately 
been  given  up.  In  Philadelphia,  a  veterinary  association  and  college 
are  making  efforts  to  secure  a  creditable  footing ;  and  it  is  to  be  much 
wished  and  hoped  that  they  may  succeed.  New  York  has  incorporated 
a  college. of  veterinary  surgeons,  the  j^rospects  and  progress  of  which 
have,  as  yet,  all  to  be  put  on  trial.  In  these  young  and  inadequately 
aided  or  sustained  efforts  is  mainly  contained  the  history  of  the  means 
for  educational  veterinary  science  in  this  country. 

The  school  accommodations  of  the  College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons, 
of  New  York,  are  contained  within  the  Veterinary  College  Institute, 
75  and  77  West  23d  street.  A  brief  description  may  be  not  amiss 
here.  They  consist  of  a  lecture  hall,  museum  room,  faculty  room,  and 
in  a  separate  building,  students'  dissecting  room,  &c.  The  entrance 
to  these  is  on  the  east  side  ;  on  the  west  side  is  the  entrance  for  horses, 
leading  to  a  noble  stable  of  seventeen  stalls,  having  ample  space  and 
light,  and  thoroughly  drained  and  ventilated.  On  the  same  floor  is 
a  handsome  and  commodious  office,  &c.  In  a  separate  building,  in  the 
rear,  is  an  eight-box-stall  stable,  for  sick  horses,  forage  loft,  &c. 
The  floor  below,  which  is  equally  well-lighted,  drained,  and  ventilated, 
contains  a  seventeen-stall  stable,  eight  box-stalls  for  horses  lame  or 
requiring  treatment  of  the  leg-joints  or  feet;  the  shoeing  forge,  which 
is  light,  roomy,  and  well-arranged ;  a  store-room  for  iron,  shoes,  &c. 
Water  is  introduced  to  every  stall ;  hot  water  is  supplied  in  each  stable ; 


182  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

a  steam  drying  apparatus  is  adapted  for  drying  tlie  straw  used  for  tlie 
horses'  beds ;  and  two  ventilator  furnaces  lieat  the  whole  building 
when  required.  Every  arrangement  has  been  kept  in  view  which  is 
found  in  the  best-planned  European  stables,  and  an  example  is  pre- 
sented of  the  manner  of  stalling  and  keeping  horses,  wherever  comfort, 
health,  and  high  condition  are  studied.  There  is  no  country  to  which 
improved  veterinary  knowledge,  or  the  treatment  which  the  domestic 
animals  claim,  is  of  greater  importance  than  to  this.  The  horse,  who 
stands  in  the  front  rank  as  regards  utility  and  value,  demands  primary 
and  corresponding  consideration.  Any  effort  to  introduce  improve- 
ments on  the  housing,  management,  and  stable  economics  of  this 
noblest  subserver  of  the  occupations  and  enjoyments  of  man,  is  worthy 
of  j)ublic  appreciation  and  support ;  and  this  claim  can  be  well  and 
'  forcibly  advanced  for  the  Veterinary  College  Institute  of  New  York. 
As  regards  veterinary  science,  in  a  more  generalized  sense,  it  may  be 
further  added  that  its  cultivation  in  this  country  would  be  followed 
by  advantages  of  no  limited  amount.  Among  others,  it  would  open 
for  many  young  men  a  new  professional  path,  at  once  attractive  and 
emolumental  in  pursuit.  To  medical  students  it  not  only  tenders 
opportunities  for  improving  their  knowledge,  through  comparative 
inquiry  relating  to  animal  structure  and  functions,  but,  also,  for  be- 
coming acquainted  with  the  complaints  to  which  domestic  animals  are 
subject,  and  the  treatment  appropriate,  whereby  the  sphere  of  useful- 
ness and  professional  income  may  be  extended.  Such  opportunities 
are  presented  in  the  classes  of  the  Veterinary  College.  Another  very 
useful  and  profitable  source  of  occupation  for  young  men  whose  educa- 
tional opportunities  or  means  have  been  more  narrowed,  is  to  be  found 
in  the  veterinary  scientific  art  of  shoeing.  Some  competent  knowledge 
of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  horse's  foot,  and  the  requisite 
expertness  or  skill  for  preparing  the  hoof,  fitting  and  fixing  the  shoe, 
&c. ,  can  be  acquired  by  any  intelligent  young  man  in  two  or  three 
months,  in  the  lecture  room  and  the  shoeing  forge  of  a  veterinary 
institution;  whereupon,  by  purchasing  finished  shoes,  a  business — 
which,  divested  of  the  more  rude  labor  of  the  forge,  may  be  then  very 
properly  termed  an  art — of  a  very  remunerative  nature  can  readily  be 
established  in  any  town  or  farming  district,  by  means  of  only  a  small 
capital.  Toward  this  object,  courses  of  lectures  on  the  horse's  foot 
and  shoeing,  and  likewise  forge  instruction,  are  proposed  to  be  afforded 
at  the  Veterinary  College  Institute.  So  essentially  important  is  the 
art  of  better  shoeing,  that,  in  the  tariff"  of  charges  annexed  to  the  cir- 
cular of  the  institution,  a  price  per  set  for  finished  shoes  and  nails  is 
stated,  and  the  same  can  be  sent  to  horse-owners,  with  shoeing  instruc- 
tions, and  their  smiths  can  then  put  on  said  shoes^  charging  the  same 
half-price  as  for  removes  of  shoes  ;  better  still,  if  in  every  stable  and 
on  every  farm  there  were  one  or  more  hands  who  could  properly  pare 
and  rasp  the  hoofs  and  fix  the  shoes,  which  would  prove  a  most  mate- 
rial economy  of  time,  money,  and  horses'  feet. 

The  attitude  of  the  veterinary  art  in  Europe  has  been  adverted  to, 
and  also  its  great  development  in  Britain,  especially  during  the  present 
century.     The  following  extract  from  the  London  '^Times''  will  more 


VETEEINARY   SCIENCE   AND^  ART.  183 

directly  serve  to  show,  in  an  incidental  manner,  its  elevation  in  the 
latter  country : 

"EoYAL  College  of  Yeterinart  Surgeons. — On  Thursday  evening  a 
conversazione  was  given  by  William  Field,  Esq.,  the  President  of  the 
Eoyal  College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons,  at  the  institute  of  the  profession. 
The  spacious  suite  of  rooms  were  thrown  open  for  the  reception  of 
visitors.  On  the  walls  were  hung  several  valuable  paintings,  »by  Sir 
Edwin  Landseer,  J.  Ward,  E.  A.,  and  others.  The  tables  in  the 
board  room  were  covered  with  microscopes,  stereoscopes,  and  photo- 
graphic drawings.  In  the  council  room,  an  extensive  series  of  calculi 
of  large  size  and  varied  composition,  together  with  numerous  morbid 
specimens,  showing  the  results  of  disease  in  our  domesticated  animals, 
including  several  of  rare  occurrence,  such  as  ossification  of  the  heart, 
lungs,  liver,  spleen,  brain,  were  supplied  from  the  Eoyal  Veterinary 
College,  and  the  private  collection  of  the  president.  These,  together 
with  a  minutely  digested  preparation  of  the  nerves  of  the  heart  of  a 
horse,  by  Dr.  Lee,  attracted  general  attention.  A  select  and  rare 
collection  of  the  chemicals  and  articles  of  the  veterinary  materia  medica, 
as  also  specimens  of  the  remedies  used  by  the  native  practitioners  of 
India,  were  placed  in  the  library.  Several  articles  of  Vertu,  with  busts 
of  Dr.  Babbington  and  Professor  Farraday,  and  carvings  in  ivory, 
from  busts,  by  Chantry,  ornamented  the  rooms.  The  bust  of  the  late 
Professor  Coleman,  and  cases  of  electrotyped  medals,  added  to  the 
general  effect,  and  the  decorations  were  completed  by  several  beautiful 
exotic  and  other  jDlants,  from  the  Eoyal  Botanic  Gardens.  The  refresh- 
ments were  supplied  on  the  most  liberal  scale  by  the  Messrs.  Gunter. 
About  one  hundred  and  fifty  noblemen  and  gentlemen  were  present, 
including  names  from  every  department  of  science  and  art.  The 
professors  of  the  Eoyal  Veterinary  College,  and  the  leading  members 
of  the  profession,  very  ably  seconded  their  worthy  president  in  the 
duties  of  the  evening." 

Veterinary  medical  departments  are  connected  with  the  English 
army,  and  armies  of  India,  and  this  has  suggested  the  query,  whether 
a  similar  department  for  the  United  States  army  would  not  be  desirable, 
or  likely  to  be  productive  of  utility  and  benefit?  A  staff  medical  officer 
called  recently  at  the  Veterinary  College  Institute,  and  observed  that 
the  subject  had  been  under  discussion  or  consideration,  at  one  time,  in 
an  official  quarter.  I  will  avail  of  the  present  opportunity,  and  ven- 
ture to  submit  the  views  I  would  be  disposed  to  entertain  on  this 
subject,  so  far  as  the  limited  means  I  have  access  to  can  enable  me  to 
form  an  opinion.  It  appears  to  me  that  the  comparatively  limited 
extent  of  the  cavalry  and  artillery  force  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
manner  in  which  the  respective  corps  are  detailed  for  service  along  our 
extensive  frontier,  preclude  any  adequate  occasion  or  opening  for  a 
regularly  constituted  army  veterinary  department,  with  its  veterinary 
surgeons  attached  to  regiments  and  corps.  Still,  it  must  not  thereby 
be  inferred  that  the  advantages  derivable  from  veterinary  science  should 
be  denied  the  army.  It  is  a  question  only  of  adaptation,  cost,  and 
effectiveness.  That  system  which  prevailed  in  the  cavalry  and  artillery 
arms  of  the  service  in  India  for  upwards  of  a  century,  would  seem  to 
be  well  fitted  for  adoption  in  an  army  so  circumstanced  as  that  of  the 


184  4G^RICULTURAL    REPORT. 

United  States.  In  tlie  India  service  tliere  were  veterinary  schools  for 
tlie  sons  of  deceased  soldiers  and  others,  who  were  trained  in  a 
knowledge  of  the  horse's  foot,  and  the  art  of  shoeing.  As  vacancies 
occurred,  these  young  men  were  detailed  to  the  different  regiments  as 
farriers.  At  regimental  headquarters  there  was  a  farrier  major,  and 
to  each  troop  a  farrier  and  assistant  farrier.  The  captains  of  troops, 
respectively,  acted  as  the  veterinary  surgeons,  and  had  a  monthly 
allowance  for  shoes,  medicines,  and  necessaries.  It  has  often  surprised 
me  to  note  the  excellent  practical  skill  evinced  by  many  of  these 
officers,  derived  from  casual  opportunities  of  attendance  on  veterinary 
lectures,  reading,  and  observation.  The  said  system  worked  very  well, 
and  would  have  worked  better  still  if  troop-officers  had  been  induced 
to  follow  a  regular  course  of  instruction,  to  a  certain  extent.  In  this 
country,  were  a  veterinary  professorship  instituted  at  West  Point,  it 
might  prove  the  source  of  much  practical  utility,  inasmuch  as  the  cadets, 
generally,  could  attend  a  series  of  lectures  of  a  character  to  interest 
them,  and  promote  their  general  range  of  information,  while  the  cadets 
of  cavalry  and  artillery  could  more  especially  acquire  the  elements, 
and  lay  the  foundations  of  a  useful  knowledge,  which  could  afterward 
be  valuably  extended  to  their  commands.  Above  all,  some  acquaint- 
ance with  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  foot  of  the  horse  and 
mule,  and  the  art  of  properly  shoeing  them,  would  have  results  of  high 
value,  and  in  like  manner  some  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  treatment 
of  the  more  obvious  accidents  or  maladies.  Probably  officers  already  in 
actual  service  might  have  opportunities  for  attendance  on  a  course  of 
these  lectures ;  farriers,  moreover,  could  also  be  instructed  in  improved 
principles  of  shoeing ;  and,  furthermore,  an  army  veterinary  code  and 
shoeing  manual  could  be  serviceably  compiled.  If  a  permanent  pro- 
fessorship of  this  nature  should  seem  not  quite  eligible  at  West  Point, 
then  a  modified  appointment  for  a  certain  course  of  lectures  each  year 
might  be  effected.  In  the  same  connection,  it  may  appropriately  be 
observed  that  army  horse-shoes  should  be  supplied,  sized,  (say  eight 
sizes,)  fullered,  nail-holed  back  and  front,  finished,  filed  up,  and  all 
ready  for  putting  on  cold,  except  it  might  be  a  blow  from  the  hammer 
to  close  up  any  too  great  width  of  shoe.  Machine-made  shoes,  finished 
in  rough,  are  as  heavy  to  carry  about  as  in  bar,  and  more  inconvenient ; 
require  as  much  forging  and  finishing;  are  never  as  well  fitted;  and 
are  hurtful  and  imperfect.  In  this  question,  a  very  important  consid- 
eration of  service,  effectiveness,  and  economy,  lies. 


VETERINARY   MEDICINE.  185 

VETEEIMM  MEDICINE. 

{Ai's  Vet&i'inaria  post  medidnam  secunda  est.) 


BY  DR.  B.  F.  CRAIG,  OF  WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 


The  benefits  whicli  the  human  race  has  received  from  the  cultivation 
of  medical  science  and  from  the  progress  of  the  medical  art,  are  so 
habitually  and  universally  enjoyed  that  their  existence  is  hardly  no- 
ticed and  their  real  extent  seldom  justly  appreciated. 

They  are  enjoyed  too  much  as  a  matter  of  course  to  he  duly  valued, 
and  too  equally  hy  all  classes  of  the  community  to  have  their  impor- 
tance illustrated  hy  frequent  contrasts  of  the  relative  effects  of  their 
possession  or  their  absence;  and  besides  this,  men  are  so  apt  to  con- 
sider health  as  their  natural  and  ordinary  condition,  and  to  look  on 
every  departure  from  it  as  an  accident  that  could  hardly  have  been 
expected,  and  that  should,  in  the  nature  of  things,  be  susceptible  of 
prompt  and  easy  correction,  that  they  can  scarcely  regard  with  much 
favor  a  science  which  assumes  the  unpleasant  truth,  that  human  flesh  is 
heir  to  many  ills,  difficult  to  escape  by  the  utmost  care,  and  only  to 
be  overcome  by  well-devised  efforts. 

Instead  of  the  relief  that  medicine  can  give  to  suffering  being  re- 
garded as  a  cause  of  thankfulness,  and  as  a  triumph  for  humanity,  the 
fact  that  such  relief  is  not  always  complete  and  speedy  is  felt  as  a 
grievance,  and  complained  of  as  an  instance  of  the  entire  impotency 
of  the  art;  and  in  proportion  as  disease  is  disarmed  of  its  dangers,  and 
the  pangs  of  suffering  allayed ,  as  men  are  habitually  called  upon  to 
endure  less,  does  the  impatience  of  what  has  still  to  be  suffered  and 
encountered  increase. 

A  vent  is  often  sought  for  this  impatience  in  language  directed 
against  medical  science  and  its  results — language  which  men,  by  fre- 
quently repeating,  come  at  last  partly  to  believe;  and  the  perversion  of 
correct  views  thus  brought  about  is  so  liable  to  interfere  with  the  exercise 
of  judgment,  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  set  forth  and  establish  the 
real  facts  of  the  case  before  proceeding  to  discuss  any  question  upon 
which  they  have  a  bearing. 

The  results  of  medical  treatment  in  individual  instances  can  fairly 
be  appreciated  only  by  professional  men,  and  they  cannot  draw  con- 
clusions from  any  single  case,  but  from  a  comparison  of  many  similar 
ones. 

It  is  not  like  the  application  of  skill  and  force  to  inert  objects,  where 
the  change  brought  about  is  a  distinctly  visible  one,  and  the  effects  of 
our  exertions  are  easily  distinguishable  from  those  of  all  other  causes. 

The  real  condition  of  the  sick,  in  the  first  place,  is  only  to  be  dis- 
cerned by  the  eye  of  reason  and  knowledge,  and  not  by  the  uninstructed 
spectator;  and  when  that  condition  is  known,  the  change  in  it  that 
follows  the  application  of  any  remedial  measures  proves  nothing,  since 
a  change  of  some  sort  is  constantly  going  on  by  the  operation  of  Nature, 


186  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

wliicli  may  take  one  or  anotlier  direction,  Jn  accordance  with  circum- 
stances almost  impossible  to  appreciate,  and  to  wliicli  we  may  plausibly 
ascribe  almost  any  event  that  may  occur. 

If,  in  a  number  of  cases^  apparently  similar,  certain  changes  gene- 
rally follow  certain  measures,  and  but  seldom  occur  in  the  absence  of 
those  measures,  there  is  better  ground  for  reasoning,  and  conclusions 
may  be  drawn  which  are  reliable  in  x^roportion  to  the  number  and  the 
degree  of  coincidence  of  the  observations  upon  which  they  are  based. 

Medical  science  rests  upon  observations  too  numerous  and  concur- 
rent to  be  much  influenced  by  chance,  and  derived  from  sources  too 
independent  and  various,  as  to  persons,  place,  time,  and  country,  to  be 
governed  by  any  common  prejudice  or  perverted  by  any  common  inter- 
est; but  while  no  well-informed  person,  free  from  unhealthy  peculiari- 
ties of  mind,  can  doubt  that  laws  have  been  ascertained  which  give  a 
right  direction  to  the  healing  art,  there  is  still  an  apparent  difficulty 
in  estimating  the  amount  of  good  that  is  done,  or  that  probably  will 
be  done,  by  that  art. 

To  form  a  just  opinion  on  this  point,  the  most  proper  course  would 
seem  to  be  to  inquire  into  the  general  amelioration  of  mankind  in  all 
that  relates  to  health  and  disease,  which  has  accompanied  the  great 
development  undergone  by  medical  science  during  the  last  three  cen- 
turies. 

It  were  too  narrow  a  view  to  limit  the  field  of  medical  science  to  the 
sick-room,  or  to  the  every-day  duties  of  the  physician. 

The  preservation  of  health,  the  proper  regulation  of  diet,  of  clothing, 
and  of  lodging ;  those  measures  of  hygiene  which  are  applied  to  cities,  to 
ships,  to  armies,  to  hospitals,  and  to  prisons  ;  the  means  of  protection 
against  plague  and  pestilence,  are  matters  upon  which  knowledge  has 
been  acquired  only  by  a  long  course  of  observation  and  reflection. 

However  simple  some  of  the  establislied  rules  may  now  seem,  and 
however  universally  they  may  now  be  admitted,  there  was  a  time,  not 
very  remote,  when  they  were  unknown  or  unappreciated  ;  and  if  we 
look  at  t^ieir  history,  we  shall  find  that  they  have  been  established  in 
the  face  of  prejudice,  false  opinion,  and  false  habit,  by  laborious  exer- 
tions on  the  part  of  those  who  have  made  the  human  body  their 
study. 

If  the  medical  sciences  had  been  neglected  in  the  progress  of  civili- 
zation, we  have  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  increase  of  material 
comforts  and  resources  would  have  more  than  counterbalanced,  if  it 
counterbalanced  at  all  the  evil  effects  on  man's  physical  nature  which 
arise  from  the  luxuries,  the  temptations,  the  artificial  modes  of  life,  and 
the  increased  wear  of  mind  attendant  upon  the  busy  struggle  of 
modern  times.  Whatever  superiority,  then,  in  length  of  days,  and  in 
freedom  from  disease  and  infirmity,  is  possessed  by  the  present,  as 
compared  with  former  times,  may  fairly  be  claimed  as  directly  due  to 
that  science  which  makes  the  attainment  of  such  superiority  its  object; 
and  the  amount  of  this  amelioration  may  best  be  determined  by  in- 
quiring into  its  extent  on  those  points,  concerning  which  we  have  the 
most  ample  and  reliable  information. 

If  we  take,  as  a  subject  of  consideration,  the  average  length  of  hu- 
man life  at  different  periods  since  the  dawn  of  modern  medicine,  we 


VETERINARY   MEDICINE.  187 

will  find  tliat  it  has  been  undergoing  a  progression,  remarkable  both 
for  its  amount  and  its  regularity  ;  and  of  this  fact  we  have  proofs,  de- 
rived from  various  European  countries,  where,  for  a  greater  or  less 
time,  records  have  been  made  and  preserved  which  give  information 
on  this,  and  on  other  subjects  connected  with  social  economy.  Tlie  con- 
clusions to  be  drawn  from  these  records,  wherever  kept,  agree  so  well  as 
to  show  that  some  general  cause  must  have  operated  in  all  parts  of  the 
civilized  world,  independently  of  those  historical  changes  which  have 
affected  particular  communities.  The  most  complete  records  of  the 
kind  referred  to  are  to  be  found  in  the  statistics  of  the  town  of  Greneva, 
in  Switzerland,  where  a  detailed  account  of  the  population,  of  the 
deaths,  the  births,  and  the  marriages,  has  been  kept  since  the  year 
1549,  forming  a  valuable  body  of  information,  an  abstract  of  which, 
extending  from  1549  to  1833,  a  period  of  nearly  three  centuries,  has 
been  published,  both  in  French  and  English  journals.  It  appears, 
from  these  statistics,  that  the  proportion  of  the  number  of  deaths  to 
the  number  of  the  whole  population,  which,  in  1600,  was  one  to  twen- 
ty-five, in  the  next  half  century,  was  one  to  twenty-seven  ;  in  the 
next,  one  to  twenty-eight ;  in  the  next,  one  to  thirty ;  and  in  the  next, 
one  to  thirty-four ;  and_,  during  the  half  century  lately  passed  over,  the 
proportion  is  known  to  have  decreased  still  more  rapidly.  We  find 
that  the  difference  cannot,  in  this  case,  be  explained  by  a  decrease  in 
the  number  of  births,  and  consequently  of  the  number  of  persons  of 
the  age  most  liable  to  mortality. 

The  average  duration  of  life — that  is,  the  average  age  of  all  persons 
at  the  period  of  their  death — has  increased  from  twenty-two  years  and 
three  months  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  to  forty  years  and 
eight  months  during  the  period  between  the  years  1814  and  1833  ; 
and  not  only  has  this  increase  of  longevity  been  uninterrupted,  but 
the  rate  of  the  increase  during  the  present  century  is  greater  than 
that  for  any  former  time. 

The  probable  length  of  life,  which  is  determined  by  taking  the  age 
to  which  one  half  of  those  born  survive,  shows  a  still  more  striking 
difference,  for  from  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  to  the  middle  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  it  increased  more  than  threefold,  and  from  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century  to  the  present  time,  more  than  fivefold. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  imagine  any  equivalent  that  men  would  be 
willing  to  exchange  for  this  increase  of  life,  or  to  appreciate  the 
amount  of  sorrow  inflicted,  if  we  were  to  retrograde  to  the  rate  of  mor- 
tality of  the  sixteenth  century ;  but,  for  our  present  purposes,  we  may 
view  the  subject  under  a  different  light,  and  consider  only  the  effect  of 
this  alteration  on  the  material  prosperity  of  the  community_,  and  its 
value  in  that  point  of  view  in  which  the  conclusions  drawn  would 
apply  with  equal  force  to  the  case  of  our  domestic  animals. 

The  value  of  man  to  society  is  very  much  in  proportion  to  the  length 
of  his  life.  If  he  dies  early,  he  fails  to  make  return  for  the  care  and 
expenses  bestowed  upon  his  infancy  and  childhood  ;  if  he  lives  long, 
and  exercises  his  matured  strength  and  practical  skill  in  industry 
profitable  to  the  community,  he  adds  by  so  much  to  the  general 
wealth. 

As  the  period  at  which  man  is  fitted  for  labor  does  not  begin  much 


.7th. 

18th. 

19th. 

45 

56 

66 

3T 

49 

59 

30 

43 

52 

22 

35 

44 

15 

26 

32 

188  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

before  tlie  twentieth  year,  it  can  easily  be  seen  how  important  an  ele- 
ment in  the  progress  of  the  race  is  a  change  from  twenty-two  to  forty 
jesiYS  as  the  average  length  of  life ;  and  what  an  increase  of  productive 
industry  is  implied  in  that  simple  fact!  But,  to  illustrate  the  same 
point  still  further,  we  may  take  up  the  question  of  longevity  in  an- 
other manner. 

If  we  take  from  the  Geneva  tables  the  percentage  of  the  whole  num- 
ber born,  who  survive  to  different  periods  of  adult  or  useful  life,  we  will 
find  it  to  have  varied  in  different  centuries,  nearly  as  follows  :    . 

In  the  16th    In  the      In  the       In  the 
century. 

Of  100  persons^,  there  lived  to  the  age  of  20 39 

Of  100  persons,  there  lived  to  the  age  of  30.... 30 
Of  100  persons,  there  lived  to  the  age  of  40....  20 
Of  100  persons,  there  lived  to  the  age  of  50. , .  .14 
Of  100  persons,  there  lived  to  the  age  of  60. . . .  9 

By  this  table  we  see  that  where,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  nine  per- 
sons lived  to  their  sixtieth  year,  thirty-two  persons  do  so  now  ;  and  if 
we  take  the  average  number  of  survivors  for  all  periods  of  adult  life, 
it  will  be  found  to  be  at  the  present  time  considerably  more  than 
double  what  it  was  three  hundred  years  ago. 

We  can  also  conclude  from  this  table  that  the  total  number  of  years 
over  fifteen  which  men  live  through  on  an  average,  has  rather  more 
than  doubled  in  three  centuries,  and  that,  therefore,  from  this  cause 
alone,  the  amount  of  work  done  by  each  person  before  he  dies  is  more 
than  twice  what  it  formerly  was. 

The  above  statistics  are  all  taken  from  the  records  of  the  same  place, 
and  the  same  people,  and  the  conclusions  drawn  from  their  comparison 
may  therefore  be  regarded  as  reliable  ;  the  more  so,  since  they  are  in 
perfect  accordance  with  the  results  of  the  vital  statistics  of  other  coun- 
tries, where  such  statistics  have  been  kept  for  a  sufficient  length  of 
time. 

Thus,  in  England,  the  expectation  of  life,  that  is,  the  probable  fu- 
ture length  of  life^  of  persons  twenty  years  old,  is  stated  to  be  at  the 
present  time  about  forty-four  years,  while  a  century  ago  it  was  rather 
less  than  thirty-four  years  ;  so  that  there  has  been  an  increase  at  the 
rate  of  ten  years  for  a  century;  and  it  seems  probable  that,  for  the  last 
three  centuries,  there  has  been  an  increase  averaging  about  eight  years 
for  each  century,  in  this  expectation  or  probability;  an  increase  which 
would  lead  us  to  about  the  same  results,  as  regards  the  average  length 
of  useful  life,  as  those  deduced  from  the  Genevese  tables,  namely,  that 
it  has  more  than  doubled  during  modern  times. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  advance  made  as  to  the  length  of  life,  is  of 
course  more  capable  of  statistical  demonstration  than  that  of  the  other 
benefits  resulting  from  the  application  of  science  to  the  preservation 
and  restoration  of  health ;  but  if  we  admit  reasonable  conclusions, 
from  circumstantial  evidence,  we  will  find  that,  in  other  respects,  the 
improvement  has  been  at  least  proportionate. 

The  shortening  of  the  duration  of  sickness,  and  consequently  of  the 


VETERINARY   MEDICINE.  189 

amount  of  time  lost  by  each  person  from  that  cause,  seems  to  be  fully 
as  great,  in  proportion,  as  the  lengthening  of  life  ;  more  so,  certainly, 
in  some  diseases. 

In  surgery,  the  improvement  in  the  treatment  of  wounds,  fractures, 
and  dislocations,  by  which  permanent  disabilities  are  often  prevented ; 
the  progress  of  conservative  surgery,  or  that  branch  of  the  art  by 
which  limbs  are  preserved,  which,  without  the  exercise  of  peculiar 
skill,  would  have  to  be  sacrificed ;  and  other  advances  made  by  the 
profession,  have  done  much  toward  the  diminution  of  crippled  and 
deformed  persons  in  the  community,  as  well  as  toward  the  preservation 
of  life. 

Without  the  instrumentality  of  medicinal  science,  many  great  enter- 
prises would  totally  fail;,  or  only  succeed  with  extreme  difficulty.  Long 
sea  voyages,  for  instance,  which  in  former  times  often  involved  the  loss 
of  crews  by  disease,  or  the  interruption  of  the  voyage  from  the  preva- 
lence of  scurvy,  are  now  performed  without  a  greater  mortality  than 
would  occur  among  the  same  men  on  shore ;  and  thus  our  knowledge 
of  the  world  has  been  extended,  commerce  enlarged,  and  the  ocean 
made  a  safe  highway  for  civilized  man,  in  a  way  that  would,  two  hun- 
dred years  ago,  have  been  impossible,  simply  from  the  ravages  of 
disease  on  shipboard.  Many  similar  examples  might  be  cited,  which 
are,  however,  not  needed  for  the  establishment  of  the  j)oint  here 
aimed  at. 

The  consideration  of  the  benefits  conferred  upon  the  community  at 
large,  and  of  the  gain,  in  an  economical  point  of  view,  to  be  derived 
from  the  cultivation  of  medical  science,  is  not,  it  is  true,  necessary  to 
turn  man's  attention  to  it.  His  greatest  hopes  and  fears,  his  strongest 
feelings,  are  too  much  called  forth  by  the  sickness  and  danger  of  him- 
self and  of  those  around  him,  to  allow  him  to  neglect  any  available 
means  of  relief ;  and  he  will  seek  medical  aid,  and  support  medical 
men,  even  without  giving  a  thought  to  the  general  utility  and  the 
economical  value  of  their  occupation. 

In  the  care,  however,  of  those  animals  which  have  been  given  into 
his  dominion,  and  from  whose  labors  he  derives  so  large  a  part  of  his 
prosperity,  it  is  to  be  feared  that  a  sympathy  for  their  sufferings  and 
a  humane  regard  for  their  welfare  would  be  insufficient  motives  to 
induce  him  to  attend  properly  to  the  treatment  of  their  diseases,  unless 
it  could  be  shown  that,  by  doing  so,  he  increases  his  own  wealth  to  an 
extent  that  fully  compensates  him  for  the  expense  and  trouble  thus 
bestowed. 

There  are,  perhaps,  some  who  fancy  that  the  brute  creation,  living 
in  accordance  with  natural  instincts,  or  in  obedience  to  some  routine 
imposed  on  them  by  man,  and  destitute  of  that  finer  organization 
which  in  the  human  race  is  thought  to  render  the  system  peculiarly 
liable  to  derangement,  must  be  but  little  subject  to  disease  ;  that  their 
lives,  with  few  exceptions,  must  pass  through  an  even  course,  untrou- 
bled by  sickness,  and  sink  only  when  the  lapse  of  years  has  weakened 
their  vigor  and  brought  them  to  the  natural  termination  of  their  exist- 
ence. Such  is  not  the  case,  as  far  as  is  known,  with  any  class  of 
animals  ;  such  is  certainly  far  from  being  the  case  with  those  which 
are  under  the  care  of  man. 


190  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

We  often  speak  of  the  constitution  of  a  horse,  assuming  him  as  the 
type  of  disease-resisting  vigor  and  unfailing  health  ;  yet  ample  statis- 
tical reports  in  Germany,  France,  and  England,  have  shown  that  the 
mortality  of  horses,  in  the  prime  of  their  life,  is  many  times  greater 
than  that  of  man  at  a  corresponding  age. 

This  mortality  among  horses  is,  no  doubt,  for  the  most  part  pre- 
ventable ;  and  we  have  no  reason  for  believing  that,  with  proper  care 
and  skill  in  their  treatment,  horses  would  die  much  faster  than  men  ; 
for  the  number  of  annual  deaths  during  the  years  of  youth  and  middle 
life  does  not  depend  upon  the  absolute  longevity  of  the  animal,  and 
might  be  as  small  in  the  shortest  as  in  the  longest-lived  species. 

The  annual  mortality  among  horses  in  their  working  years  is  about 
five  per  cent.,  or  one  twentieth  of  their  whole  number;  and  as  the 
number  of  horses  in  the  United  States  is  about  five  millions,  there 
would,  at  that  rate,  be  a  loss  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  every 
year ;  and  if  their  average  value  be  taken  at  fifty  dollars  each,  the 
pecuniary  loss  will  amount  to  twelve  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars. 

The  mortality  among  oxen  is  much  less  than  that  of  horses ;  while 
that  of  sheep  is  greater. 

Besides  this  regular  and  usual  mortality  of  domestic  animals,  they 
are,  like  the  human  race,  subject  to  occasional  visitations  of  great  and 
extraordinary  sicknesses.  Such  epidemics,  when  of  a  certain  degree 
of  virulence,  are  known  under  the  name  of  murrains,  and  seem,  from 
the  earliest  ages,  to  have  been  regarded  as  among  the  severest  afflic- 
tions to  which  nations  were  exposed. 

A  murrain  was  threatened  to  Pharoah  as  a  calamity,  the  nature  of 
which  was  fully  understood  by  him;  and,  in  thi«  instance,  as  has  often 
been  the  case  in  subseq.uent  murrains,  the  pestilence  was  to  attack 
more  than  one  species  of  domestic  animals,  it  being  foretold  that, 
"upon  the  horses.  Upon  the  asses,  upon  the  camels,  upon  the  oxen, 
and  upon  the  sheep,  there  shall  be  a  very  grievous  murrain." 

Homer  relates  that  the  pestilence  which  was  sent  upon  the  Grecian 
camp,  first  seized  upon  the  domestic  animals  congregated  there  ;  and 
some  of  the  most  eminent  writers  of  antiquity,  as  Hippocrates,  Plu- 
tarch, Livy,  and  Virgil,  speak  of  the  murrains  which  seem,  at  various 
times,  to  have  visited  Greece  and  Italy. 

In  the  fourth  century,  a  murrain  of  great  virulence  devastated 
Europe,  and  may,  perhaps,  be  reckoned  among  the  causes  which  has- 
tened the  downfall  of  ancient  civilization. 

Unusual  mortality  of  cattle  occurred,  from  time  to  time,  in  difierent 
localities,  during  subsequent  ages ;  and,  in  ■  the  eighteenth  century, 
the  occurrence  of  a  murrain  which,  originating  in  northern  Asia,  pre- 
vailed for  a  series  of  years  over  a  large  part  of  Europe,  roused  the 
public  mind  to  the  necessity  of  the  better  cultivation  of  veterinary 
medicine. 

In  the  present  century,  the  various  domestic  animals  have,  in  dif- 
ferent regions,  been  subject,  at  times,  to  great  mortality ;  but  nothing 
has  yet  occurred  of  the  nature  of  a  general  murrain.  Nevertheless,  the 
teachings  of  history  make  it  evident  that  such  a  thing  must  be  expected 
at  some  future  period,  perhaps  remote,  but,  it  may  be,  near  at  hand. 

The  amount  of  devastation  committed  by  such  an  outbreak  in  a 


VETERINARY  MEDICINE.  191 

country,  a  large  part  of  whose  wealth  consisted  of  live  stock,  might  be 
immense,  and  the  loss  would  be  especially  felt  if  falling  upon  an  ani- 
mal like  the  horse,  whose  services  are  almost  essential  to  the  main- 
tenance of  every  branch  of  industry. 

There  is,  in  general,  no  form  of  disease  over  which  medicine  seems 
to  have  more  control  than  over  great  pestilences  ;  for  the  prevention 
or  cure  of  any  one  case,  not  only  affects  the  individual  chiefly  con- 
cerned, but  hinders  an  addition  from  being  made  to  the  intensity  of 
the  general  pestilential  action,  and  by  so  much  checks  the  propagation 
of  the  disease  and  the  virulence  of  its  attacks. 

Independently  of  the  effect  produced  by  the  diminution  of  the  annual 
mortality  of  domestic  animals,  we  have  to  consider,  so  far,  at  least,  as 
the  horse  is  concerned,  that  which  would  follow  the  lengthening  of  the 
time  during  which  they  are  maintained  in  a  state  of  soundness  and 
vigor.  A  horse  is  fed  and  cared  for  until  he  becomes  old  enough  to 
labor,  at  an  expense  varying  in  different  places,  and  which,  for  the 
United  States,  has  been  estimated  to  range  from  twenty  to  sixty  dol- 
lars. For  this  outlay  he  makes  return  during  his  subsequent  life ;  and 
the  amount  of  the  return  made  must  depend  upon  the  length  of  that 
life,  up  to  the  time  at  which  he  becomes  unfit  for  work ;  so  that,  to 
render  him  of  proper  value  to  man,  he  should  be  maintained  free  from 
infirmity  to  the  age  when  the  inevitable  operation  of  natural  laws  term- 
inates his  usefulness. 

The  horse  attains  to  his  greatest  strength  and  vigor  between  the 
tenth  and  twelfth  years  of  his  life,,  but  in  too  many  cases  he  has 
scarcely  passed,  or  arrived  at  that  epoch,  when  he  is  already  infirm, 
lameness  or  other  disability  having  been  brought  on  by  injudicious 
management,  or  by  neglect  or  maltreatment  of  some  chronic  disease. 

That  the  natural  decline  of  a  horse's  strength  does  not  take  place 
until  a  much  later  date  than  the  period  at  which  his  usefulness  is  usu- 
ally thought  to  terminate,  has  been  amply  shown,  there  being  many 
instances  of  horses  retaining  their  vigor  after  their  thirtieth  year,  and 
some  having  been  known  to  live  to  the  age  of  forty  and  upward ;  the 
longest  authenticated  life  of  a  horse  in  England  or  this  country  having 
been  sixty-two  years. 

A  writer  in  one  of  the  English  agricultural  journals,  who  seems  to 
have  given  particular  attention  to  the  prolongation  of  the  working 
lives  of  horses,  states  as  the  ages  of  five  horses  in  his  stables,  who  were 
all  serviceable  animals  at  the  time  of  his  writing,  the  following  num- 
bers of  years : 

Thirteen,  twenty-one,  twenty-six,  twenty-nine,  and  forty.  He  at- 
tributes their  good  preservation  mainly  to  the  care  and  skill  exercised 
in  shoeing  them  and  in  attending  to  their  feet. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  want  of  judi- 
cious treatment  of  domestic  animals,  in  health  and  disease,  was  seen 
with  regret  by  many  enlightened  persons,  and,  among  others,  by  the 
illustrioms  Buffon,  who,  in  his  work  on  natural  history,  after  having 
treated  of  the  horse,  expresses  himself  on  this  point  as  follows  : 

"I  will  not  here  speak  of  the  other  diseases  of  horses,  since  to  add 
to  the  history  of  an  animal  that  of  his  diseases  would  be  to  render 
natural  history  too  prolix.     Nevertheless,  I  cannot  finish  my  account 


192  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

of  tlie  horse  without  expressing  my  regret  that  the  health  of  this  useful 
and  precious  animal  is  at  the  present  time  abandoned  to  the  care,  and 
to  the  often  blind  practice,  of  uneducated  and  ignorant  persons.  That 
department  of  medicine  which  the  ancients  called  veterinary  medichie, 
is  now  scarcely  known,  except  by  name.  I  believe,  if  some  medical 
man  were  to  turn  his  attention  to  this  subject,  and  devote  himself 
chiefly  to  it,  he  would  soon  be  amply  recompensed,  and  that  he  would 
not  only  acquire  wealth,  but,  instead  of  being  lowered  in  his  profes- 
sion, would  become  illustrious. 

"This  branch  of  the  healing  art  would  not  be  so  difficult  nor  so  de- 
pendent on  conjecture  as  human  medicine;  for,  since  the  food,  the 
habits,  the  efi'ects  of  the  mind,  in  short,  all  acting  causes,  are  more 
simple  among  the  lower  animals  than  with  man,  the  derangements  of 
their  health  should  be  less  complicated,  and  consequently  easier  to 
diagnose,  and  to  treat  successfully.  We  must  also  take  into  account 
the  great  freedom  with  which  we  can  make  experiments,  try  new  reme- 
dies, and  thus  acquire,  without  causing  ourselves  great  anxiety,  and 
without  incurring  odium,  a  large  fund  of  this  kind  of  knowledge,  from 
which,  in  the  way  of  analogy,  we  might  draw  conclusions  useful  even 
in  human  medicine." 

The  high  authority  of  BuflPon,  and  the  zealous  exertions  of  some  of 
his  cotemporaries,  were  much  aided  toward  the  attainment  of  the 
desired  end  by  the  great  mortality  among  cattle  which  occurred  during 
his  time;  and  in  the  year  1761,  a  veterinary  school  was  founded  at 
Lyons,  at  the  head  of  which  was  placed  Bourgelat,  a  name  celebrated 
in  the  history  of  veterinary  medicine.  In  1766  another  school  was 
opened  at  Alfort,  not  far  from  Paris,  which,  in  the  course  -of  time, 
became  a  most  useful  and  flourishing  institution.  Perhaps  no  better 
idea  could  be  given  of  the  condition  and  management  of  such  schools 
in  France,  than  to  quote  some  passages  from  the  account  of  the  one  at 
Alfort,  by  Mr.  H.  Colman,  who  visited  Europe  in  1843  for  the  pur- 
pose of  examining  the  state  of  agriculture  and  agricultural  institu- 
tions. 

"This  establishment  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  river  Seine,  near 
the  village  of  Charenton,  about  six  miles  from  Paris. 

"The  buildings  for  the  diflerent  objects  of  the  institution  are  spacious 
and  well-contrived,  and  the  grounds  sufficiently  extensive  and  judi- 
ciously arranged.  Like  other  governmental  establishments  in  France 
which  have  come  under  my  observation,  the  institution  is  upon  a  grand 
scale,  and  complete  in  all  its  parts.  The  government  of  France,  in  a 
liberal  manner,  avails  itself  of  the  talents  of  the  most  competent  men 
in  every  department,  and  of  all  the  advantages  which  science  and  art 
can  afibrd ;  and  it  spares  no  expense  in  the  perfect  execution  of  what- 
ever it  undertakes.  It  adds  to  all  this,  as  is  everywhere  to  be  seen,  a 
refinement  of  taste  in  the  arrangement  of  the  most  ordinary  subjects, 
which  increases  the  expense  only  in  a  small  degree,  and  which  does 
not  abstract  at  all  from  the  solidity  and  substantial  character  of  the 
work  itself ;  but  relieves  that  which  would  otherwise  be  monotonous, 
if  not  offensive,  and  often  renders  the  plainest  subjects  attractive. 

"The  school  at  Alfort  is  designed  to  furnish  a  complete  course  of 
instruction  in  veterinary  medicine  and  surgery^  embracing,  not  horses 


VETERINARY   MEDICINE.  193 

only,  but  all  the  domestic  animals.  A  student,  at  his  entrance,  must 
he  well  versed  in  the  common  branches  of  education  ;  and  a  full  course 
of  instruction  requires  a  residence  of  four  years.  The  number  of  pu- 
pils is  limited  to  three  hundred.  Of  these,  forty  are  entirely  supported 
by  the  government.  These  are  educated  for  the  army,  and  are  re- 
quired not  only  to  become  versed  in  the  science  and  practice  of  veteri- 
nary medicine  and  surgery,  but  likewise  in  the  common  business  of  a 
blacksmith's  shop,  as  far  as  it  is  connected  with  farriery. 

"The  establishment  presents  several  hospitals,  or  apartments,  for 
sick  horses,  cows,  and  clogs  There  are  means  for  controlling  and 
regulating  as  far  as  possible,  the  temperature  of  the  rooms,  and  for 
producing  a  complete  and  healthy  ventilation.  There  are  stables 
where  the  patients  may  be  kept  entirely  alone,  when  the  case  requires 
it,  and  there  are  preparations  for  giving  them,  as  high  as  their  bodies, 
a  warm  bath,  which,  in  cases  of  diseased  limbs  or  joints^,  may  be  of 
great  service.  There  is  a  large  college,  with  dormitories  and  dining- 
rooms,  for  the  students;  houses  for  the  professors  within  the  inclosure; 
rooms  for  operations  upon  animals,  and  for  anatomical  dissections  ;  a 
room,  with  a  complete  laboratory,  for  a  course  of  chemical  lectures  ;  a 
public  lecture-room,  or  theater  ;  and  an  extensive  smithery,  with  sev- 
eral forges,  fitted  up  in  the  best  possible  manner.  There  are,  likewise, 
several  stands,  contrived  with  ingenuity,  for  confining  the  feet  of 
horses,  that  students  may  m.ake,  with  security,  their  first  attempt  at 
shoeing,  or  in  which  the  limb,  after  it  has  been  separated  from  its 
lawful  owner,  may  be  placed  for  the  purpose  of  examination  and  ex- 
periment. 

''An  extensive  suit  of  apartments  presents  an  admirable  and,  indeed, 
an  extraordinary  museum,  both  of  natural  and  artificial  anatomical 
preparations,  exhibiting  the  natural  and  healthy  state  of  the  animal 
constitution,  and  likewise  remarkable  examples  of  diseased  affections. 
The  perfect  examples  of  the  anatomy  of  the  horse,  the  cow,  the  sheep, 
the  hog  and  the  dog,  in  which  the  muscular  integuments,  the  nerves, 
the  blood-vessels,  and,  indeed,  all  the  parts,  are  separated,  preserved, 
and  exhibited,  by  the  skill  of  an  eminent  veterinary  surgeon  and  artist, 
now  deceased,  who  occupied  the  anatomical  chair  of  the  institution, 
display  wonderful  ingenuity  in  their  dissection  and  preservation,  and 
present  an  interesting  and  useful  study,  not  to  medical  students  only, 
but  to  the  most  ordinary,  as  well  as  the  most  profound,  philosophical 
observer.  I  have  seen  no  exhibition  of  the  kind  of  so  remarkable  a 
nature. 

"The  department  for  sick  dogs,  containing  boxes  for  those  which 
require  confinement,  and  chains  for  such  as  must  be  kept  in  the  open 
air,  and  a  cooking  apparatus  and  kitchen  for  the  preparation  of  their 
food,  was  spacious,  well-arranged,  and  contained  a  large  number  of 
patients. 

"Any  sick  animals  may  be  sent  to  the  establishment,  and  their  board 
is  to  be  paid  at  a  fixed  rate  of  charges;  twelve  sous,  or  six  pence,  per 
day,  for  a  dog,  and  fii^y  soils,  or  twenty-five  pence,  for  a  horse,  includ- 
ing medicine,  advice,  and  attendance.  In  cases  of  epidemics,  or  mur- 
rain, prevailing  in  any  of  the  districts  of  France,  the  best  attendants 
and  advice  are  sent  from  these  schools,  to  assist  in  the  cure,  and  espe- 
13 A 


194  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

cially  to  watch  the  symptoms  and  progress  of  the  malady.  In  coun- 
tries where  large  standing  armies  are  maintained,  and  where,  of  course, 
there  are  large  bodies  of  cavalry  and  artillery  to  he  attended  upon,  as 
well  as  wagon  horses  for  carrying  the  supplies,  the  importance  of  vete- 
rinary surgery  is  vastly  increased  ;  hut  in  countries  where  no  standing 
armies  exist,  the  number  of  horses  kept  for  use  and  pleasure,  and  of 
other  domestic  animals,  bears  a  much  larger  proportion  to  the  number 
of  human  beings  than  we  should  like  to  state  without  inquiry,  and 
renders  the  profession  highly  important," 

Other  veterinary  schools  were  before  long  established  in  different 
parts  of  France,  and  in  various  countries  of  Europe ;  in  Germany,  in 
England,  in  Kussia,  and  in  Italy.  The  veterinary  college  at  London 
was  established  in  the  year  1791,  under  the  charge  of  a  graduate  of 
the  parent  school  of  Lyons,  and  at  the  expense  of  a  number  of  gentle- 
men who,  upon  becoming  subscribers  to  the  school,  acquired  certain 
privileges  with  regard  to  the  medical  treatment  of  their  horses,  in  the 
event  of  their  sickness. 

The  college  received  much  encouragement  from  the  medical  profes- 
sion of  London,  and  a  committee  of  some  of  the  most  eminent  practi- 
tioners was  appointed  to  assist  at  the  examination  of  those  of  the  pupils 
who  became  candidates  for  graduation,  and  to  certify  to  their  acquire- 
ments ill  case  that  they  should  be  found  properly  acquainted  with  the 
principles  of  medical  science  and  with  the  veterinary  art.  The  asso- 
ciations of  physicians  with  veterinarians,  in  such  colleges,  is  one  of 
the  best  assurances  that  the  character  of  the  education  there  given  will 
be  kept  up  to  the  high  standard  to  which  medicine  has  herself  attained, 
and  that  the  empiricism  of  a  speciality  will  not  be  allowed  to  displace 
the  philosophic  spirit  of  true  science. 

Soon  after  the  establishment  of  the  London  college,  it  received  further 
encouragement  by  the  appointment  of  veterinarians,  as  commissioned 
officers  in  cavalry  regiments — a  proceeding  of  great  benefit  to  the  ser- 
vice. The  care  of  horses  was  the  original  object  of  the  college,  but  an 
annual  sum  was  given  to  it  by  the  Eoyal  Agricultural  Society  of  Eng- 
land, to  enable  it  to  extend  the  field  of  its  operations  -over  the  other 
domestic  animals,  whose  diseases  it  has,  accordingly,  taken  charge  of; 
and  such  animals  are  sent  from  London  and  the  neighboring  country 
to  the  infirmary  of  the  college,  where,  for  a  moderate  charge,  they  are 
fed,  housed,  and  receive  veterinary  attendance.  The  college  has  also 
received  assistance  from  parliamentary  grants. 

In  Germany,  some  of  the  veterinary  colleges  have,  as  a  chief  object, 
the  education  of  veterinary  surgeons  for  the  military  service. 

In  the  United  States,  Veterinary  colleges  have  been  recently  estab- 
lished. A  veterinary  institution  has  existed  for  some  years  in  Massa- 
chusetts. In  Pennsylvania,  the  Veterinary  College  of  Philadelphia 
was  incorporated  in  1852,  and  put  into  operation  during  the  present 
year.  Four  professorships  have  been  established  in  it,  namely :  Of 
Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics ;  of  Pathology  and  Practice  of  Medi- 
cine in  Keference  to  Domestic  Animals ;  of  Medical  Chemistry  and 
Pharmacy;  of  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Operative  Surgery. 

The  College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons  of  New  York  has  also  announced 
a  course  of  lectures  for  the  session  of  1859-GO;  it  has  established 


VETERINARY  MEDICINE.  195 

professorships  of  Veterinary  Theory  and  Practice ;  ofYeterinary  Anatomy 
and  Surgery,  and  of  Chemistry ;  and  has  a  Board  of  Censors,  composed 
of  some  of  the  most  eminent  medical  men  in  the  city  of  New  York. 

A  veterinary  author,  who  stands  as  high  as  any  who  have  written 
in  the  English  language — Mr.  Delahre  Blaine — remarks,  in  his  Vet- 
erinary Art,  that  there  are  three  classes  of  persons  hy  whom  veterinary 
medicine  may  he  profitably  studied;  first,  hy  gentlemen  owning 
animals,  and  taking  considerable  interest  in  their  management ;  second, 
hy  medical  men  who  design  practicing  in  the  country,  or  in  small 
towns^  where  regular  veterinary  surgeons  are  not  accessible ;  and  last, 
by  those  intending  to  make  veterinary  surgery  their  profession. 

The  acquirement  of  veterinary  knowledge  by  non-professional  men 
is  a  thing  not  at  all  impracticable,  especially  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  United  States,  where,  as  agricultural  matters  are  often  under  the 
control  of  men  of  wealth  and  leisure,  a  very  thorough  and  elaborate 
education  might  be  given,  with  the  joarticular  view  of  fitting  gentlemen 
for  the  management  of  everything  connected  with  a  farm  or  plantation. 

One  remark,  however,  should  be  made  with  regard  to  veterinary 
education,  whether  of  amateurs,  or  of  professional  men :  no  branch  of 
medical  art  can  be  usefully  taught  ■  without  first  imparting  some 
knowledge  of  that  medical  science  upon  which  the  art  rests.  The 
names  of  diseases,  their  most  prominent  symptoms^,  and  the  remedies 
used  for  them,  may,  indeed,  be  communicated  ;  but  that  information, 
without  the  guidance  of  rules  for  correct  reasoning  on  the  subject,  can 
only  lead  to  a  blind  and  mischievous  ofiSciousness.  Those  who  would 
learn  how  to  deal  with  the  arrangements  of  the  living  body,  should 
first  have  their  minds  properly  trained  by  the  study  of  some  branch 
of  natural  science,  and,  being  thus  accustomed  to  recollect  facts,  and  to 
view  them  as  parts  of  a  system,  they  are  better  fitted  to  acquire  a 
knowledge  of  the  structure  and  of  the  functions  of  the  body ;  in  other 
words,  of  anatomy  and  of  physiology.  It  is  not  essentially  requisite 
that  this  knowledge  should  be  minute,  but  a  certain  amount  of  it  must 
be  acquired,  after  which  the  various  modes  in  which  the  functions 
depart  from  a  state  of  health,  and  the  proper  methods  of  remedying 
such  departures,  may  be  made  objects  of  study. 

A  delicate  question  here  arises  :  whether  any  knowledge  short  of  the 
professional  would  be  of  practical  use  to  any  one  ?  It  seems  to  me  that 
the  only  way  of  throwing  light  upon  such  a  question  is  to  attempt  to 
answer  it  as  far  as  human  medicine  is  concerned,  and  to  leave  the 
conclusion  thus  drawn  to  be  applied,  analogically,  to  the  veterinary 
art.  The  skill  which  the  medical  man  applies  to  the  treatment  of 
difiicult  cases  is  not  to  be  attained  except  by  those  who  have  devoted 
many  years  to  its  acquirement ;  but  there  is  much  that  he  does  which 
he  could  teach  others  to  do  without  burdening  them  with  an  elaborate 
and  laborious  course  of  instruction.  In  the  surgical  art,  there  is  a 
special  branch  called  minor  surgery,  which  treats  of  such  things  as  the 
proper  mode  of  dressing  wounds,  burns,  and  scalds ;  of  setting  frac- 
tures, and  reducing  dislocations.  Much  of  it  is  taught  to,  and  practiced 
by,  hospital  attendants  and  medical  students  in  the  early  part  of  their 
course  of  medical  education.  Any  intelligent  person  could,  in  a  few 
weeks,  learn  enough  of  this  art  to  enable  him  to  render  great  service 


196  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

in  cases  whicli  at  present  are  neglected,  or  given  over  to  the  manage- 
ment of  the  ignorant  and  presumptions,  either  from  the  inaccessibility 
of  regular  surgical  aid,  or  from  an  indisposition  to  have  recourse  to  it. 

It  may  not  be  impossible  to  establish  a  similar  branch  of  the  medical 
art.  A  great  deal  of  medicine  has  been,  and  always  will  be,  admin- 
istered without  the  advice  of  a  physician ;  in  fact,  it  is  the  testimony 
of  apothecaries  that  the  greater  part  of  the  medicine  sold  is  so  admin- 
istered. 

If  instruction  as  to  the  nature  and  proper  use  of  the  medicines  most 
in  the  hands  of  the  people  were  generally  diffused,  of  course  with  some 
previous  instruction  concerning  the  human  body,  and  its  more  common 
and  simple  diseases,  the  amount  of  medicine  taken  would  be  less,  and 
the  good  eifected  by  it  vastly  more  certain. 

Without  attempting  to  intrude  upon  the  serious  duties  of  the  physi- 
cian, every  educated  man  might  be  qualified  to  deal  with  those  trivial 
affections  from  which  the  great  harvest  of  quackery  is  reaped,  and  to 
render  service  to  himself  and  others,  wdien  out  of  the  reach  of  profes- 
sional assistance.  To  do  this,  the  knowledge  possessed  may  be  limited, 
but  should  be  perfectly  sound  as  far  as  it  goes,  should  be  derived  from" 
unexceptional  sources,  and  be  in  no  wise  akin  to  that  of  those  pseudo- 
medical  works,  of  a  popular  cast,  which  are  at  the  present  day  put  for- 
ward in  large  numbers,  for  the  edification  of  a  credulous  public. 

Similar  remarks  may  be  applied,  with  still  more  force,  to  veterinary 
surgery  and  medicine.  Domestic  animals,  in  many  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, must  be  so  far  out  of  the  reach  of  regular  veterinarians,  or  of  phy- 
sicians qualified  to  practice  the  veterinary  art,  that  the  only  means  of 
giving  them  the  benefit  of  medical  knowledge  is  by  lodging  it  in  the 
hands  of  their  owners. 

The  mode  of  education  of  regular  veterinarians  is  a  matter  of  more 
settled  character  than  the  above.  The  colleges  existing  in  England, 
and  now  going  into  operation  in  this  country,  are  founded  by  the  effort 
of  associations,  and  sustain  themselves,  both  from  the  fees  of  pupils 
and  from  those  received  for  the  medical  treatment  of  horses  and  other 
animals. 

A  number  of  persons  become  subscribers  of  a  small  annual  sum, 
each,  toward  the  maintenance  of  a  veterinary  hospital,  in  consideration 
of  which  they  acquire  the  privilege  of  consulting  the  veterinary  sur- 
geon of  the  establishment  upon  the  proper  treatment  of  their  animals, 
upon  the  soundness  of  a  horse  that  they  purpose  buying,  and  upon 
such  other  points  as  may  present  themselves ;  and  wdien  a  horse  is  sick, 
they  may  send  him  to  the  infirmary  and  have  him  attended  to,  with  no 
other  expense  than  that  of  his  keep  at  livery  and  of  his  medicines. 
The  veterinarian  should  not,  save  in  exceptional  cases,  be  called  upon 
to  pay  visits  out  of  the  hospital,  but  should  remain  at  the  est/iblish- 
ment.  A  hospital  thus  established  furnishes  the  means  of  clinical 
instruction  for  a  school,  which  may  afterw^ard  be  attached  to  it.  Pro- 
fessors of  anatomy,  physiology,  materia  medica,  and  chemistry,  may, 
if  necessary,  be  chosen  outside  of  the  ranks  of  veterinary  practitioners, 
and  students  may  be  received  on  terms  similar  to  those  of  medical  col- 
leges, and  subjected  to  a  course  of  study  varying  from  two  to  four 
years.     Much  may  be  done  in  this  way  by  private  enterprise;  but  the 


VETERINARY   MEDICINE.  197 

question  arises,  of  how  far  such  schools  might  hope  for  the  support  of 
a  State,  or  of  the  federal  government. 

All  forms  of  civilized  government  have  made  education,  in  some 
way,  their  care,  and  there  would  seem  to  be  great  propriety  in  this, 
since  all  experience  tends  to  show  that  the  prosperity  of  a  community 
chiefly  depends  upon  the  education  of  its  members.  This  is  true, 
whether  we  consider  that  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  and  of  mental 
discipline,  which  enables  tlie  citizens  of  a  free  State  properly  to  exercise 
their  powers  and  to  discharge  their  duties,  that  higher  cultivation  of  a 
few,  which  fits  them  for  the  iDvestigation  of  the  laws  of  Nature^  and 
for  determining  the  scientific  truths  upon  which  the  arts  of  civilization 
are  founded,  or  that  special  training  in  the  arts  and  professions,  which 
qualifies  men  to  do  good  in  their  respective  callings. 

Now,  if  the  importance  of  the  veterinary  art,  and  all  the  advantages 
dependent  upon  it,  be  fairly  considered,  it  will,  I  conceive,  be  found 
worthy  of  the  extension  of  a  helping  hand  to  its  struggling  infancy, 
if  not  of  a  more  permanent  support. 

Physicians  and  surgeons  form  a  third  class,  to  whom  Mr.  Blaine 
recommends,  under  certain  circumstances,  the  study  of  veterinary 
medicine.  It  may  be  remarked  of  these  that,  beside  the  advantages 
that  may  result  to  themselves  from  the  possession  of  such  knowledge, 
they,  as  a  body  already  possessed  of  weight  and  authority  in  the  com- 
munity, and  able  to  make  their  influence  widely  felt,  can  bring  about 
reforms  which  can  hardly  be  effected  by  other  agencies.  To  illustrate 
the  point  that  there  may  be  a  flourishing  condition  of  veterinary  insti- 
tutions, a  class  of  educated  veterinarians,  and  an  extensive  veterinary 
literature,  and  that  yet  those  to  whom,  the  care  of  animals  is  chiefly 
intrusted  may  be  comparatively  uninfluenced  by  the  progress  around 
them,  I  would  quote  from  Wilson's  Eural  Encyclopedia  a  portion  of 
the  article  on  Hippopathology,  (the  science  which  treats  of  the  diseases 
of  horses:)  "  Yet,  in  spite  of  the  enormous  bulk  and  the  vast  variety 
of  our  domestic  hippopathological  literature,  in  spite,  too,  of  the  stu- 
pendous additions  to  it  which  are  made  by  French  and  German  works 
of  easy  access,  the  science  continues  to  be  incredibly  little  known  by 
the  great  body  of  the  horse-owning  community,  and  is  still  in  a  scan- 
dalous empirical  condition,  among  a  considerable  proportion  of  country 
practitioners.  Even  if  no  books  at  all  existed  on  the  subject,  a  little 
common  sense,  expatiating  on  the  analogies  between  the  health  of  the 
horse  and  the  health  of  man  ought  to  rescue  grooms  and  farmers  from 
the  absurdities  and  cruelties  which  many  of  them  practice  in  the 
stable.'' 

A  wider  diffusion,  as  well  as  a  further  increase,  of  veterinary  infor- 
mation, is  evidently  required,  and  to  insure  its  diffusion  there  is  no 
better  way  than  to  have  its  precepts  and  practice  enforced  by  a  large 
and  widely-spread  number  of  persons,  the  correctness  of  whose  knowl- 
edge on  such  topics  the  public  are  already  prepared  to  admit.  This  is 
a  thing  which  physicians  are  not  qualified  to  undertake  at  present, 
although  they  could  become  so  by  means  of  some  addition  to  the  usual 
course  of  medical  education.  It  has  been  remarked  that  "a  good 
physician  has  gone  three  fourths  of  the  way  toward  becoming  a  good 


198  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

veterinarian,  but  lie  must  go  fhe  otlier  fourtli  to  become  a  veterinarian 
at  all." 

As  the  medical  sciences  bave  not  been  limited  in  tbeir  beneficial 
results  to  the  healing  of  the  sick  only,  but  have^,  by  means  of  the 
knowledge  of  the  human  economy  -which  they  inculcate,  thrown  light 
upon  all  questions  involving  the  physical  well-being  of  man,  so  we 
are  apt  to  expect  that  from  the  cultivation, of  veterinary  medicine  we 
will  obtain  guidance  in  many  important  matters  which  concern  the 
physical  state  of  domestic  animals.  Every  question  relating  to  their 
management,  whether  involving  the  condition  of  an  individual  or  that 
of  a  race,  is  a  question  of  the  mode  of  action  of  physiological  laws, 
and  can  only  be  satisfactorily  answered  by  those  who  have  made  the 
physiology  of  animals  their  professional  study. 

The  strength  of  this  position  will  be  readily  admitted  with  regard 
to  individual  animals,  and  it  may,  I  think,  be  shown  that  a  necessity 
exists  for  a  body  of  educated  veterinarians,  to  take  in  charge  matters 
that  affect  races  and  species  of  our  domestic  animals,  rather  than 
single  cases. 

Our  domestic  animals  are,  to  a  great  extent,  artificial  productions, 
their  most  valuable  qualities  having  been  communicated  to  them  by  a 
kind  of  cultivation ;  thus  breeds  of  horses  have  been  produced  far  sur- 
passing in  size,  strength,  and  fleetness,  any  animal  of  the  species  that 
exists  in  the  wild  state ;  the  ox  species  has  acquired  in  different  races 
great  capabilities  of  producing  flesh  for  the  butcher,  or  milk  for  the 
dairy ;  the  sheep  is  clothed  with  a  fleece  more  valuable  for  human  use 
than  that  worn  by  his  wild  progenitor;  and  all  valuable  animals 
exhibit  marked  alterations  from  the  original  type  of  the  race,  which 
have  been  produced  by  human  care  and  management.  The  extent  of 
this  change  varies  much  with  different  breeds,  and  its  importance  is 
testified  to  by  the  high  prices  commanded  by  those  animals  in  which 
it  is  most  strongly  marked. 

Few  improvements  contribute  as  much  to  the  wealth  of  a  nation  as 
these.  The  expense  of  feeding  and  of  caring  for  an  animal  of  good 
breed  is  but  little  more  than  that  required  for  a  very  inferior  one,  and 
the  profit  derived  from  it,  whether  in  the  shape  of  labor,  of  flesh,  of 
wool,  or  of  milk,  is  often  very  different  in  the  two  cases.  A  farmer 
may  raise  a  horse  that  will  command  one  thousand  dollars  in  the  market, 
or  one  worth  less  than  a  twentieth  of  that  sum,  and  spend  nearly  the 
same  on  either  animal.  In  view  of  the  strong  motives  which  exist  for 
raising  the  finest  animals  only  it  may  seem  a  matter  of  surprise  that 
there  are  so  many  bad  ones,  and  that,  especially  among  horses,  where 
good  quality  is  of  such  great  importance,  the  general  standard  should 
not  be  higher.  Thereis,  however,  a  want  of  certainty  and  of  permanency 
about  these  improvements,  which  arises  from  their  artificial  character, 
there  is  a  constant  tendency  in  the  race  to  return  to  the  condition 
of  Nature,  and,  where  measures  are  taken  to  prevent  the  loss  of  some 
one  of  its  characteristics,  it  sometimes  happens  that  those  very  means  . 
hasten  the  destruction  of  some  other,  or  diminish  very  much  the  vitality 
of  the  race. 

The  maintaining  of  good  breeds  becomes  thus  a  struggle  between 
Nature  and  art,  and  the  art  is  one  that  requires  peculiar  skill  and 


MEDICINES    TO    DOMESTIC    ANIMALS.  199 

knowledge  to  manage  with  the  best  results ;  and  while  the  intelligence 
and  care  of  a  number  of  enterprising  persons,  who  have  been  stimulated 
by  large  profits,  and  possessed  of  considerable  means,  have  done  much 
for  the  improvement  of  breeds  of  animals,  the  success  thus  far  attained 
has  been  attended  by  a  host  of  failures  and  disappointments,  and,  in 
some  cases,  where  the  greatest  care  and  expense  has  been  bestowed,  it 
is  maintained,  by  good  authorities,  that  a  positive  degeneracy  has 
taken  place. 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  making  a  breed  of  animals  just  what 
we  want  it  to  be,  and  of  maintaining  it  in  that  condition,  are  of  a 
complicated  character,  and  demand  for  their  correct  solution  the  atten- 
tion of  those  who  can  regard  them  from  a  scientific  point  of  view,  and 
whose  daily  studies  and  experience  relate  to  the  animals  which  they 
concern. 


ADMimSTERING  MEDICINES  TO  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


TRANSLATED  AND  CONDENSED  FEOM  AN  ARTICLE  BY  DR.  WAGENFELD,  OE  DANZIG, 

PRUSSIA. 


Animals  being  unwilling  to  take  medicine  of  their  own  accord,  it 
must  be  administered  by  force,  except  when  mixed  with  agreeable 
substances,  for  instance,  with  oats  for  the  horse,  and  with  meat  or 
sugar  for  the  dog. 

The  horse  may  receive  medicine  in  different  forms ;  first,  as  a  poioder, 
This  is  to  be  mixed  with  short  fodder,  especially  oats,  with  a  portion 
of  bran,  which  should  be  moderately  moist,  because  he  would  otherwise 
blow  away  some  of  the  powder  with  his  nose.  Though  this  mode  is 
convenient,  it  can  only  be  employed  to  a  limited  extent,  as  the  horse 
will  not  eat  his  fodder  if  it  be  mixed  with  medicine  of  a  considerable 
odor,  or  if  his  appetite  be  much  impaired.  Secondly,  as  a  drink.  For 
instance,  several  salts  and  acids,  also  insoluble  powders,  as  red  bale. 
But  here,  likewise,  a  difficulty  becomes  apparent.  The  horse,  from  an 
absence  of  thirst  in  certain  diseases,  drinks  little  or  nothing,  so  that 
the  medicine  is  not  taken  in  the  quantity  desired.  Thirdly,  as  an 
infusion  or  potion.  This  form  deserves  to  be  more  fully  considered, 
as  many  horses  have  been  lost  in  consequence  of  potions  being  admin- 
istered. If,  for  instance,  a  horse  is  suffering  from  colic,  a  potion  is 
usually  given,  sometimes  several  of  them,  and  even  veterinary  surgeons 
resort,  especially  in  this  case,  to  infusions  through  the  mouth.  Though 
it  is  known  that  the  infusion  is  not  wholly  without  danger,  because 
part  of  the  liquid  might  easily  get  in  the  windpipe,  yet  the  injury  that 
may  result  is  not  sufficiently  considered,  even  by  many  surgeons. 

The  application  of  infusions,  especially  in  colics,  has  been  recom- 
mended, because  a  rapid  remedy  is  desired,  which  is  most  likely  to  be 
attained  by  mixing  the  medicine  with  a  certain  quantity  of  liquids, 
and  bringing  it  thus  immediately  in  connection  with  a  large  surface 
of  the  stomach  and  the  bowels.     Though  these  advantages  are  not  to 


200  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

be  denied,  yet  the  incidental  injuries  are  of  so  serious  a  nature  tliat  it 
becomes  the  duty  of  a  surgeon  to  consider  the  propriety  of  giving  in- 
fusions, when  an  electuary  could  be  conveniently  substituted.  This  is 
a  medicinal  jelly,  to  be  spread  on  the  tongue  of  the  horse,  for  swal- 
lowing. The  stomach  always  contains  a  certain  quantity  of  humidity, 
serving  to  thin  the  electuaries,  so  that  they  will  very  soon  show  their 
effects,  though  perhaps  not  quite  so  rapidly  as  an  infusion.  Vv''hen  I 
commenced  my  practice  in  veterinary  medicine,  some  thirty  years  ago, 
I  had  often  to  treat  horses  suffering  from  colic.  I  always  administered 
infusions,  adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  giving  them  my- 
self, and  using  the  utmost  precaution.  A  cure  usually  resulting,  I 
saw  no  reason  to  abandon  this  mode  of  treatm^ent.  Yet,  in  the  course 
of  time,  I  lost  three  patients  of  this  sort.  They  were  cured  of  colic, 
it  is  true,  but  the  day  following,  or  somewhat  later,  an  inflammation 
of  the  lungs  ensued,  causing  the  death  of  the  horse.  At  that  time  I 
did  not  see  clearly  enough  the  connection  existing  between  colics  and 
inflammation  of  the  lungs  ;  still,  I  refrained  from  that  moment  from 
applying  similar  infusions,  and  have  not  made  use  of  them  for  the  last 
twenty-five  years. 

In  many  books,  otherwise  reliable,  it  is  stated  that  colics  of  the  horse 
are  frequently  followed  by  inflammation  of  the  lungs — an  observation 
perfectly  correct ;  but  the  cause  and  effect  of  this  symptom,  which,  on 
infusions  being  avoided,  is  of  rare  occurence,  have  neither  been  ex- 
plained nor  even  anticipated. 

It  has  been  said  that  well-informed  veterinary  surgeons  know  very 
well  the  danger  often  connected  with  giving  infusions,  but  none  of 
them  had  ever,  by  direct  experiments,  disseminated  a  clear  under- 
standing on  this  subject  until  Mr.  Giinther,  Director  of  the  Veterinary 
School  at  Hanover^  did  so.  Yet  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  his  investi- 
gations have  not  come  to  the  knowledge  of  every  owner  of  horses.  As 
long  as  horses  were  cured,  infusions  were  principally  applied,  and  this 
has  been  the  practice  for  a  long  time,  j)ei"haps  as  far  back  as  history 
reaches. 

Buttermilk  given  to  horses  for  medicinal  purposes  has  proved  fatal, 
and  hence  originated  the  belief  that  it  was  poisonous  to  them — a  belief 
which  prevailed  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  if  not  among  surgeons, 
yet  to  a  great  extent  among  the  people.  Mr.  Giinther' s  experiments, 
however,  demonstrated  in  what  really  consisted  its  poisonous  quality. 

Seven  and  a  half  pounds  of  buttermilk  were  administered  to  a 
healthy  horse,  as  an  infusion,  through  its  mouth.  The  animal^  imme- 
diately after,  became  restless,  breathed  heavily,  opened  violently  and 
wide  his  nostrils,  and  exhibited,  in  the  course  of  the  day,  symp- 
toms of  a  severe  inflammation  of  the  lungs.  The  attacks,  gradually 
increasing  in  violence,  killed  the  horse  in  forty  hours.  On  examina- 
tion, the  lungs  were  found  to  be  inflamed,  but  the  stomach  and  bowels, 
together  vv^ith  all  other  parts  of  the  body,  were  in  a  healthy  condition. 
To  another,  six  and  a  half  pounds  were  given,  through  a  leather  pipe, 
into  his  stomach.  The  animal  continued,  in  every  respect,  healthy, 
and  after  being  purposely  killed,  at  the  expiration  of  fifty-four  hours, 
no  disease  was  discovered  in  any  part. 

From  both  these  experiments  it  is  evident :  first,  that  buttermilk  ia 


MEDICINES    TO    DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  201 

not  poisonous  for  horses,  if  it  goes  into  their  stomachs  ;  secondly, 
buttermilk  may  produce  a  fatal  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  if  the 
horse,  on  its  being  administered  through  his  mouth,  swallows  it  in  a 
way  that  part  of  it  enters  the  windpipe  and  the  lungs  themselves. 

The  stomach  only  is  destined  for  the  reception  of  solid  and  liquid 
substances,  the  lungs  being  capable  of  enduring,  without  injury,  none 
but  the  delicate  food  of  the  atmosphere. 

Mr,  Giinther  made  an  opening  into  the  windpipe  of  the  horse,  tlms 
bringing  eight  ounces  of  buttermilk  through  the  windpipe  into  the 
lungs.  Immediately  after,  the  horse  became  restless,  dropping  its 
head,  and  tripping  with  its  feet ;  it  breathed  rapidly,  did  not  lie  down 
during  the  night  following,  refrained  from  eating,  and  exhibited  all 
the  symptoms  which  were  observed  after  the  first  infusion  through 
the  mouth ;  consequently,  a  portion  of  buttermilk  had  entered  the 
lungs.  After  a  lapse  of  thirty-eight  hours  the  animal  was  killed, 
when  the  lungs  were  found  to  be  inflamed,  though  all  the  other 
organs  were  in  a  healthy  condition — corresponding  with  the  first  ex- 
periment. 

Not  only  buttermilk,  however,  may  create  an  inflammation  of  the 
lungs,  on  being  administered  as  an  infusion  through  the  mouth,  but 
every  other  liquid,  even  tepid  water,  may  have  the  same  fatal  result. 

Again,  a  horse  received  eight  ounces  of  oil  of  turpentine  through  an 
opening  into  the  windpipe.  Immediately  after,  it  began  trembling 
and  staggering,  opened  rapidly  and  wide  its  nostrils,  breathed  fast, 
&c.  On  its  body  being  opened,  the  lungs  were  found  to  be  swollen 
and  inflamed,  as  in  former  experiments. 

Another  horse  received  two  pounds  of  brandy  as  an  infusion  through 
his  mouth.  Soon  he  began  coughing,  breathing  rapidly,  &c.  This 
case  was  observed  for  twenty-two  days.  He  recovered  to  some  extent, 
and  ate  tolerably,  but  coughed  much,  had  a  quick  pulse,  looketl  always 
melancholy,  and  grew  lean.  On  opening  the  body,  the  lungs  were 
found  to  be  inflamed,  all  the  other  parts  being  healthy.  A  portion  of 
the  brandy  had  evidently  gone  the  wrong  way,  that  liquor  not  being 
injurious  to  a  horse  when  in  the  stomach  itself. 

An  ounce  of  oil  of  turpentine,  and  a  like  quantity  of  linseed  oil, 
were  administered  to  another  horse^  through  an  opening  of  the  wind- 
pipe. He  forthwith  began  staggering  in  his  walk,  trembled,  threw 
himself  on  the  floor,  and  sprang  uj)  again  immediately;  but  after  six 
or  eight  hours  became  more  quiet,  took  a  little  food,  coughed,  and,  in 
the  course  of  the  six  days  following,  exhibited  only  a  quick  pulse, 
coughed  often,  and  did  not  lie  down,  seeming  otherwise  not  to  be  very 
sick.  Six  days  and  a  half  after  the  infusion  was  given,  the  horse  was 
killed.  Part  of  the  lungs  was  found  to  be  inflamed  and  obdurated. 
This  case  proves  that  even  a  small  quantity  of  an  extraneous  liquid, 
penetrating  into  the  lungs,  is  capable  of  producing  a  dangerous  con- 
dition. How  easy  is  it  for  such  a  small  quantity  to  get  into  the  wind- 
pipe, when  given  as  an  infusion !  Even  when  the  horse  does  not  fall 
immediately,  the  consequences  may  still  be  pernicious. 

The  application  of  two  ounces  of  brandy  through  an  opening  of  the 
windpipe  was  accompanied  by  the  same  bad  effects  as  in  the  former 
experiment. 


202  AGRICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

Another  horse  received  three-fourths  of  a  pound  of  well  water  inta 
the  windpipe.  Much  of  the  liquid  was  ejected  by  coughing,  hut  he 
continued  to  cough,  and  grew  lean,  though  eating  heartily.  When 
he  was  killed,  some  sixteen  days  after,  parts  of  the  lungs  were  found 
to  he  obdurated,  and  therefore  inflamed.  Such  is  the  delicacy  of  the 
lungs,  that  they  are  not  even  capable  of  enduring  water  without 
injury. 

Examining  why  infusions,  chiefly  as  to  the  horse,  may  become  so 
dangerous,  Mr.  Glinther  arrives  at  the  following  conclusions:  The 
horse,  in  consequence  of  his  head  being  forcibly  raised,  is  frightened, 
and  in  this  involuntary  position  must  feel  but  little  disposed  to  swal- 
low ;  he  is  averse  to  receiving  a  liquid  which  he  usually  finds  disagree- 
able ;  in  consequence  of  the  coughing  caused  by  the  operation  of  giving 
the  infusion,  the  flap  of  his  throat  is  opened,  through  which  some 
matter  might  easily  get  into  the  windpipe  thus  exposed ;  the  danger 
is  further  increased,  if  the  entire  space  of  the  mouth  be  at  once  filled 
with  the  infusion ;  and  the  pulling  out  of  the  tongue,  which  is  a  com- 
mon practice,  renders  deglutition  more  difiicult,  of  course  increasing 
the  probability  of  a  portion  taking  the  wrong  course.  Should  he 
be  suffering  at  the  time  from  inflammation  of  the  lungs  or  throat,  the 
infusion  will  be  so  much  more  dangerous. 

In  consequence  of  the  results  of  these  and  other  experiments,  the 
practice  of  giving  infusions  has  been  banished  from  the  Veterinary 
School  at  Hanover,  and  most  of  the  veterinary  surgeons  throughout 
the  kingdom,  ranking  among  the  best  in  their  profession,  have  also 
discontinued  it. 

It  may  be  replied,  by  some,  and  even  surgeons  among  them,  that 
they  often  administered  potions  without  having  experienced  any  inju- 
ries— an  assertion  perhaps  correct  to  some  extent ;  but  injuries  have 
doubtless  been  done,  even  without  the  operators  being  aware  of  them. 
There  are  frequent  cases  in  which  an  infusion  will  not  immediately 
result  in  a  serious  disease,  and  after  the  horse  has  been  relieved  of  his 
original  sufferings,  the  owner  is  satisfied.  Yet,  if  coughing  should 
continue,  perhaps  for  months,  if  the  animal  should  have  a  bad  breath, 
and  if  he  should  grow  lean,  some  persons  may  attribute  such  symp- 
toms of  lung  disease  to  other  causes  than  the  true  one — the  infusions 
formerly  given.  It  is^,  nevertheless,  true,  and  many  horses  having  so 
called  "rotten  lungs,"  owe  them  to  infusions,  even  if  they  had  been 
given  long  ago.  If  I  may  be  allowed  to  draw  inferences  from  my 
own  experience,  I  must  contend  that  infusions  are,  in  most  cases,  fatal, 
and  always  dangerous. 

That  infusions  given  through  the  nose  are  far  more  dangerous  than 
those  through  the  mouth,  is  self-evident.  It  often  happens  that  the 
horse  thus  treated  will  suffocate  on  the  spot,  and  generally  will  die, 
sooner  or  later,  of  disease  of  the  lungs.  Yet,  though_  this  practice 
may  not  always  be  followed  by  fatal  consequences,  it  will  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases,  as  my  own  experience  would  prove. 

In  fatal  cases  through  either  of  these  modes  of  administering  infu- 
sions, I  always  found  the  pituitary  membrane  of  the  flap  of  the  throat, 
of  the  windpipe,  and  even  that  of  the  lungs,  to  a  great  extent  to  be 
bluish-red,  but  more  frequently  very  dark-yellow,  almost  blackish. 


MEDICINES    TO   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  203 

Aside  from  tlie  evil  consequences  resulting  from  infusions,  there  are 
unavoidable  inconveniences.  Several  persons  are  required  to  perform 
the  operation,  a  portion  of  the  medicine  is  apt  to  be  lost  or  wasted,  so 
that  the  quantity  contemplated  does  not  get  into  the  stomach  ;  the 
bottle  is  liable  to  be  broken  by  the  teeth,  so  that  there  is  danger  of  the 
horse  swallowing  some  of  the  glass  ;  and  the  clothes  of  the  persons 
engaged  are  more  or  less  soiled.  That  infusions  in  diseases  of  the 
organs  of  respiration  are  a  great  deal  more  dangerous,  has  already 
been  mentioned  ;  but  they  must  be  absolutely  censured  in  cases  of 
tetanus,  swollen  tongue,  inflammation  of  the  brain,  &e. 

Fourthly,  in  the  form  of  electuaries:  These  are  prepared  by  converting 
the  medicinal  substances,  for  the  most  part  powder,  into  a  paste,  by 
means  of  some  agglutinant  and  cold  water.  Formerly,  it  was  almost  a 
general  custom  to  employ  honey,  sirup,  elderberry-jam,  or  some  other 
sweet  substance ;  but  at  present  flour  is  preferred,  inasmuch  as  these 
sweet  substances  cause  the  electuaries  to  be  rather  expensive,  and  also 
impart  a  tendency,  in  warm  weather,  to  ferment  and  become  acid.  In 
some  cases,  for  instance,  inflammation  of  the  throat,  or  lock-jaw,  honey 
may  still  be  used,  as  the  animal  will  be  more  inclined  to  swallow  the 
electuaries  when  seasoned  by  this  addition. 

Almost  every  medicinal  substance,  liquid  as  well  as  powder,  maybe 
made  into  jellies,  or  electuaries.  Thus,  if  it  be  desired  to  prepare  oil 
of  turpentine,  it  is  first  mixed  with  the  powder,  receiving  afterward 
some  flour  and  water,  so  that  it  becomes  a  jelly  simply  by  being  stirred. 
Eye-flour  is  best  for  this  purpose;  but  wheat-flour,  or  even  groats,  may 
be  used.  In  the  latter  case,  the  jelly  is  less  convenient  to  administer. 
The  amount  of  flour  is  not  a  matter  of  importance,  as  adaptability 
alone  should  be  considered,  the  quantity  being  proportioned  to  the 
amount  of  the  medicine  itself.  If  there  are  many  salts,  for  instance, 
Glauber's,  more  flour  will  be  required  than  if  the  medicine  were  to 
consist  of  powders  made  of  seeds,  roots,  orVorts.  Some  electuaries, 
after  standing,  become  too  thin,  on  account  of  the  salts  being  dissolved, 
in  which  case  they  should  be  mixed  with  the  requisite  quantity  of  flour. 
Again,  if  powders  are  employed,  the  electuaries  gradually  become  too 
stiff  and  crumbling,  when  water  should  be  added.  By  flour  or  water, 
according  to  circumstances,  the  electuaries  may  always  be  given  the 
form  desired.  A  proper  consistency  would  be  such  that  the  jelly  will 
not  flow  off  the  spatula,  below  described,  nor  fall  when  the  instrument 
may  be  reversed.  Any  person  may  prepare  the  jellies,  after  having 
X3rocured  the  requisite  medical  substances. 

The  jelly  may  be  applied  with  the  hand  upon  the  horse's  tongue, 
which  should  be  pulled  to  some  extent  out  of  his  mouth.  A  preferable 
mode,  however,  is  by  means  of  a  wooden  spatula,  the  blade  of  which 
should  be  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  inches  long  by  one  and  a  half 
wide. 

In  administering  the  jellies,  one  person  places  himself  at  the  left 
side  of  the  horse,  and  seizes  the  halter  with  the  noseband,  so  as  to  hold 
ts  head  steady;  or  this  object  may  be  accomplished  by  one  hand 
taking  hold  of  the  back  of  the  nose,  while  the  lower  jaw  is  kept  by  the 
other.  A  second  person,  standing  on  the  right  side,  draws  out  with 
his  left  hand  the  tongue  of  the  horse,  and  with  the  spatula  applies  the 


204  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

jelly  to  the  back  part  of  it,  when  the  tongue  is  immediately  set  free. 
The  horse  commences  a  chewing  movement,  endeavoring,  in  this  man- 
ner, to  get  rid  of  the  disagreeable  medicine;  in  which,  however,  he 
does  not  succeed,  as  he  cannot  spit.  In  consequence  of  the  chewing, 
&c.,  a  great  deal  of  saliva  is  produced  in  the  mouth,  thus  thinning 
the  jelly;  and  shortly  after  he  is  seen  to  swallow.  Should  both  his 
mouth  and  tongue  remain  still,  the  broad  end  of  the  spatula  is  brought 
across  the  fore-part  of  the  mouth  and  turned  like  a  twirling  stick,  by 
which  he  is  forced  to  chew  and  swallow.  It  is  not  necessary  to  hold 
up  the  head  of  the  horse  after  the  performance,  for  if  the  jelly  is  well 
prepared  it  will  adhere  to  the  tongue. 

By  the  application  of  jellies,  almost  every  other  form  of  medicine 
may  be  dispensed  with,  and  all  danger  avoided.  But  little  practice 
will  be  necessary  to  perform  the  operation  well.  For  a  series  of  years, 
I  have  been  in  the  habit  of  using  this  mode  almost  exclusively,  finding 
that  my  patients  do  better  than  with  infusions. 

Fifthly,  as  pills.  With  the  exception  of  jelly,  this  is  the  best  form  of 
medicine.  The  horse  receiving  the  pill,  which  is  not  chewed,  wholly 
and  without  loss  into  his  stomach,  the  doses  to  be  applied  can  always 
be  given  accurately^  which  is  of  great  importance,  especially  where  a 
powerful  effect  is  desired.  Even  the  most  disagreeable  medicine  must 
be  swallowed,  when  administered  in  the  shape  of  pills.  They  are 
usually  made  of  several  substances,  which,  by  means  of  an  aggluti- 
nant,  such  as  flour,  black  soap,  &c.,  can  be  readily  formed,  v/ithout 
adhering  to  the  hands  or  changing  their  shape.  This  should  be  oval, 
of  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  from  one  to  one  and  a 
half  inches  long.  If  too  small,  they  are  liable  to  get  between  the 
molar  teeth ;  if  too  large,  they  are  apt  to  remain  in  the  throat. 

To  administer  the  pills  properly,  will  require  some  practice.  As  the 
horse  usually  tries  to  resist,  his  position  in  the  stall  is  reversed.  Then 
his  tongue  is  pulled  out  by  the  left  hand  toward  the  right  side,  and  the 
pill,  placed  at  the  end  of  a  pill-stick  moderately  pointed,  and  of  the  size 
of  a  finger,  is  introduced  into  the  mouth,  and  deposited  upon  the  back 
part  of  the  tongue,  after  which  the  tongue  is  immediately  let  loose. 
Should  the  horse  not  at  once  swallow  the  pill,  he  should  be  given  some 
water  to  drink,  or  a  light  slap  on  his  mouth,  in  consequence  of  which 
he  will  be  scared,  and  thus  swallow  it.  Precaution  should  be  used, 
not  to  injure  with  the  stick  the  palate  or  other  portions  of  the  back  of 
the  mouth. 

It  is  better  to  give  these  pills  merely  with  the  hand.  The  tongue 
is  pulled  out,  as  above,  the  pill  is  taken  between  the  tips  of  the  fingers 
of  the  right  hand,  and,  by  moving  it  along  the  palate,  brought  upon 
the  back  part  of  the  tongue,  which  is  immediately  let  loose,  care  being 
taken  to  prevent  injury  to  the  operator  from  the  molar  teeth  of  the 
animal.  The  hand,  therefore,  should  be  kept  in  the  middle  of  the 
cavity  of  the  mouth. 

The  '^ pill-stick,"  a  wooden  instrument,  similar  to  a  syringe,  is  well 
adapted  for  giving  the  pills.  Within  a  cylinder,  there  is  a  stick  about 
the  size  of  a  finger,  and  of  the  same  length  as  the  tube,  having  a 
handle  at  the  end.  At  the  other  end,  the  instrument,  being  thicker 
than  at  the  longer  portion,  is  provided  with  a  hollow,  as  a  convenient 


MEDICINES    TO    DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  2 05 

receptacle  for  the  pill.  The  tongue  is  now  pulled  out,  the  instrument 
containing  the  pill  introduced  into  the  mouth,  and  the  rod,  which  has 
previously  heen  drawn  backward,  is  pushed  in,  so  that  the  pill  is  forced 
into  the  mouth.  This  method  is  easily  operated;  and  neither  the 
horse  nor  the  hand  can  be  injured.  To  facilitate  the  entrance  of  the 
pill,  it  may  be  moistened  with  oil,  soap,  or  even  with  water. 

In  some  diseases,  pills  do  not  seem  to  be  applicable,  for  instance,  in 
colic,  as  they  require  too  long  a  time  to  dissolve  in  the  stomach.  What 
duration  may  be  necessary  to  reduce  them  to  a  liquid  state,  I  do  not 
know ;  neither  am  I  aware  that  any  experiments  have  been  made  on 
the  subject. 

In  case  the  pills  become  old,  and  therefore  hard,  they  should  not  be 
given,  for  it  is  to  be  feared  that  they  may  not  sufficiently  dissolve,  but 
pass  off  undigested. 

Beside  these,  there  are  several  other  modes  of  administering  medi- 
cines; thus,  liquids  may  be  given  by  opening  an  artery,  or  by  insert- 
ing an  elastic  tube  through  the  mouth  and  throat  immediately  into  the 
stomach.  None  of  these  latter  methods  should  be  attempted,  how- 
ever, by  the  unprofessional  operator. 

Cattle. — With  this  species  of  animals  there  is  no  difficulty,  nor  is 
there  scarcely  any  danger  in  giving  medicines  ;  which,  as  in  the  case 
of  the' horse,  may  be  administered  in  different  forms: 

As  powder,  they  may  be  given  when  mixed  with  crushed  tubers^ 
among  malt  dust,  groats,  oats,  &c.;  or,  as  a  mixture,  with  the  drink. 
Here,  too,  as  was  remarked  of  the  horse,  this  method  is  rarely  em- 
ployed, for  substances  of  an  intense  odor  or  taste  are  usually  refused. 
Some  liquids  are  taken,  for  instance,  vinegar  and  other  acids,  if  mixed 
with  their  drinking  water.  Pills  and  electuaries  are  rarely  given  to 
cattle,  and,  indeed,  they  may  be  generally  dispensed  with.  On  the 
other  hand,  infusions  deserve  the  preference  with  cattle,  being  quite 
the  reverse  as  to  horses.  The  liquid  is  given  with  a  common  beer  or 
wine  bottle.  For  this  purpose,  the  mouth  of  the  animal  is  raised  and 
opened  a  little  by  means  of  the  fingers,  after  which  the  neck  of  the 
bottle  is  brought  in,  either  from  the  right  or  the  left  side.  So  simple 
is  the  operation  that  it  requires  no  further  description;  yet  it  would 
seem  to  demand  precaution,  as  a  mistake  committed  in  applying  it 
might  result  in  a  disease  of  the  lungs.  If  j)Ossible,  the  medicine 
should  be  given  when  the  animal  is  standing,  and  not  when  lying 
down,  though,  in  the  latter  case,  hardly  anything  can  be  feared,  if  the 
necessary  caution  is  employed.  The  head  should  be  held  horizontally; 
if  it  should  incline  sidewise  toward  the  breast,  the  swallowing  is  not 
only  made  more  difficult,  but  part  of  the  liquid  may  be  liable  to  get 
into  the  windpipe,  causing  coughing  and  perhaps  still  worse  accidents. 
Furthermore,  the  mouth  of  the  animal  should  not  be  held  up  too  high; 
it  is  sufficient  that  the  mouth  be  kept  a  little  higher  than  the  cavity 
of  the  throat,  so  as  to  give  but  a  small  descent  for  the  infusion.  If 
too  high,  a  portion  of  the  liquid  may  get  into  the  windpipe.  It  is 
advisalDle  to  give  a  third  or  half  the  contents  of  the  bottle,  and  then 
to  wait  until  after  it  is  fully  swallowed  before  more  should  be  offered. 
In  inflammation  of  the  throat  and  lungs,  or  especially  in  diseases  of 


206  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

tlie  lungs,  particular  attention  must  be  paid  to  tlie  giving  of  medi- 
cines, wiiicli  ought  always  to  be  administered  in  small  portions. 

Sheep. — It  is  still  easier  to  administer  medicines  to  this  species  of 
animals  than  to  cattle;  beside,  a  single  sheep  rarely  becomes  the  object 
of  medical  treatment.  To  give  medicines  repeatedly  to  whole  flocks 
is  hardly  practicable.  Fortunately,  the  sheep  seldom  abhors  even  such 
remedies  as  have  a  bad  odor  or  taste ;  it  takes  them  voluntarily.  The 
usual  form  is  by  licking.  A  pulverized  medicine,  (sometimes  with  the 
addition  of  pine  oil,)  mixed  with  an  adequate  quantity  of  groats,  oats, 
or  kitchen  salt,  is  laid  before  the  sheep,  by  spreading  the  mixture 
a^ually  in  long  troughs.  It  may  occur  in  this  mode  that  some  of  the 
sheep  will  lick  a  greater  portion  than  they  should,  while  others  con- 
sume little  or  none.  This  is,  indeed,  an  evil,  perhaps  unavoidable; 
yet  there  is  no  great  reason  to  fear  that  a  sheep  will  thus  be  perma- 
nently injured,  as  the  opportunity  only  occurs  at  long  intervals.  If  it 
be  desirable  to  give  medicine  to  a  single  sheep,  it  is  best  administered 
in  the  form  of  an  infusion,  or  even  as  electuaries.  Some  remedies  may 
also  be  given  in  drinking  water. 

Swine. — Medicines,  in  many  cases,  may  be  given  to  swine  in  drink- 
ing water,  or  among  the  fodder.  An  emetic,  for  instance,  may  be 
administered  within  a  potato  made  hollow,  or  in  a  dumpling.  In 
doing  this  it  is  presumed  that  the  hog  has  not  yet  lost  its  appetite  ;  in 
all  other  cases  force  must  be  employed.  But  none  of  our  domestic 
animals  show  so  great  an  opposition  to  compulsion  as  the  hog.  Its 
violent  screaming  on  being  taken  hold  of,  and  during  the  performance 
of  the  operation,  increases  the  liability  of  a  portion  of  the  medicine  to 
get  into  the  windpipe,  thus  causing  all  the  incident  evils. 

The  medicine  should  be  made  into  an  electuary  by  means  of  flour, 
adding  honey  so  as  to  make  it  agreeable  to  the  hog.  This  jelly  should 
always  be  thinner  than  that  destined  for  the  horse,  its  consistency 
being  about  that  of  sirup.  A  small  spatula  should  be  used,  by  which 
to  spread  it  on  the  tongue  and  palate.  In  many  cases  it  is  hardly 
avoidable  to  give  liquids,  when  great  difiiculty  is  experienced,  but  it 
must  be  overcome  as  well  as  possible.  To  secure  the  hog,  requires  the 
assistance  of  several  resolute  persons.  The  animal  is  shoved  with  his 
hind-part  into  a  corner,  where  it  must  be  kept  tight,  and  if  possible 
placed  on  the  hind-part.  A  cudgel  is  then  brought,  in  an  oblique  di- 
rection, into  its  mouth,  which  is  opened  in  consequence  of  its  scream- 
ing. By  the  insertion  of  this  cudgel,  (or  a  short,  thick  piece  of  rope,) 
the  mouth  of  the  animal  is  kept  open.  Another  person  then  pours  the 
liquid  with  a  spoon  (perhaps  best  of  tin)  into  the  mouth,  after  which 
the  cudgel  is  immediately  removed,  so  as  to  facilitate  the  process  of 
swallowing.  This  operation  is  repeated  until  the  quantity  of  medi- 
cine required  has  been  given.  In  using  the  spoon,  the  interval  during 
which  the  hog  does  not  scream  must  always  be  taken  advantage  of.  In 
many  cases  the  liquid  may  be  given  in  a  less  violent  way.  By  con- 
tinually scratching  and  rubbing  the  back  of  the  hog  in  a  gentle 
manner,  it  will  usually  become  quiet  and  lie  down.  During  this 
soothing  process,  a  corner  of  the  lip  is  drawn  backward  from  the  cheek, 
and  the  liquid  poured  in  through  a  thin  neck  of  a  bottle,  or  by  a 
spoon.     Pills  and  stiff  jellies  are  not  suitable  for  hogs. 


ACCLIMATION   OF   ANIMALS.  207 

The  DOG.^Tliis  animal  is  endowed  witli  such  a  fine  sense  of  tasting 
and  smelling  that  he  does  not  willingly  take  a  medicinal  substance  ;  yet 
an  emetic  may  now  and  then  be  given  by  putting  it  into  cakes  or  meat. 
Emetics  may  also,  in  a  dry  state,  be  placed  on  its  tongue.  Pills  are 
fastened  at  the  top  of  a  round  piece  of  wood_,  or  of  a  quill,  and  thus 
inserted  deeply  into  the  mouth.  Liquids  are  poured  into  the  opened 
mouth,  or  are  still  more  easily  given  by  raising  the  nose  of  the  dog, 
taking  hold  of  one  of  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  and  drawing  it  up  and 
sidewise,  so  that  a  kind  of  pouch  is  formed  for  pouring  in  the  liquid, 
which  will  thus  enter  through  the  openings  between  the  teeth.  This 
does  not  require  any  particular  precaution,  as  the  dog  will  not  be 
liable  to  swallow  the  liquid  the  wrong  way. 


ACCLIMATION  AND  DOMESTICATION  OE  ANIMALS. 


BY  DR.  B.  F.  CRAIG,  OF  WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 


There  is  a  matter  of  very  wide  interest  which,  like  those  spoken  of 
in  a  preceding  article,  requires,  for  its  successful  prosecution,  to  be 
put  in  the  charge  of  educated  veterinarians  ;  and,  as  a  preliminary  to 
the  consideration  of  it,  I  would  ask  leave  to  quote  from  a  lecture  de- 
livered by  Daubenton,  the  celebrated  collaborator  of  Buffon. 

"The  object  of  veterinary  science  is  to  set  forth  the  proper  methods 
■of  perpetuating  among  domestic  animals  those  good  qualities  which 
they  have  acquired  by  means  of  the  culture  which  we  have  bestowed 
upon  them,  and  to  endeavor  to  increase  still  further  their  useful  char- 
acteristics. It  should  also  aim  at  reducing  to  the  domesticated  con- 
dition those  wild  animals  which  promise  to  be  of  service  to  us  by 
means  of  their  labor,  or  of  their  useful  j)roducts. 

"There  are  many  animals  of  foreign  countries  which  might  be  very 
useful  to  France,  if  they  were  once  naturalized  there, 

"It  is  as  practicable  to  tame  the  zebra  as  to  have  tamed  the  Avild  ass 
and  the  wild  horse.  If  the  tapir  were  naturalized  in  France  it  would 
furnish,  not  only  a  new  kind  of  butcher's  meat,  but  an  additional 
article  of  commerce.  There  are  many  animals  in  America  whose  flesh 
is  very  good  food,  such  as  the  peccary,  the  cariacou,  the  Guinea  pig, 
the  agouti,  the  akouchi.  There  are,  in  that  country,  armadillos,  whose 
flesh  is  as  white  and  as  good  as  that  of  a  sucking  pig.  Attempts 
should  be  made  to  introduce  all  these  animals  into  France,  and  to  re- 
duce them  to  the  condition  of  domestication. 

"The  investigations  of  veterinary  economy  need  not  be  confined  to 
quadrupeds,  but  should  be  extended  to  other  classes  of  animals,  and  to 


208  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT 

birds.  We  miglit  introduce  into  our  poultry  yards  the  greater  and 
the  lesser  bustard.  The  ruddock  and  the  pilet,  the  grouse,  and  espe- 
cially the  moor-cock,  would  make  very  good  poultry.'' 

After  speaking  of  certain  other  birds,  he  goes  on:  '"''Why  should 
certain  fishes  be  confined  to  particular  seas  and  lakes  ?  Is  it  not  prac- 
ticable to  naturalize,  in  the  running  waters  of  France,  the  umber,  which 
is  found,  at  present,  only  in  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  andthelavaret,  which 
is  confined  to  the  Lake  of  Bourget,  and  to  that  of  Aigue-Bellete,  in 
Savoy. 

"I  have  dwelt  upon  the  establishment  of  the  complete  veterinary 
art  in  order  to  show  that^  from  its  relations  with  natural  history,  still 
greater  benefits  may  be  derived  than  are  now  got  from  its  relations 
with  medicine.  Those  animals  yet  untamed,  or  those  known  only  in 
foreign  countries,  which  we  can  justly  hope  to  make  useful  to  ourselves^ 
should  be  found  out,  and  placed  in  the  hands  of  veterinarians  to  be 
tamed  and  domesticated,  and  to  be  broken  into  those  habits  which  we 
wish  them  to  acquire." 

These  paragraphs  suggest  considerations  of  greater  importance  than 
many  would  at  first  sight  be  disposed  to  accord  to  them,  and  open  a 
subject  where  discussion  might  very  well  occupy  an  entire  volume,  but 
which,  from  its  necessary  connection  with  veterinary  science,  may^ 
with  propriety,  have  its  outline  here  given. 

Of  all  the  arts  by  which  man  has  acquired  dominion  over  Nature, 
that  of  the  domestication  of  animals  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and 
most  important,  and  perhaps  of  all  others  has  the  most  curious  history. 

Other  arts  have  been,  with  various  periods  of  rest,  and  even  of  retro- 
gression, pretty  constantly  progressive  during  the  period  of  man's 
existence  upon  the  earth ;  and  at  the  present  time  we  have,  it  has  been 
remarked,  with  regard  to  most  of  them,  not  only  the  accumulated 
results  of  previous  progress,  but  an  accumulation  of  progressive  motion^ 
which  is  carrying  us  forward,  by  a  sort  of  vis  momenti,  in  the  path  of 
■  improvement,  each  change  for  the  better  disposing  us  the  more  to  seek 
for  and  to  accept  further  change. 

The  domestication  of  wild  animals,  which  much  necessarily  have 
been  one  of  the  first  steps  of  man  toward  civilization,  seems  to  have 
been,  at  some  period  anterior  to  recorded  history,  carried  to  a  certain 
pointy  and  to  have  remained  almost  stationary  ever  since,  until  the  long 
absence  of  progress  has  made  the  veiy  idea  of  progress  difficult  to  be 
reoeived.  When  the  natural  history  of  the  horse,  of  the  ox,  of  the 
sheep,  and  of  most  other  domestic  animals,  is  examined,  they  are  found 
to  have  been  originally  natives,  not  of  the  regions  in  which  they  are 
found  now  in  the  greatest  perfection,  but  of  the  continent  of  Asia, 
where,  in  the  primitive  seats  of  the  human  race,  they  have  been  reduced 
to  tameness,  and  from  whence  they  have  been  carried,  as  companions 
of  man,  over  the  rest  of  the  now  inhabited  world.  Although  the  diifer- 
ent  beasts  of  burden — the  horse,  the  ass,  the  various  species  of  ox,  the 
camel,  the  East  Indian  bufi"alo^  and  the  elephant — have  doubtless  been 
tamed  at  different  periods  of  time,  yet  the  period  at  which  any  of  them 
was  first  domesticated  is  too  far  back  for  a  record  of  it  to  have  been 
preserved ;  and  even  among  animals  which  are  valuable  only  for  their 
flesh,  or  for  their  skins  and  fleece,  hardly  a  species  can  be  found  which 


ACCLIMATION    OF   ANIMALS.  209 

lias  been  domesticated  in  modern  times.  Nor  have  tlie  advantages, 
often  not  inconsiderable,  that  a  country  derives  from  the  wild  animals 
suitable  for  food  which  are  found  within  it,  been  much  improved  on  by 
artificial  means,  although  such  beasts,  birds,  and  fishes,  require  little 
care  beyond  that  attending  their  first  transplantation. 

That  there  are  no  animals  capable  of  useful  domestication  except 
those  which  have  been  tamed  by  our  ancestors,  is  hardly  to  be  imagined, 
whether  we  form  our  opinion  from  a  general  view  of  the  subject,  or 
from  a  closer  examination  of  facts.  It  is  quite  certain  that  there  are 
those  now  domesticated  which  may,  with  great  propriety,  be  carried 
to  places  in  which  they  are,  as  yet,  unknown ;  and,  finally,  it  seems 
highly  probable  and  reasonable  that  man  may  assist  Nature  in  effecting 
the  distribution  of  wild  animals  over  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  may 
bring  about  the  general  spread  of  the  valuable,  as  well  as  the  extermi- 
nation of  the  noxious  species. 

The  agitation  of  the  question  of  the  acclimation  and  domestication 
of  new  animal  species,  by  Daubenton,  Buffon,  and  others,  has  been 
followed  by  some  advances  in  later  times.  In  1849,  a  report  was  made 
to  the  Minister  of  Agriculture  of  France,  by  Mons.  J.  Geoffroy  St. 
Hilaire,  upon  the  naturalization  of  useful  animals,  which  was  published, 
and  produced  the  effect  of  calling  increased  attention  to  the  subject. 
In  1854,  a  more  extended  work  on  the  subject  was  published  by  the 
above-mentioned  eminent  savan^  and  the  same  year  saw  the  establish- 
ment, in  France,  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  Acclimation. 

This  society  has  been  distinguished  from  its  very  commencement 
for  the  activity  and  the  success  of  its  operations ;  and,  while  we  must 
expect  many  years  to  pass  before  the  fruits  of  its  labors  can  be  reaped, 
there  can  be  little  doubt  but  that  it  will,  in  the  course  of  time,  contribute 
greatly  to  the  prosperity  of  the  human  race,  and  to  the  true  glory  of 
the  country  in  which  it  had  its  origin.  An  idea  of  the  character  of  its 
labors  may,  perhaps,  best  be  communicated  by  giving  an  account  of  a 
few  of  the  objects  toward  which  the  attention  of  its  members  has  been 
directed. 

The  introduction  into  Europe  of  useful  animals,  already  domesticated 
in  other  parts  of  the  world,  would  naturally  be  one  of  the  first  enter- 
prises; and  among  such  animals  those  of  the  llama  tribe  of  South 
America,  which  includes  the  llama  proper,  the  alpaca,  and  the  vicuiia, 
have  particularly  engaged  the  attention  of  i^aturalists. 

These  animals,  which  are  the  only  beasts  of  burden  indigenous  to 
the  American  continent,  inhabit  the  lofty  table-lands  of  the  Andes, 
where  they  breathe  a  highly  rarifiecl  atm.osphere,  often  endure  intense 
cold,  and  live  on  a  very  scanty  vegetation.  They  are  valued  by  the 
people  of  Peru,  and  of  the  neighboring  countries,  for  carrying  burdens, 
for  their  milk,  for  their  flesh,  their  skin,  and  their  fleece;  this  latter, 
and  especially  that  of  ihe  alpaca,  is  not  only  in  use  for  domestic 
manufacture  in  the  countries  in  which  it  is  produced,  but  is  also,  as  is 
well  known,  a  very  important  article  of  commerce.  The  acclimation 
of  the  llama  and  alpaca,  elsewhere  than  on  their  native  soil,  seems  to 
be  opposed  by  a  peculiar  obstacle,  arising  from  the  fact  that  not  only 
is  the  temperature  of  the  air  in  which  they  live  altered  by  their  trans- 
plantation, but  also  its  condition  as  to  density,  so  that  the  most  appro- 
14 A 


210  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

priate  course  would  seem  to  be  to  plant  a  colony  of  tliem  on  some  lofty 
mountain  or  table-land,  whence  they  might  gradually  spread  downward 
into  the  adjoining  plains.  Experience,  however,  has  shown  that  the 
pliability  of  the  animal  constitution  enables  the  llama  to  thrive  well 
in  several  European  countries  to  which  it  has  been  carried,  even  in  the 
low  plains  of  Holland. 

The  naturalization  of  the  llama  in  Europe  was  strongly  recommended 
by  Buffon,  and  many  animals  have  already  been  introduced  in  private 
parks  and  menageries.  It  may,  however,  be  reserved  for  the  Society 
of  Acclimation  to  distribute  them  to  a  usei\il  extent. 

An  animal  which  resembles  the  llama  in  the  character  of  the  country 
of  which  it  is  a  native,  and  in  the  variety  of  the  uses  to  which  it  may 
be  put,  is  the  yak,  of  Tartary  and  Thibet,  otherwise  known  as  the 
horse-tailed  ox,  or  the  grunting  ox,  the  Bos  Posphagos  of  ^Elian. 
This  peculiar  species  of  ox  is  found  among  the  lofty  peaks  and  plateaus 
of  the  Himalayas,  in  certain  parts  of  Tartar}^,  and  in  the  north  of 
China.  It  is  called  by  the  Chinese  the  washing  ox,  from  its  fondness 
for  entering  the  water. 

The  yak  combines  in  itself  many  of  the  characteristics  of  diiferent 
classes  of  animals.  It  has  the  general  form  of  the  ox;  in  some  points 
of  its  configuration,  in  the  character  of  its  tail,  in  its  gait,  and  by  its 
swiftness,  it  resembles  the  horse  ;  it  has  the  fleece  of  the  sheep;  the 
sure-footedness  and  activity  of  the  goat;  and,  lastly,  the  voice  of  the 
pig,  or  rather  a  deep  grunt  resembling  that  of  the  pig,  whence,  doubt- 
less, its  name  of  yak.  The  yak  supplies  the  place  of  all  the  above- 
mentioned  animals  in  countries  where  hardly  any  other  domestic 
animal  is  known  ;  it  is  used  under  the  saddle,  employed  to  carry  bur- 
dens, and  to  draw  the  plow  and  the  cart,  is  valued  as  a  source  of  milk, 
for  its  abundant  fleece,  out  of  which  a  serviceable  and  water-proof 
cloth  is  spun,  and  for  its  flesh  when  dead. 

The  tail  of  the  yak  is  particularly  noticeable  for  its  size  and  beauty, 
and  has,  in  certain  Asiatic  countries,  a  symbolic  importance  attached 
to  it  as  an  emblem  of  power  and  grandeur.  The  yak-tail  was  the 
ancient  standard  of  Turkish  chiefs  and  kings,  although,  by  the  migra- 
tion of  that  people  westward,  the  name  of  the  emblem  has  been  changed 
to  the  horse-tail,  those  by  whom  it  is  now  used  never  having  seen,  and 
perhaps  never  having  heard  of,  the  animal  which  their  forefathers 
honored  so  much. 

About  the  time  of  the  establishment  of  the  Society  of  Acclimation, 
a  troop  of  yaks  was  sent  to  France  by  Mons.  de  Montigny,  the  French 
consul  at  Shanghai,  who  had  them  brought  to  him  from  the  northern 
parts  of  the  Chinese  empire.  On  their  arrival  in  Europe,  some  of  them 
were  sent,  under  the  charge  of  the  Society  of  Acclimation,  to  the 
most  cold  and  mountainous  regions  of  France,  where  they  are  said  to 
be  doing  remarkably  well. 

While  thus  bringing  about  the  introduction  of  the  domestic  animals 
of  foreign  countries  into  Europe,  the  society  has  not  left  unattempted 
the  great  enterprise  of  the  taming  of  animals  never  before  broken  to 
human  uses.  The  most  favorable  subjects  for  such  attempts  are  to  be 
looked  for  among  those  genera  of  animals,  some  species  of  which  have 
been  already  domesticated.     Now,  the  horse  genus  consists  of  six  spe- 


ACCLIMATION   OF   ANIMALS.  211 

cies,  tliree  of  wliicli  are  natives  of  Africa,  and  three  of  Asia.  None 
of  the  African  species  have  been  domesticated,  while  the  Asiatics  have 
tamed  two  out  of  the  three  found  on  tlieir  continent,  namely,  the  horse 
proper,  and  the  ass.  Very  recently  a  new  animal  has  been  brought 
from  Asia,  which  is  held  to  be  another  and  distinct  species  of  the  horse 
genus.  Passing  over,  for  the  present,  the  African  species,  we  find  the 
yet  untamed  animal  of  the  Asiatic  steppes  to  deserve,  and  to  have 
received,  particular  attention  from  those  having  in  view  the  domestica- 
tion of  new  races.  This,  the  Equus  Hemionus  of  naturalists,  the 
dzigguetai  of  the  Tartars,  has  been  but  little  known  until  recent  years. 
It  is  a  denizen  of  barren  plains,  where  it  gleans  a  sustenance  from 
scattered  patches  of  vegetation,  passing  with  great  swiftness  from  one 
place  to  another  in  search  of  food  and  water.  It  is  w^ary  and  timid, 
and  its  great  fleetness,  in  which,  according  to  the  testimony  of  Pallas, 
and  of  others,  it  surpasses  all  other  quadrupeds,  secures  it  from  beasts 
of  prey  and  enables  it  easily  to  outstrip  the  horses  and  dogs  of  the 
hunter. 

The  Tartars,  wdio  are  fond  of  its  flesh,  sometimes  kill  it  by  ambush 
and  stratagem,  and  sometimes  secure  it  by  surrounding  it  by  a  circle 
of  hunters,  after  the  Asiatic  fashion.  The  form  of  the  Hemionus  is 
strikingly  characteristic  of  an  animal  made  for  swift  running,  having 
the  various  points  of  figure  which  distinguish  the  racing  or  blooded 
horse,  a  figure  which  is  produced  in  the  horse  by  the  efforts  of  art  and 
by  careful  breeding,  but  which  belongs  to  the  Hemionus  by  Nature. 
Among  such  points  may  be  mentioned,  the  large  angle  formed  at  the 
junction  of  the  head  and  neck,  which,  by  avoiding  an  abrupt  bend  in 
the  air  passages,  enables  the  breath  to  be  drawn  with  greater  ease  and ' 
rapidity  than  it  could  be  otherw^ise ;  the  horizontal  position  of  the  neck, 
which  throws  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  body  well  forAvard  while  in 
the  act  of  running ;  the  long  and  straight  body,  somewhat  higher 
before  than  behind ;  the  powerful  haunches  and  the  flat  limbs,  in  which 
the  tendons  are  large  in  proportion  to  the  bones. 

The  Hemionus  is  supposed  to  be  the  animal  which,  under  the  name 
of  the  wild  ass,  is  spoken  of  in  the  following  terms  in  th6  Book  of 
Job:  "Whose  house  I  have  made  the  wilderness,  and  the  barren  land 
his  dwellings.  The  range  of  the  mountains  is  his  pasture,  and  he 
searcheth  after  every  green  thing. ^' 

It  is,  of  course,  somewhat  difficult  to  capture  alive  an  animal  of  such 
exceeding  swiftness,  and  which  keeps  far  aloof  from  the  habitations 
of  man;  nevertheless,  through  the  influence  of  the  French  consul  at 
Bombay,  a  few  of  them  have  been  taken  in  the  deserts  of  the  north- 
western part  of  Hindoostan,  and  sent  to  France,  where  they  have  been 
found  to  be  quite  docile  as  well  as  hardy. 

An  animal  which  occupies  a  much  humbler  position  in  the  scale  of 
creation  than  any  of  the  foregoing,  but  whose  apparently  insignificant 
labors  are  nevertheless  of  great  importance  to  man,  has  attracted  con- 
siderable attention  from  the  Society  of  Acclimation.  Beside  the  silk- 
worm of  the  mulberrry,  or  morus  multicaulis,  there  exist  in  Eastern 
Asia  species  which  live  on  the  leaves  of  various  other  trees,  such  as  the 
oak,  the  chestnut,  the  ricimcs  communis  or  palma  Christi,  &g.  It  has 
been  thought  highly  desirable  to  introduce  into  France,  silk-worms 


212  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

that  can  be  fed  on  the  leaves  of  plants  which  are  now  abundant,  and 
much  progress  is  said  to  have  been  already  made  toward  the  naturali- 
zation there  of  those  of  the  oak  and  of  the  ricinus  communis. 

The  deficiency  of  animal  food  among  the  population  of  France  has 
induced  the  Society  of  Acclimation  to  aim  at  the  introduction  of 
various  animals  whose  flesh  is  suitable  for  human  use.  Some  of  these 
it  is  proposed  to  domesticate,  and  others  to  naturalize  in  a  wild  state, 
particular  endeavors  being  made  to  select  those  animals  which  would 
inhabit  places  not  suitable  for  cultivation,  and  live  on  vegetation  which 
is  not  used  by  man  nor  consumed  by  other  species  of  game. 

The  variety  of  animals  which  it  has  been  proposed  to  acclimate  for 
■  such  purposes  is,  as  may  be  expected,  very  great,  and  some  of  these 
possess  interesting  peculiarities  of  structure  or  of  character.  The 
South  American  tapir  is  a  quadruj)ed  of  considerable  size,  which  resem- 
bles the  hog,  by  its  general  form  and  by  its  tendency  to  fatten,  while 
its  proboscis,  which  enables  it  to  feed  on  small  trees  and  under-brush, 
assimilates  it  to  the  elephant.  The  tapir  has  been  domesticated  in 
Brazil,  and  used  for  burdens,  being  able  to  carry  more  than  a  mule, 
and  being  found  to  be  a  very  docile  and  manageable  animal.  State- 
ments as  to  the  character  of  its  flesh  differ. 

There  are  found  in  South  America  several  small  quadrupeds,  inhab- 
itants of  woods,  marshes,  and  pamj^as,  which,  it  is  thought,  might  be 
introduced  with  similar  places  elsewhere,  especial  value  being  set  upon 
those  which  are  allied  to  the  hare  and  rabbit. 

Among  the  many  species  of  antelope  which  inhabit  southern  Africa, 
are  some  of  great  size  and  of  excellent  flesh,  such  as  the  eland,  or  Bose- 
laplius  orcas,  which  has  been  introduced  into  England,  and  which  it 
has  been  proposed  to  keep  and  fatten  in  parks  and  forests. 

We  find  in  Knight's  English  Encyclopedia  the  following  remarks 
concerning  this  animal:  "The  eland  is  a  large,  heavy  animal,  which, 
when  full  grown,  weighs  from  seven  to  nine  hundredweight,  and, 
contrary  to  the  usual  rule  observed  among  antelopes,  is  commonly  ex- 
tremely fat.  Its  flesh  is  consequently  more  praised  than  that  of  any 
other  wild  animal  of  south  Africa,  and  the  large  muscles  of  the  thighs, 
in  particular,  are  held  in  the  highest  estimation,  when  dried  and  cured, 
under  which  form  they  are  denominated  thigh  tongues.  The  charac- 
ter of  this  animal  is  very  mild,  and,  as  it  were,  predisposed  to  domes- 
tication; it  is  gregarious,  and  lives  in  large  herds  upon  the  open 
plains  and  low  hills,  the  old  males  generally  residing  apart. 

"They  are  so  gentle  that  a  man  on  horse-back  may  penetrate  into 
the  middle  of  the  herd  without  alarming  them,  and  pick  out  the  fat- 
test and  best  conditioned;  and,  as  the  old  bulls  are  commonly  chosen, 
on  account  of  their  greater  size  and  weight,  it  not  unfrequently  hap- 
pens that  the  herd  is  left  altogether  without  a  male." 

Mr.  Livingstone  says:  "Our  party  was  well  supplied  with  eland 
flesh,  during  our  passage  through  the  desert;  and,  it  being  superior 
to  beef,  and  the  animal  as  large  as  an  ox,  it  seems  strange  it  has  not 
yet  been  introduced  into  England."  After  having  penetrated  some 
distance  into  the  interior  of  southern  Africa,  Mr.  Livingston  found 
a  new  variety  of  the  eland,  with  whose  beauty  and  fine  proportions  he 
was  much  impressed.     The  engraving  of  it,  published  in  the  account 


ACCLIMATION    OF   ANIMALS.  213 

of  liis  travels,  represents  it  as  having,  in  a  very  marked  degree,  tliat 
rectangular  outline  of  body  whicli,  it  has  been  remarked,  is  the  con- 
figuration most  to  be  desired  in  animals  destined  for  food,  since  it  gives 
the  greatest  amount  of  flesh  within  the  smallest  surface. 

Sir  Cornwallis  Harris  remarks  of  the  eland:  "In  shape  and  gen- 
eral appearance,  he  resembles  a  gazerat  ox,  not  unfrequently  attaining 
the  height  of  nineteen  hands  at  the  withers,  and  absolutely  weighing 
from  fifteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  pounds.  By  all  classes  in  Atrica, 
the  flesh  of  the  eland  is  deservedly  esteemed  over  that  of  any  other 
animal. 

"Both  in  grain  and  flavor  it  resembles  beef,  but  is  far  better  tasted 
and  more  delicate,  possessing  a  pure  game  flavor,  and  exhibiting  the 
most  tempting  looking  layers  of  fat  and  lean,  the  surprising  quantity 
of  the  former  ingredient,  with  which  it  is  interlarded,  exceeding  that 
of  any  other  game  quadruped  with  which  I  am  acquainted.  The  ven- 
ison fairly  melts  in  the  mouth ;  and,  as  for  the  brisket,  that  is  abso- 
lutely a  cut  for  a  monarch.  During  the  greater  part  of  our  journey, 
it  was  to  the  flesh  of  this  goodly  beast  that  we  principally  looked  for 
our  daily  rations,  both  on  account  of  its  vast  superiority  over  all  other 
wild  flesh,  and  from  the  circumstance  of  its  being  obtainable  in  larger 
quantitities  with  comparatively  less  labor," 

Passing  over  many  valuable  quadrupeds,  from  various  parts  of  the 
world,  we  find,  among  birds,  and  especially  among  those  of  southern 
and  tropical  countries,  quite  a  number  which  promise  to  be  of  value, 
if  acclimated  and  domesticated.  Such  are  the  hocco,  a  handsome  bird, 
more  resembling  the  turkey  than  any  other  domestic  fowl ;  the  Egypt- 
ian goose,  already  a  domestic  bird,  and  prized  for  the  beauty  of  its 
plumage,  as  well  as  for  its  more  substantial  qualities ;  and  a  variety 
of  other  species. 

The  most  remarkable,  however,  of  all  the  feathered  tribe,  seems  to 
be  the  golden-breasted  agami,  of  South  America,  a  bird  whose  sagacity 
and  domestic  habits  are  represented  as  being  more  like  those  of  the 
most  intelligent  quadrupeds,  than  those  belonging  to  any  other  ani- 
mal of  its  own  class.  It  is  said  to  take  the  same  care  of  a  flock  of 
other  birds  that  a  shepherd's  dog  does  of  sheep,  and  to  evince,  like  the 
dog,  great  attachment  to  its  master  and  watchfulness  of  his  premises. 
Concerning  this  bird,  St.  Hilaire  writes :  "The  useful  services  which  the 
agami  is  capable  of  rendering,  have  been  long  since  pointed  out.  It 
is  a  bird,  say  Daubenton  and  Bernardin  de  St.  Pierre,  that  has  the 
instinct  and  the  fidelity  of  the  dog ;  it  will  lead  a  flock  of  poultry,  or 
even  a  flock  of  sheep,  by  whom  it  will  make  itself  obeyed,  although  it 
is  not  larger  than  a  chicken.  It  is  not  less  useful  in  the  poultry-yard 
than  in  the  field ;  it  maintains  order  there,  protects  the  weak  against 
the  strong,  stands  by  young  chickens  and  ducks,  and  divides  among 
them  their  food,  from  which  it  keeps  away  others,  and  will  not  even 
touch  itself.  No  animal,  perhaps,  is  more  easily  taught^  or  naturally 
more  attached  to  man.  But  we  have  not  been  able  to  obtain,  in  this 
cold  climate,  (Paris,)  the  reproduction  of  this  valuable  species.  Ex- 
periments made  in  the  south  of  France  would  doubtless  succeed  bet- 
ter."    The  observations  on  the  habits  of  the  agami,  the  results  of 


214  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

which  are  above  given,  have  heen  made,  not  onl}^  in  its  native  country, 
but  also  in  the  menagery  at  Paris. 

Birds  are  of  service  to  man,  not  only  by  reason  of  the  flesh,  the 
eggs,  and  the  feathers  which  they  produce,  but  also  by  destroying 
noxious  reptiles  and  insects.  There  are  certain  birds  in  Africa  which 
feed  upon  serpents,  and  it  is  proposed  to  acclimate  one  species  of  such, 
the  secretary  bird,  in  the  French  colony  of  Martinique,  which  is  infested 
by  poisonous  snakes,  more  especially  by  the  lance-headed  viper. 

The  destruction  of  insects  by  birds  is  a  matter  of  great  importance 
to  the  agriculturist,  and  where  insect-eating  birds  are  few,  insects 
injurious  to  vegetation  multiply  to  an  enormous  extent.  A  large  num- 
ber of  sparrows  are  said  to  have  been  carried  from  England  to  one  of 
her  Australian  colonies,  with  the  view  of  acclimating  there  a  race  that 
would  protect  the  crops  from  ravage. 

The  transplantation  of  fishes  from  one  place  to  another  was  advo- 
cated by  Daubenton,  and  by  others,  especially  by  Lacepede,  the  author 
of  "The  Natural  History  of  Fishes;"  and  when  we  consider  the  excel- 
lence of  the  flesh  of  certain  fishes,  and  the  great  numbers  of  them 
which  lakes  and  rivers  may,  by  proper  management,  be  made  to  sup- 
port, no  class  of  animals  would  seem  more  deserving  of  such  care. 
The  attention  paid  in  France  to  these  subjects  has,  within  a  few  years, 
led  to  the  establishment  of  what  is  now  very  well  known  as  the  art  of 
fish  cultivation,  or  pisciculture,  it  having  been  found  that,  with  a  little 
care  and  expense,  fish  can  be  raised  from  the  spawn  in  almost  indefinite 
numbers.  Lakes  and  rivers  have,  by  means  of  this  art,  been  restocked 
with  species  that  had  been  almost  entirely  destroyed  in  them,  and 
enriched  by  the  introduction  of  new  ones.  Those  fish  which,  like  the 
salmon,  inhabit  the  sea,  but  enter  rivers  at  certain  periods,  will,  if 
taken  care  of  until  of  a  sufficient  size,  and  then  turned  loose  into  the 
river,  seek  the  sea,  and  return  to  the  same  river  the  next  year,  having 
acquired  in  the  meantime  a  very  greatly  increased  bulk. 

Thus,  the  fish  cultivator  turns  his  swarm  out  to  fatten  in  the  ocean, 
as  well  assured  of  their  return  in  due  time  as  a  shepherd  is  of  the 
coming  back  of  his  flock  to  their  nightly  fold. 

More  lately  still,  it  has  been  discovered  that  the  ova  of  oysters  may 
be  collected  in  large  numbers  on  branches  of  trees,  &c.,  which  are 
placed  in  the  water  above  the  oyster  beds,  and  that  the  embryos,  which 
have  thus  been  saved  from  being  floated  away  and  lost,  may  be  trans- 
planted to  new  beds,  where  they  will  rapidly  increase  in  size  and  mul- 
tiply in  numbers. 

The  Society  of  Acclimation  has  given  incidental  attention  to  the 
introduction  of  new  vegetables,  and  what  it  has  done  with  regard  to 
the  Chinese  sugar-cane,  and  other  plants,  has  produced  great  practical 
results  more  rapidly  than  could  be  expected  in  the  care  of  animals,  the 
growth  and  multiplication  of  which  is  so  much  slower ;  but  its  labors 
in  the  vegetable  kingdom  are  irrelative  to  our  present  subject. 

The  naturalization  of  foreign  animals,  which  is  a  very  useful  and 
praiseworthy  enterprise  in  France,  would  be  one  still  more  so  in  a 
country  which  offers  so  vast  a  field  for  the  support  of  animal  life  as 
does  our  own,  and  which  possesses  a  range  of  climate  and  a  variety  of 
soil  so  great  that  almost  any  animal  might  find  somewhere  in  it  an 


ACCLIMATION    OF   ANIMALS.  215 

appropriate  habitation.  It  is  no  valid  objection  to  the  introduction  of 
a  new  animal  species  to  say  that  those  already  possessed  are  equally 
or  more  valuable,  for  one  animal  does  not  necessarily  displace  another, 
nor  are  we  called  upon  to  make  a  choice  between  them  ;  if  wild,  the 
one  often  lives  on  nourishment  which  would  not  be  made  use  of  by  the 
other,  and  inhabits  places  which  the  other  would  not  frequent ;  if  tame, 
each  is  found  to  be  the  better  adapted  for  certain  uses,  or  for  living  in 
certain  places.  There  is  no  species  of  our  domestic  animals  which  we 
would  be  willing  to  part  Avith  for  the  sake  of  bestowing  more  undivided 
attention  on  those  that  would  be  left ;  and  as  we  have  at  present  no 
animal,  however  humble,  which  does  not  possess  a  value,  may  we  not 
expect  that  those  hereafter  to  be  introduced  or  domesticated  will  also 
find  their  apj)ropriate  uses.  Nor  is  the  idea,  entertained  by  some,  that 
each  animal  is  fitted  only  for  the  soil  and  the  climate  to  which  it  is 
indigenous,  and  cannot  retain  its  health  and  vigor  after  being  carried 
to  a  strange  land,  borne  out  by  an  examination  of  facts.  The  camel 
is  originally,  as  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  the  native  of  a  cold  and 
mountainous  country,  and  recent  travelers  have  found  it  carrying  bur- 
dens over  the  frozen  plains  and  through  the  tremendous  mountain 
passes  of  Thibet;  but  the  same  species,  acclimated  from  time  imme- 
morial in  Arabia  and  Africa,  endures  the  fiercest  rays  of  a  tropical 
sun. 

Horses  are  to  be  found  in  all  climates,  from  Siberia  to  the  Sahara, 
and  if  any  difference  in  the  quality  of  horses  of  different  climates 
exists,  it  is  rather  in  favor  of  that  which  is  most  unlike  their  original 
one.  Whatever  other  animals  man  has  thought  fit  to  carry  with  him 
from  one  place  to  another  exhibit  a  similar  power  of  acclimation. 
Not  that  races  can  be  suddenly  removed  from  one  extreme  of  climate 
to  another,  without  risk  of  perishing,  or  that  the  individual  animals 
who  are  subjected  to  a  removal  involving  a  considerable  change  always 
do  well ;  on  the  contrary,  of  all  transported,  perhaps  only  afev/,  whose 
constitutions  are  well  adapted  for  the  new  condition  of  things,  survive ; 
but  these  become  the  progenitors  of  an  acclimated,  or  naturalized,  race, 
who  perpetuate  among  themselves  a  fitness  for  that  particular  climate ; 
so  that,  if  out  of  a  great  number  tried,  only  two  are  found  who  survive 
the  transportation  and  to  reproduce  their  species,  their  offspring  may 
do  well  and  multiply  rapidly  in  the  new  location. 

In  this  manner  human  agency  may  acclimate  animals  in  countries 
to  which  they  probably  would  not  have  gone  in  their  wild  state,  even 
if  the  way  had  been  open  to  them,  the  acclimated  race  being  a  true 
variety  of  the  animal  produced  by  breeding  from  certain  peculiar 
individuals. 

The  results  which  have  thus  far  attended  the  acclimation  of  the  ani- 
mals of  the  old  continent  on  the  new,  give  great  encouragement  to 
future  attempts.  Not  only  have  such  animals  multiplied  rapidly  in 
the  domestic  condition^  but  also,  in  some  cases,  in  the  wild  state.  Thus, 
on  the  vast  pampas  of  South  America,  the  horse  and  the  ox  exist  wild, 
in  greater  numbers  than  on  any  other  part  of  the  earth,  yet  they  are 
all  sprung  from  the  few  animals  which  escaped  from  the  Spaniards 
after  their  landing  in  the  country. 

Most  of  the  domestic  animals  of  the  old  continent  have  been  accli- 


216  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

mated  in  Nortli  America  witliout  the  least  difficulty,  and  tlie  camel, 
■which,  is  the  last  importation  of  that  kind,  bids  fair  to  do  as  well  as 
those  which  have  gone  before  it. 

The  enterprise  of  naturalizing  foreign  animals  requires  to  be  carried 
on  with  great  judgment,  both  as  to  the  species  to  be  selected  and  to 
the  places  where  they  are  to  be  first  located.  It  is  a  remark  made  by 
an  experienced  naturalist,  that  not  only  are  the  animal  species,  from 
which  selections  may  be  made,  more  numerous  in  the  southern  than  in 
the  northern  parts  of  the  world,  but  that  the  acclimation  of  an  animal 
from  a  warm  region  into  a  cold  one  is  more  easily  accomplished  than 
that  of  an  animal  from  a  colder  into  a  warmer.  Animals  from  a 
warmer  climate  should,  therefore,  other  things  being  equal,  be  chosen 
in  preference;  and,  in  any  country,  the  chief  establishment  for  accli- 
mation should  be  near  its  most  southern  border,  a  point  from  whence 
animals  may,  as  they  become  inured  to  the  climate,  spread  northward. 
An  animal  from  a  cold  climate  should,  however,  be  carried  to  a  warmer 
with  great  caution ;  for  example,  the  fleece-bearing  animals,  from  cold 
mountains  and  table  lands^  such  as  the  llama,  the  alpaca,  and  the  yak, 
should  be  naturalized  in  the  coldest  and  most  mountainous  districts 
that  are  readily  accessible. 

A  further  very  important  care  is  requisite.  Animals  chosen  for 
acclimation  are  often  exposed  to  great  dangers  at  first,  from  the  change 
in  climate  and  habits  to  which  they  are  subjected,  and  this  is  more 
especially  the  case  with  those  which  have  not  been  previously  domesti- 
cated. Their  death,  under  such  circumstances,  not  only  involves  the 
loss  of  the  trouble,  and  expense  which  may  have  been  incurred  in 
procuring  them,  but  has  a  bad  moral  effect  by  discouraging  a  useful 
enterprise,  and  creating  a  false  impression  as  to  its  feasibility.  Such 
difficulties  can  be  best  met  by  putting  the  animals  under  the  care  of 
men  who  are  acquainted,  not  only  with  their  habits,  but  also  with  the 
proper  means  of  preserving  and  of  restoring  their  health.  Under  the 
charge  of  skillful  veterinarians,  establishments  for  the  acclimation  of 
animals  might  obtain  them  from  foreign  countries,  watch  over  and 
support  them  during  the  first  years  of  their  transplanted  life,  and 
distribute  their  offspring  to  those  places  where  they  w^ould  be  useful  in 
domestic  service,  or  where  they  would  people  those  regions  of  country 
which  are  unremunerative  to  the  labors  of  the  husbandman,  or,  as  yet, 
unsettled  b}''  him. 

The  naturalization  of  foreign  domestic  animals  is  at  the  present  day 
by  no  means  an  entirely  neglected  subject  in  this  country ;  for^  not  to 
speak  of  other  instances  of  progress,  it  is  well  known  that  Dr.  Davis, 
of  South  Carolina,  has  introduced  into  his  native  State  more  than  one 
valuable  animal,  and,  in  fact,  may  be  said  to  have  commenced  there  a 
system  of  acclimation. 

The  domestication  of  wild  animals  is  an  enterprise  which  is  closely 
connected  with  that  of  acclimation,  and  opens  a  still  wider  field  for 
human  progress.  While  the  natural  instincts  of  some  animals  are 
such  as  to  render  it  practically  impossible  to  tame  them  as  a  race,  with 
many  others  it  is  very  different ;  and  while  some  of  those  which  it  is 
practicable  to  domesticate  would,  perhaps,  not  repay  the  trouble  of 
doing  so^  there  must  remain  many  which  would  be  exceedingly  valuable. 


FISH   BREEDING,  217 

On  tliis  point,  St.  Hilaire  remarks:  "Of  tlie  one  hundred  and  forty 
thousand  animal  species  at  present  known,  how  many  does  man  possess 
in  the  domesticated  condition?  Forty-three ;  and,  furthermore,  of  these 
forty-three  species,  ten  are  wanting  in  France,  and  eight  in  all  Europe. 
Can  this  be  held  to  be  a  sufficient  conquest  of  Nature?" 

Long  ago,  Buffon  wrote  in  these  terms:  "We  should  leel  from  this 
example  how  great  is  the  generosity  of  Nature  toward  us ;  we  use  but 
little  of  the  treasures  which  she  offers,  the  store  of  which  is  greater 
than  we  can  imagine.  She  has  ^ven  us  the  horse,  the  ox,  the  sheep, 
and  all  our  other  domestic  animals,  to  labor  for,  to  feed^  and  to  clothe 
us ;  and  she  has  yet  in  reserve,  species  which  can  supply  to  us  whatever 
is  yet  wanting,  and  which  only  wait  for  us  to  subdue  them,  and  to 
make  them  serve  our  wants.  Men  understand  too  little  of  what  Nature 
can  do,  and  of  what  they  themselves  could  do  with  Nature.  Instead 
of  seeking  out  that  which  they  do  not  yet  know  of,  they  prefer  to  misuse 
whatever  is  already  known  to  them." 

The  voice  of  great  philosophers  has  thus  been  raised,  in  former  as 
well  as  in  recent  times,  to  call  mankind  to  this  path  of  progress,  and 
it  would  become  no  country  more  than  our  own  to  respond  to  the  call, 
and  to  none  has  Providence  given  greater  means  of  doing  so  with  effect, 
or  a  greater  prospect  of  advantage  from  such  conquests  over  Nature. 


FISH  EEEEDING. 


BY  J.  C.  COMSTOCK,  OF  HARTFORD,  CONNECTICUT. 


Fluellen.     *    *    *    There  is  a  river  in  Macedon,  and  there  is  also,  moreover,  a  river  at 
Monmouth  ;    *    «    *    and  there  is  salmons  in  both. — King  Henry  V,  ./3c<  IV,  Scene  VII. 

However  "  goot  a  man  in  the  disciplines  of  the  wars,  and  in  other 
particularities,"  the  brave  but  pragmatical  Fluellen  may  have  been, 
his  parallel  between  "Alexander  the  pig"  and  "Harry  of  Monmouth," 
certainly  did  not  hold  good  in  the  "particularity"  above  quoted,  since 
no  river  in  Macedon  overdid  contain  "salmons."  The  comparison 
would  be  still  more  liable  to  objection  if  made  at  the  present  day;  for, 
however  abundant  "salmons"  may  have  been  in  the  Wye  in  the  time 
of  Henry  V,  their  number  in  that  river  has  now  become  so  much  dimin- 
ished that  there  is  serious  prospect  of  its  being  at  last  reduced  to  the 
salmonless  condition  of  its  Macedonian  compeer,  and  that  the  actual 
truth  of  a  parallel  between  them  will  be  found  in  the  assertion  that  there 
is  salmons  in  neither.— (See  London  Quarterly  Beview,  January,  1857.) 

This  assertion  is,  unhappily,  already  literally  true  in  reference  to 
most  of  those  rivers  in  the  eastern  United  States  which  once  were  fre- 
quented by  salmon,  and  is  applicable  alike  to  the  Susquehanna,  the 
Delaware,  the  Passaic,  the  Hudson,  the  Connecticut,  the  Merrimac, 
and  their  tributaries.  The  same  process  of  extinction  is  gradually 
going  on  in  the  rivers  to  the  northward  of  them ;  and  even  in  the 
British  Provinces,  where,  until   recently,   salmon   have  been   quite 


218  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

abundant,  tlieir  great  diminution  in  numbers  witliin  a  few  years  past 
has  excited  inquiry  as  to  its  causes,  and  led  to  tbe  enactment  of  laws 
for  its  prevention. 

It  is  not  probable,  liowever,  that  the  most  judicious  legal  regula- 
tions, even  if  strictly  enforced,  will  ever  have  the  effect  of  restoring 
the  pojjulation  of  our  waters  to  its  pristine  abundance.  There  would 
appear  to  be  causes  for  its  diminution  which  lie  beyond  legislation^ 
and  which  are  inherent  in  the  changes  produced  by  the  extension  of 
human  improvements  over  the  surfac^of  the  earth.  We  find,  in  fact, 
that  many  species  of  animals,  once  numerous  and  important  as  objects 
of  the  chase,  or  as  furnishing  food  to  the  earlier  settlers  of  what  are 
now  densely-populated  regions,  have,  in  like  manner,  receded  from  the 
presence  of  advancing  civilization,  and  are  either  quite  extinct  or 
rarely  met  with  in  the  places  which  they  formerly  inhabited. 

Thus,  it  is  j)robable  that  the  bison  once  extended  its  range  as  far  to 
the  eastward  as  the  Hudson  river,  and  perhaps  even  into  New  Eng- 
land. The  wapiti,  or  American  elk,  (cervus  canadensis,)  once  an 
inhabitant  of  the  northeastern  States,  and  said  to  have  been  killed  on 
Long  Island  within  the  past  forty  years,  is  now  found  east  of  the  Mis- 
souri only  in  one  or  two  isolated  localities,  if  at  all.  The  cougar, 
the  moose,  the  bear,  the  wolf,  the  beaver,  the  wild  turkey,  the  Vir- 
ginia deer,  the  pinnated  grouse,  have  all  been  compelled  to  follow  the 
same  law,  have,  totally  disappeared  from  many  sections  of  country 
where  the}^  were  once  common,  and  are  gradually,  but  surely,  losing 
their  residence  even  in  those  more  remote  regions  to  which  they  have 
retreated. 

The  effects  of  the  changes  produced  by  an  increase  of  human  popu- 
lation are  not,  perhaps,  so  soon  perceptible  in  their  operation  upon  the 
inhabitants  of  the  waters ;  and  it  is  only  at  a  comparatively  recent 
date  that  the  diminished  supply  of  most  species  of  fresh-water  fishes 
has  begun  to  be  seriowsly  felt.  But  it  is  a  fact,  within  the  notice  and 
experience  of  every  observing  person,  that  streams  and  lakes  in  densely- 
populated  districts  do  not  now  afford  the  supply  of  fish  which  they 
did  formerly,  and  that  this  is  the  case  even  in  large  rivers  which  had, 
from  time  immemorial,  been  resorted  to  by  migratory  fishes,  for  the 
purpose  of  spawning.  On  all  such  rivers  in  this  country  the  fisheries 
are  yearly  declining  in  value  and  importance,  and  upon  many  of  them 
the  occupation  of  the  fisherman  is  well-nigh  gone. 

The  building  of  dams  across  the  tributary  streams,  by  means  of  which 
the  fish  are  prevented  from  ascending  to  their  proper  spawning  grounds ; 
the  erection  of  mills  and  factories,  and  the  consequent  pollution  of  the 
waters  by  saw-dust  and  the  refuse  of  chemical  ingredients  used  in  the 
different  processes  of  manufacturing ;  and  the  disturbance  of  the 
larger  rivers  by  the  passage  of  steamboats,  may  be  properly  reckoned 
among  the  proximate  causes  which  induce  the  fish  to  desert  their 
accustomed  haunts.  Add  to  this  the  reckless  conduct  of  a  class  of 
persons  who  should  be  most  solicitous  for  the  preservation  of  the  fish — 
that  is,  the  fishermen  themselves — who  everywhere  disregard  all  con- 
siderations of  propriety  and  humanity  in  reference  to  time  and  mode 
of  fishing,  and  it  really  seems  a  most  remarkable  test  of  the  immense 


FISH   BREEDING.  219 

natural  fecundity  of  fislies^  that  a  sufficient  number  remain  in  these 
localities  to  perpetuate  their  species  at  all. 

Legislative  restrictions  seem  entirely  to  have  failed  in  checking  the 
improvidence  and  rapacity  of  these  men ;  and  the  difficulty  of  enforcing 
even  the  most  judicious  fishing  laws  would  appear  to  he  insuperable. 
Of  such  laws,  indeed,  as  well  as  of  those  which  respect  the  preserva- 
tion of  game,  our  people  are  exceedingly  impatient,  regarding  them 
much  in  the  light  of  sumptuary  regulations,  and  sturdily  resenting  any 
interference  with  what  has  long  been  considered  the  free  right  of  every 
man  to  take  fish  and  fowl  in  any  way,  and  at  anytime  he  pleases.  It 
is  not  too  mnch,  then,  to  say  that,  in  every  part  of  the  country,  exist- 
ing fishing  acts,  which  are  intended  to  regulate  the  time  and  method 
of  taking  fish,  are  almost  totally  disregarded,  and  with  perfect  im- 
punity. 

But  there  are  also  other  reasons  for  the  decline  of  our  river  fisheries, 
in  addition  to  those  already  enumerated.  Tliese  lie  in  the  gradual 
but  perceptible  changes  which  are  taking  place  in  the  character  of  the 
rivers  themselves ;  and  the  influence  which  they  exert  upon  the  result 
in  question  is  so  important,  and  yet  so  little  understood,  that  it 
should  not  be  passed  in  silence  here.  The  changes  alluded  to  are  well 
and  clearly  enumerated  by  one  of  our  most  accomplished  American 
scholars^  Hon.  George  P.  Marsh,  *  in  the  following  language:  "Al- 
though we  cannot  confidently  affirm  that  the  total  quantity  of  water 
flowing  over  the  beds  of  our  streams  in  a  year  is  greater  or  less  than 
it  was  a  century  ago,  or  that  the  annual  mean  temperature  has  been 
raised  or  lowered,  yet  it  is  certain  that,  while  the  spring  and  autumnal 
freshets  are  more  violent,  the  volume  of  water,  in  the  dry  season,  is  less 
in  all  our  water-courses  than  it  formerly  was,  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  summer  temperature  of  the  brooks  has  been  elevated.  The 
clearing  of  the  woods  has  been  attended  with  the  removal  of  many 
obstructions  to  the  flow  of  water  over  the  general,  surface,  as  well  as 
in  the  beds  of  the  streams,  and  the  consequently  more  rapid  drainage 
of  our  territory  has  not  been  checked  in  a  corresponding  degree  by  the 
numerous  dams  which  have  been  erected  in  every  suitable  locality. 
The  waters  which  fall  from  the  clouds^  in  the  shape  of  rain  and  snow, 
find  their  way  more  quickly  to  the  channels  of  the  brooks,  and  the 
brooks  themselves  run  with  a  swifter  current  in  high  water.  Many 
brooks  and  rivulets,  which  once  flowed  with  a  clear,  gentle,  and 
equftble  stream  through  the  year,  are  now  dry,  or  nearly  so,  in  the 
summer,  but  turbid  with  mud  and  swollen  to  the  size  of  a  river  after 
heavy  rains  or  sudden  thaws.  The  general  character  of  our  water- 
courses has  become,  in  fact,  more  torrential,  and  this  revolution  has 
been  accompanied  with  great  changes  in  the  configuration  of  their 
beds,  as  well  as  in  the  fluctuating  rapidity  of  their  streams.  In  inun- 
dations, not  only  does  the  mechanical  violence  of  the  current  destroy 
or  sweep  clown  fish  and  their  eggs,  and  fill  the  water  with  mud  and 
other  impurities,  but  it  continually  changes  the  beds  and  banks  of  the 
streams,  and  thus  renders  it  difficult  and  often  impossible  for  fish  to 
fulfill  that  law  of  their  nature  which  impels  them  annually  to  return 
to  their  breeding  place  to  deposit  their  spawn. 

*Report  on  the  Artificial  Propagation  of  Fish,  to  Legislature  of  Vermont,  1857. 


220  '  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

The  gravelly  reacli,  which  this  year  forms  an  appropriate  place  of 
deposit  for  eggs,  and  for  the  nutriment  and  growth  of  the  fry,  may 
be  converted  the  next  season  into  dry  land,  or,  on  the  other  hand, 
into  a  deep  and  slimy  eddy.  The  fish  are  therefore  constantly  dis- 
turbed and  annoyed  in  the  function  of  reproduction,  precisely  the  func- 
tion of  all  others  which  is  most  likely  to  be  impeded  and  thwarted  by 
great  changes  in  the  external  conditions  under  which  it  is  performed. 
Besides  this,  the  changes  in  the  surface  of  our  soil  and  the  character 
of  our  waters  involve  great  changes,  also,  in  the  nutriment  which  Na- 
ture supplies  to  the  fish ;  and  while  the  food  appropriate  for  one  species 
may  be  greatly  increased,  that  suited  to  another  may  be  as  much  di- 
minished. Forests,  and  streams  flowing  through  them,  are  inhabited 
by  different  insects,  or  at  least  by  a  greater  or  less  abundance  of  the 
same  insects,  than  open  grounds  and  unshaded  waters.  The  young  of 
fish  feed,  in  an  important  measure,  on  the  larvaa  of  species  which,  like 
the  musquitOj  pass  one  stage  of  their  existence  in  the  water,  another 
on  the  land,  or  in  the  air.  The  numbers  of  many  such  insects  have 
diminished  with  the  extent  of  the  forests ;  while  other  tribes,  which, 
like  the  grasshopper,  and  suited  to  the  nourishment  of  full-grown  fish^ 
have  multiplied  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  cleared  and  cultivated 
ground.  Without  citing  further  examples,  which  might  be  indefinitely 
multiplied,  it  is  enough  to  say  that  human  improvements  have  pro- 
duced an  almost  total  change  in  all  the  external  conditions  of  pisca- 
torial life^  whether  as  respects  reproduction^  nutriment,  or  causes  of 
destruction,  and  we  must  of  course  expect  that  the  number  of  our  fish 
will  be  greatly  affected  by  these  revolutions. 

"  The  unfavorable  influences  which  have  been  alluded  to,"  proceeds 
Mr.  Marsh,  "are,  for  the  most  part^  of  a  kind  which  cannot  be  re- 
moved or  controlled.  We  cannot  destroy  our  dams,  or  provide  artifi- 
cial water-ways  for  the  migration  of  fish,  which  shall  fully  supply  the 
place  of  the  natural  channels ;  we  cannot  wholly  prevent  the  discharge 
of  deleterious  substances  from  our  industrial  establishments  into  our 
running  waters ;  we  cannot  check  the  violence  of  our  freshets,  or  restore 
the  flow  of  our  brooks  in  the  dry  season  ;  and  we  cannot  rej^eal  or  mod- 
ify the  laws  by  which  Nature  regulates  the  quantity  of  food  which  she 
spontaneously  supplies  to  her  humbler  creatures." 

Taking  all  these  circumstances  into  consideration,  we  are  forced  to 
the  conclusion  that  our  public  fresh-water  fisheries  can  never  be  restored 
to  their  pristine  value  and  importance,  but  that  they  must  every wltere 
gradually  but  surely  decline.  In  this  state  of  things,  it  becomes  a 
matter  of  great  interest  to  determine  whether  the  supply  of  an  article 
of  food  so  wholesome,  so  abundant,  and  so  cheap,  as  that  hitherto 
afforded  by  these  fisheries,  can,  in  any  manner  or  to  any  considerable 
extent,  be  still  maintained  by  the  application  of  enterprise  and  inge- 
nuity to  waters  under  private  control,  and  whether  the  multiplication 
of  valuable  species  of  fish  in  such  waters  may  not  become  an  important 
accessory  to  agriculture.  It  is  true  that  we  believe  the  art  of  piscicul- 
ture likely  to  be  of  service;  and  it  is  in  this  aspect  that  we  propose  to 
consider  the  subject  at  present. 

The  breeding,  preserving,  and  fattening  of  fish,  as  a  branch  of  do- 
mestic economy,  has  been  practiced  in  various  methods,  among  various 


FTSH   BREEDING.  221 

nations,  from  time  immemorial.  The  Chinese  are  said  to  have  carried 
on  for  ages  a  traffic  in  the  eggs  deposited  by  salmon,  trout,  sturgeon, 
and  other  species,  at  the  spawning  season,  in  places  prepared  for  the 
purpose,  in  rivers  frequented  by  these  fish ;  the  eggs  thus  collected 
being  sold  and  transported  to  different  parts  of  the  country,  to  be  used 
in  stocking  private  waters.  Among  the  Romans  the  same  method  was 
practised,  at  a  very  early  period,  for  peopling  lakes  and  ponds  with 
fish.  At  a  later  era,  the  taste  of  the  wealthy  patricians  for  fish-raising 
appears  to  have  become  a  passion,  and  the  enormous  sums  said  to  have 
been  lavished  by  them  upon  the  construction  of  their  ponds  and  the 
feeding  and  preservation  of  choice  varieties  of  fish,  seem  almost  in- 
credible. 

During  the  middle  ages,  the  kings  and  princes  of  Europe,  as  well 
as  all  the  great  ecclesiastical  communities,  maintained  their  artificial 
preserves,  some  of  which  were  of  great  extent  and  supplied  large  quan- 
tities of  iish.  A  fish-pond  was  an  indispensable  appendage  to  nearly 
every  monastic  establishment,  and  the  priestly  epicures  were  always 
well  skilled  in  its  management.  They  took  care  to  stock  their  pre- 
serves with  the  most  valuable  species,  which  they  often  transported 
from  distant  places  for  this  purpose.  There  are  good  reasons  for  sup- 
posing that  the  carp,  the  grayling,  the  charr,  and  perhaps  other  spe- 
cies, were  in  this  way  introduced  into  English  waters,  when  England 
was  Catholic.  It  would  seem,  indeed,  that,  in  all  probability,  Dom 
Pinchon,  a  monk  of  the  abbey  of  Eeome,  in  France,  was  the  inventor 
of  the  process  of  artificially  fecundating  the  eggs  of  fish.  This  method 
of  performing  this  operation  is  described  in  a  manuscript  recently 
brought  to  light,  dated  in  1420,  and  differs  little  from  that  practiced 
at  the  present  day.  The  experiments  of  Dom  Pinchon  were,  however, 
never  published,  and  the  credit  of  the  modern  invention  of  breeding 
fish  artificially  unquestionably  belongs  to  Mr,  Jacobi,  a  G-erman  gen- 
tleman who,  in  the  year  1763,  communicated  to  the  Hanover  Magazine 
an  interesting  account  of  his  plan  for  the  breeding  of  trout  by  artifi- 
cial impregnation  of  their  ova.  His  invention,  as  he  states,  was  the 
result  of  many  experiments,  made  during  a  series  of  not  less  than 
forty  years;  and  it  certainly  contains  the  substance  of  nearly  all  that 
later  practitioners  consider  essential  to  success.  Though  the  process 
of  Jacobi  attracted  some  attention  among  the  scientific  men  of  his 
day,  and  was  the  means  of  stocking  some  v>raters  in  Holland,  yet  it 
appears  to  have  fallen  into  disuse,  and  to  have  slumbered  for  a  long 
time  among  those  forgotten  inventions  which  are  so  often  claimed  as 
new  discoveries  by  a  succeeding  age. 

About  fifty  years  later  than  the  time  of  Jacobi,  that  is,  from  1830 
to  1835,  a  series  of  really  accurate  and  scientific  observations  were 
made  in  Scotland,  in  reference  to  the  habits  of  fish  at  the  spawning 
season — habits  upon  which  the  whole  art  of  artificial  propagation  is 
founded.  These  observations  would  appear  to  have  been  originally 
instituted  by  Dr.  Knox,  of  Edinburg,  who  watched  the  process  of 
spawning,  in  the  case  of  the  salmon,  and  observed  the  progressive  de- 
velopment of  the  ova,  and  the  growth  of  the  young  fishes  after  exclusion. 
His  hints  were  followed  up,  at  about  the  same  period,  by  a  most  acute 
and  patient  observer,  Mr.  John  Shaw,  who  devoted  himself  for  several 


222  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

years  to  a  series  of  well-managed  olDservations  on  the  natural  history 
of  the  salmon,  and  the  facts,  clearly  stated  and  thoroughly  proved, 
which  he  details  in  regard  to  the  time  and  mode  of  spawning,  pro- 
gressive growth,  migration  to  and  from  the  sea,  and  other  hahits  of 
that  valuable  fish,  will  always  possess  the  greatest  interest.  Similar 
observations  were  also  made  by  Mr.  Andrew  Young  and  others,  in  the 
Scottish  rivers. 

It  is,  however,  within  the  past  ten  or  twelve  years,  that  pisciculture 
has,  so  to  speak,  taken  its  place  among  the  useful  arts,  and  been  ex- 
tensively applied  to  economic  purposes.  The  attention  of  the  French 
government  was  called,  in  1848,  to  the  experiments  of  two  fishermen 
of  the  department  of  the  Vosges,  MM.  Gehin  and  Kemy,  who  had 
occupied  themselves  for  several  years  in  breeding  trout,  perch,  and 
other  species,  with  which  they  had  succeeded  in  stocking  many  of  the 
ponds  and  streams  of  their  neighborhood.  The  subject  was  eagerly 
taken  up  by  some  of  the  most  distinguished  scientific  men  of  France. 
Inquiries  were  instituted,  reports  made,  an  approj)riation  granted  by 
the  government,  and  an  institution  established  for  the  purpose  of 
hatching,  rearing,  and  transporting  fish,  which  went  into  operation  in 
1852,  under  the  direction  of  M.  Coste,  a  savant  of  distinction.  Since 
then,  experiments  have  been  made,  with  varied  success,  in  different 
parts  of  Europe,  and  to  some  extent  in  this  country.  It  is  not  yet 
time  to  pronounce  positively  upon  the  value  of  these  experiments  as 
applicable  to  the  stocking  of  public  waters.  In  this  country  esj)ecially, 
little  has,  as  yet,  been  actually  accomplished  in  this  direction,  and  we 
are  unable  to  present  definite  and  reliable  results.  But  there  is  great 
encouragement  to  hope  that  the  processes  of  pisciculture  may  yet  be- 
come of  great  public  benefit. 

Whatever  may  be  the  result  of  attempts  to  revive  the  fisheries,  the 
stocking  of  ponds  and  streams  under  private  control  is  not  only  prac- 
ticable, but  requires  little  more  than  ordinary  skill  and  care,  and  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that,  as  a  matter  of  both  profit  and  pleasure,  it  is 
worthy  the  attention  of  agriculturists. 

Having  alluded  to  the  main  facts  in  the  history  of  pisciculture,  the 
natural  method  of  reproduction  in  fishes  may  be  described,  since  it  is 
by  imitating  this  method  as  nearly  as  possible  that  artificial  propaga- 
tion is  most  likely  to  succeed. 

Fresh- water  fishes,  in  reference  to  their  time  and  mode  of  spawning, 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes : 

1.  Those  which  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  autumn  and  winter,  in 
water  of  a  reduced  temperature,  and  require  a  long  period  of  incu- 
bation. 

2.  Those  which  sj)awn  in  the  spring  and  early  summer,  and  the 
eggs  of  which  hatch  in  a  few  days  or  weeks. 

The  first  of  these  classes  contains  some  of  the  most  beautiful  and 
valuable  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  waters — those  which  belong  to  the 
family  of  the  salmon  and  trout,  including  also  the  several  species  of 
shad-salmon,  or  white  fish.  Some  of  them  migrate  from  the  sea  into 
the  rivers  for  the  purpose  of  spawning,  as  the  sea  salmon ;  others,  as 
the  brook  trout,  perform  partial  migrations  up  the  smaller  streams, 
for  the  same  purpose;  while  the  lake  trout  and  the  white  fish  deposit 


FISH   BREEDING.  223 

their  eggs  on  tlie  sandy  shallows,  near  the  shores  of  the  more  exten- 
sive waters  which  they  inhabit.  The  operation  of  spawning,  in  the 
case  of  the  salmon,  may  be  briefly  described  as  follows  : 

The  male  and  female,  having  paired,  seek  a  suitable  spot  for  the 
location  of  their  spawning-bed,  in  a  shallow  part  of  the  stream,  where 
'the  water  runs  over  a  gravelly  and  sandy  bottom.  An  excavation  is 
then  formed,  of  considerable  width,  by  the  action  of  the  snouts  and 
tails  of  the  fishes,  burrowing  into  the  gravel,  against  the  current. 
The  nest  having  been  made  sufficiently  capacious,  the  female  deposits 
in  it  a  portion  of  her  ova,  and,  dropping  down  the  stream,  her  place 
is  instantly  supplied  by  the  male,  who  emits  a  quantity  of  milt  upon 
the  eggs.  The  eggs,  being  thus  impregnated,  are  partially  covered  by 
the  loose  sand  and  gravel  brought  down  by  the  current,  and  a  second 
bed  is  soon  made,  a  little  higher  up  the  stream,  in  which  another  por- 
tion of  the  ova  is  deposited,  to  be  fecundated  in  like  manner.  This 
process  is  continued  from  day  to  day,  until  the  female  has  no  more  ova 
to  deposit.  The  process  being  finished,  the  salmon  drop  down  into 
some  deeper  pool,  where  they  remain  for  a  while,  in  order  partially  to 
recover  from  the  exhausting  efiects  of  their  labors,  and  then  return 
slowly  down  the  river  to  the  sea.  The  eggs  remain  until  spring  before 
hatching,  the  time  required  for  incubation  being  from  ninety  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty  days.  When  first  excluded  from  the  egg,  the 
little  fish  measures  about  half  an  incJi  in  length,  and  presents  a  sin- 
gular appearance.  The  dorsal,  caudal,  and  anal  fins  are  continuous, 
like  those  of  the  eel,  and  form  a  kind  of  fringe,  running  from  the 
head  to  the  tail.  The  yolk  of  the  egg  remains  attached  to  the  belly 
of  the  fish,  and  communicates  with  the  intestinal  canal  by  a  passage 
through  which  the  yolk  is  gradually  drawn  inward  and  digested. 
During  this  time  the  young  fish  needs  no  other  nourishment,  but  at 
the  end  of  about  a  month  the  yolk-sac  becomes  exhausted,  and  the 
appetite  for  food  begins.  The  growth  of  these  fishes  (the  salmon  and 
trout)  is  slov7  during  the  first  year,  but  more  rapid  during  the  second 
and  third. 

The  development  of  the  ova  in  those  fishes  which  belong  to  the 
second  class,  viz:  those  which  spawn  in  the  spring  and  summer,  is 
much  more  rapid,  and  in  some  of  them  the  process  of  spawning  is 
somewhat  different.  Thus,  the  perch  deposits  its  ova  in  the  form  of 
continuous  clusters,  attached  to  stones  or  water  plants  by  a  glutinous 
film,  and  the  young  are  hatched  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  weeks. 
All  the  cyprionoid  fishes  (those  belonging  to  the  family  of  the  carp,  dace, 
&c.,)  also  spawn  in  the  spring,  and  their  time  of  incubation  is  equally 
short.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  shad,  of  the  difi'erent  species  of 
herring,  of  the  pikes,  pickerel,  &c.,  and  indeed  of  all  fishes  which 
spawn  during  the  warmer  months. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  some  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  fishes  of 
the  United  States  which  spawn  in  fresh  water,  classified  with  reference 
to  their  times  of  spawning  : 


224  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


AUTUMN  AND  WINTER. 

Sea  salmon,  (Salmo  solar.) 
Brook  trout,  (Salmo  fontinalis.') 
Lake  trout,  (Salmo  confinis,  &c.) 
Lake  wliite  fisli,  (Ceregonus  albus,  &c.) 

SPRING  AND  SUMMER. 

Pickerel,  (Esox  reticulatus.) 
Mascalonge,  (Esox  estor.) 
Perch,  (Perca  fiavescens.) 
Pike-perch,  &c.,  (Lucioperca  Americana.) 
Striped  bass,  (Labrax  lineatus.) 
Black  bass,  (Grystes  nigricans,  &c.) 
Eock  bass,  &g.,  (Centrarchus  ceneus.) 
Shad,  (Alosa  prcestahilis.) 

The  number  of  eggs  deposited  by  a  single  salmon  in  one  season  has 
been  estimated  at  from  ten  thousand  to  twenty-five  thousand  ;  by  the 
perch,  two  hundred  thousand ;  the  pike,  one  hundred  thousand.  Of 
these,  it  is  supposed  that  at  least  three  quarters  fail  to  become  pro- 
ductive, being  devoured  by  other  fishes,  washed  down  and  buried  in 
the  mud  by  freshets,  and  exposed  to  many  other  casualties.  Countless 
millions  of  the  young  also  are  destroyed  before  they  become  capable 
of  propagating  their  species,  and  still  greater  numbers  of  the  ova  are 
never  deposited  at  all,  being  destroyed  while  yet  immotive,  in  the  body 
of  the  parent  fish,  which,  in  most  cases,  is  most  readily  captured  at 
the  season  when  it  seeks  its  spawning  grounds.  The  object  of  artificial 
breeding,  then,  is  to  secure  the  spawn  of  valuable  fishes  against  the 
operation  of  these  untoward  contingencies,  to  place  it  in  those  condi- 
tions where  a  larger  comparative  proportion  may  become  productive, 
and  to  preserve  the  young  fishes  from  the  dangers  which  surround 
them  in  their  natural  element. 

The  processes  of  artificial  breeding  are  simple  and  easy,  but,  at  some 
stages,  they  require  care  and  experience.  The  mode  of  impregnating 
the  eggs  is  readily  learned,  with  a  little  practice.  The  female  fish  is 
taken  at  a  time  when  the  sj^awn  is  mature,  and  is  held  over  a  shallow 
vessel  containing  a  quart  or  so  of  pure  water.  A  very  slight  pressure 
along  the  abdomen  will  cause  the  eggs,  if  sufiiciently  mature,  to  fall 
into  the  water.  If  they  do  not  come  away  readily,  the  indication  is 
that  they  are  not  yet  mature,  and  the  fish  should  be  preserved  for  a 
few  days,  when  the  trial  may  be  repeated.  The  object  is  to  procure 
the  eggs  in  the  exact  state  when  they  will  most  readily  receive  the 
fecundating  influence  of  the  milt  of  the  male  fish.  This  must  be 
judged  of  by  experience.  After  the  female  fish  has  been  thus  treated, 
the  milt  is  obtained  from  the  male  in  the  same  manner.  If  mature, 
the  milt  will  flow  readily  from  the  fish,  and  will  give  the  water  a 
whitish  and  turbid  appearance.  The  water  should  be  slightly  agi- 
tated— as  well  by  the  tail  of  the  male  fish  as  in  any  other  way — whilo 


FISH    BREEDING.  225 

the  emission  of  the  milt  is  taking  place,  so  as  to  insure  the  thorough 
contact  of  the  two  elements.  A  little  practice  will  enahle  the  operator- 
to  perform  this  manipulation  without  injury  to  the  fishes,  which,  after 
their  supply  of  eggs  and  milt  is  exhausted,  may  he  replaced  in  the 
pond  or  stream  from  which  they  were  taken,  and  thus  reserved  for 
breeding  a  second  year.  The  milt  from  a  single  male  will  he  found 
sufficient  to  impregnate  the  ova  of  numerous  females,  hut  the  mixture 
of  it  with  the  eggs  must  be  effected  as  soon  as  possible  after  their 
extension. 

The  eggs,  after  being  thus  impregnated,  are  placed  in  hatching 
boxes  prej3ared  to  receive  them.  These  may  be  constructed  in  several 
different  methods.  Those  used  by  Jacobi  were  wooden  troughs,  with 
a  wire  grating  at  either  end,  to  keep  out  destructive  fishes  and  insects, 
the  bottom  being  covered  with  a  layer  of  gravel.  The  eggs  were 
strewed  on  the  gravel,  care  being  taken  to  place  them  so  as  not  to  lie 
in  heaps,  and  the  water  of  a  running  stream  was  conducted  through 
the  gratings.  The  apparatus  of  Grehin  and  Kemy  consisted  of  a  tin 
box,  the  cover  and  sides  being  pierced  with  holes  to  admit  the  water, 
and  the  bottom  in  like  manner  covered  with  gravel.  The  box  and  its 
contents  were  placed  in  the  bed  of  a  stream.  The  French  savans  have 
invented  several  improvements  in  the  hatching  apparatus,  one  of  the 
best  of  which  is  said  to  be  the  use  of  willow  or  fine  wire  gratings,  on 
which  the  eggs  are  placed,  and  which  are  suspended  in  the  water  by 
means  of  sliding  rods,  thus  dispensing  entirely  with  the  gravel  bot- 
tom, and  retaining  the  eggs  in  a  position  where  they  can  be  more 
readily  examined,  and  are  not  so  liable  to  be  injured  by  being  piled 
together  by  the  flow  of  water. 

Durin'g  incubation  the  eggs  should  be  inspected  daily,  and  those 
which  prove  to  be  unimpregnated  removed.  These  are  readily  distin- 
guished from  the  others  by  their  greater  opacity,  and,  if  allowed  to 
remain  in  contact  with  the  rest,  would  soon  spoil  them.  There  is  also 
a  minute  species  of  parasitic  mildew,  which  is  very  injurious  to  the 
eggs,  and  difficult  to  exclude,  as  its  spores  are  deposited  with  the 
sediment  of  the  water.  In  order  to  prevent  its  ravages  as  far  as  possi- 
ble, the  eggs  should  be  daily  cleansed,  and  the  sediment  prevented 
from  settling  on  them  by  means  of  a  soft  hair  pencil.  Where  it  is 
practicable  to  do  so,  it  is  recommended  to  filter  the  water,  in  order  to 
obviate  this  difficulty. 

It  is  not  possible,  within  the  limits  of  this  paper,  to  give  particular 
directions  as  to  the  construction  of  hatching  apparatus.  The  ingenuity 
of  almost  any  country  gentleman  or  farmer  will  point  out  to  him  some 
contrivance  which  will  fulfill  the  conditions  necessary  for  the  purpose. 
A  constant  stream  of  pure  water  bathing  the  eggs  is  all  that  is  neces- 
sary, in  addition  to  the  other  precautions  mentioned. 

The  progressive  development  of  the  embryo,  as  watched  from  day  to 
day  under  the  microscope,  becomes  very  interesting,  and  is  fully  de- 
scribed in  the  works  which  will  be  hereafter  mentioned. 

After  the  young  fishes  are  hatched,  they  should  be  removed  to  a 
larger  receptacle  ;  they  need  little  care,  however,  until  the  ^olk-sac  is- 
exhausted,  and  they  begin  to  require  food.  This  may  be  supplied  in 
the  form  of  finely-comminuted  flesh  or  fish,  the  fibres  of  which  have- 

15 A 


226  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

been  separated  by  boiling.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  place  so  much 
of  this  in  the  box  in  which  the  young  fish  are  kept  as  to  corrupt  the 
water. 

Well  cared  for,  young  trout  will  attain  the  length  of  about  three 
inches  the  first  year.  They  should  then  be  turned  into  a  pond,  and 
allowed  to  provide  for  themselves.  It  would  be  well,  however,  to 
have  for  this  purpose  two  or  three  separate  ponds,  to  contain  the  broods 
of  each  successive  year.  This  precaution  is  required  in  consequence  of 
the  predatory  nature  of  these  fishes,  and  the  liability  of  the  younger  to 
be  devoured  by  the  older.  Some  other  species  of  fish,  of  a  smaller  and 
inferior  kind,  may,  with  advantage,  be  placed  and  permitted  to  breed 
in  .the  pond,  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  food  to  the  trout. 

In  a  region  where  trout  are  abundant,  of  course  much  of  the  trouble 
of  artificial  breeding  may  be  dispensed  with^  provided  a  pond  can  be 
constructed  by  damming  the  course  of  a  stream  already  populated  by 
them.  They  may  then  be  left  to  their  natural  instinct,  and,  if  the 
stream  affords  suitable  spawning  places,  they  will  maintain  the  supply 
of  young  needed  each  year,  with  no  further  care.  But  it  is  absolutely 
necessary,  for  the  reproduction  of  trout,  that  their  eggs  should  be  de- 
posited, during  incubation,  in  running  water,  highly  aerated;  and 
hence  it  is  that  they  will  never  increase  in  number  while  confined  to 
the  still  waters  of  a  pond.  They  will  neither  grow  well  nor  become 
of  good  flavor  in  water  rendered  turbid  by  vegetable  matter,  nor  where 
the  bottom  is  muddy.  Clear,  cool,  spring  water,  resting  on  a  sandy 
and  gravelly  bottom,  is  indispensable  to  the  full  development  of  their 
good  qualities.  In  constructing  a  pond  for  the  reception  of  this  most 
valuable  and  beautiful  of  all  fishes,  these  conditions  should  be  recol- 
lected. 

After  the  ova  of  fishes  have  been  fecundated,  they  may  be  transported 
to  considerable  distances,  provided  they  be  kept  moist  and  cool.  The 
simplest  method  is  to  pack  them  in  alternate  layers  (taking  care  that  the 
eggs  do  not  touch  each  other)  with  fine  sand,  shaggy  woolen  clothes, 
or  aquatic  plants,  in  small  boxes.  The  boxes  for  this  purpose  may  be 
six  or  eight  inches  square  by  three  or  four  deep,  and  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  contents  be  thoroughly  moistened  iDefore  they  are  closed. 
The  eggs  of  the  lake  trout,  the  lake  white-fish,  and  the  pike-perch 
have  thus  been  brought  from  Ohio  and  Lake  Ontario  to  Connecticut, 
in  perfect  condition.  Indeed,  eggs  of  the  salmon  and  trout  thus 
packed  will  retain  their  capacity  of  development  for  several  weeks. 
The  eggs  of  those  fishes  which  spawn  in  summer,  however,  would  not 
probably  bear  transportation  so  easily,  but  would  be  much  more  likely 
to  prove  unproductive,  after  being  carried  long  distances.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  admit  water  gradually  to  the  eggs  thus  procured,  especially 
if  they  have  been  for  several  days  on  their  journey  they  are  liable 
to  be  spoiled  by  top  rapid  absorption  of  fluid. 

The  introduction  of  fishes  peculiar  to  one  country,  or  to  one  section 
of  a  country,  into  distant  waters,  is  by  this  means  readily  effected, 
suitable  breeding  places  being  provided  in  advance  for  the  reception  ot 
the  ova. 

The  most  extensive  and  important  operation  of  this  kind  yet  under- 
taken in  this  country  has  been  attempted  for  the  purpose  of  introducing 


FISH   BREEDING.  227 

some  of  the  fishes  of  the  great  lakes  into  waters  which  they  did  not 
previously  inhabit.  A  brief  account  of  the  measures  taken  for  this 
purpose,  and  which  are  believed  to  have  resulted  in  at  least  partial 
success,  will  not  be  out  of  place  here. 

Saltonstall  lake  is  a  very  beautiful  body  of  water,  almost  three  miles  in 
length,  situated  a  few  miles  from  the  city  of  New  Haven,  Connecticut. 
It  was  selected  as  the  locality  of  the  intended  experiments,  because,  in 
position,  size,  quality  of  water  and  of  shores,  and  in  all  other  respects,  it 
was  believed  to  combine  the  conditions  most  favorable  to  success.  Like 
most  of  the  New  England  lakes  of  its  class,  it  was  already  populated 
with  pickerel,  perch,  eels,  and  other  common  species.  In  the  spring 
of  1857,  an  act  was  passed  by  the  legislature  of  Connecticut  affording 
ample  protection  to  the  enterprise,  and  the  gentlemen  concerned  also 
procured  from  the  riparian  proprietors  grants  of  their  fishing  rights  in 
the  lake,  so  that  they  thus  acquired  complete  control  of  its  waters.  A 
small,  but  constantly  flowing  stream,  one  of  the  feeders  of  the  lake, 
was  prepared  for  the  reception  of  the  ova,  by  forming  it  into  a  series 
of  shallow  pools,  and  strewing  the  bed  with  a  layer  of  clean  gravel  and 
small  stones.  The  intention,  in  this  case,  was  to  procure  so  large  a 
quantity  of  ova  as  to  be  able  to  allow  them  to  run  the  hazard  of 
being  hatched  in  the  open  stream. 

The  lake  trout  (Salmo  confinis)  and  the  white-fish  (Geregonus  albus) 
were  the  species  chosen  as  those  most  likely  to  become  readily  accli- 
mated, and  as  otherwise  most  valuable  to  the  breeder.  In  November 
of  the  same  year  the  first  supply  of  the  eggs  of  these  species  was  pro- 
cured at  a  fishing  station  on  Lake  Ontario ;  the  trout  and  white-fish 
being  taken  alive  from  the  fishermen's  nets,  and  the  ova  artificially 
fecundated  on  the  spot,  in  the  manner  heretofore  described.  They 
were  then  packed  in  alternate  layers  with  fine  wet  sand,  in  wooden 
boxes,  and  the  proper  precautions  taken  to  insure  safe  transportation. 
On  the  ITth  of  November,  1857,  the  previous  cargo,  estimated  at  about 
five  millions  of  the  eggs  of  the  trout,  and  one  million  of  those  of  the 
white-fish,  arrived  at  the  place  for  which  they  were  destined,  appa- 
rently in  good  condition.  They  were  unpacked  with  great  care,  and 
those  of  the  trout  were  partly  deposited  in  the  bed  of  the  stream,  and 
partly  along  the  gravelly  shores  near  its  embouchure,  in  water  of  two 
or  three  feet  deep.  Those  of  the  white-fish  were  placed  upon  a  smooth, 
sandy  shoal,  in  water  of  somewhat  less  depth,  the  intention,  in  both 
cases,  being  to  place  the  eggs  in  positions,  as  nearly  as  possible,  sim- 
ilar to  those  in  which  the  fish  themselves  deposit  them.  During  the 
winter  the  eggs  in  the  stream  were  repeatedly  examined,  and  many  of 
them  found  to  be  progressing  favorably  toward  their  development ;  and 
in  March  and  April,  1858,  the  young  made  their  appearance  in  great 
numbers.  They  were  allowed  to  take  care  of  themselves,  and  in  due 
time  they  proceeded  down  into  the  lake.  It  was  impossible  to  ascer- 
tain the  probable  proportion  of  the  eggs  which  were  hatched,  but  if 
one  out  of  every  thousand  produced  a  living  fish,  the  result  of  the 
experiment  may  be  considered  satisfactory. 

In  the  month  of  May  of  the  same  year,  about  twenty  millions  of  the 
eggs  of  the  pike-perch,  (lAicioperca  americana,)  which  inhabits  the 
same  waters  with  the  lake  trout  and  other  white-fish,  were  collected^ 


228  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

and  transmitted  to  tlie  same  breeding-place.  Two  thirds  of  themwere 
placed  in  the  stream,  and  the  remainder  on  the  gravel  of  the  lake  bot- 
tom. Some  of  those  in  the  stream,  after  having  been  deposited  about 
two  weeks,  were  found  to  be  developing  properly,  and  an  enormous 
crop  of  young  fishes  was  expected;  but,  unfortunately,  a  sudden  freshet 
shortly  afterward  tore  up  the  bed  of  the  rivulet,  and  swept  away  and 
destroyed  a  great  proportion  of  the  ova.  What. number,  if  any,  sur- 
vived this  disaster,  is  not  known,  but  it  is  believed  that  some  of  those 
deposited  in  the  lake,  and  thus  so-situated  as  to  have  escaped  the  effects 
ef  the  freshet,  must  have  arrived  at  their  full  development. 

In  the  autumn  of  1858  another  collection  of  about  ten  millions  of  the 
ova  of  the  lake  trout  and  white-fish  was  deposited  in  the  same  places, 
and,  from  observations  made  in  the  spring  and  summer  of  1859,  con- 
siderable numbers  are  believed  to  have  been  hatched.  Several  young 
trout  of  this  brood  have  been  taken  in  the  lake,  and  also  a  few  of 
larger  size^  weighing  nearly  a  pound  each,  supposed  to  be  the  produce 
of  the  first  deposit  of  eggs.  As  the  white-fish  does  not  take  the  hook, 
its  actual  presence  in  the  lake  has  not  yet  been  detected.  Measures 
will  be  taken,  however,  in  the  course  of  the  next  summer,  to  ascertain 
positively  the  result  of  the  experiment  as  regards  that  species.  So 
confident  are  the  gentlemen  concerned,  in  the  entire  feasibility  of  their 
project,  that  they  intend  to  continue  their  operations  until  assured  of 
full  success.     They  will  also  introduce  other  species  of  lake  fish. 

It  is  not  yet  time  to  speak  confidently  upon  the  prospect  of  future 
pecuniary  profit,  as  the  ultimate  result  of  these  operations  ;  but  if  the 
trout,  white-fish,  and  pike-perch  do  become  acclimated  and  grow  to  the 
size  which  they  attain  in  their  native  waters,  the  supply  furnished  by 
Saltonstall  lake  cannot  fail,  in  a  few  years,  largely  to  repay  the  par- 
ties concerned  for  their  labor  and  expenses.  The  writer  of  this  article 
has  felt  a  very  deep  interest  in  these  experiments  from  their  inception, 
has  been  personally  conversant  with  their  progress,  and  has  derived 
much  valuable  information  respecting  practical  fish  breeding  from  the 
two  principal  conductors  of  the  enterprise,  Messrs.  Carl  Muller,  of  New 
York,  and  Henry  Brown,  of  New  Haven. 

TRANSPORTATION   OF   LIVING  FISHES. 

In  some  cases  it  may  be  desirable  to  transport  living  fishes  from  a 
distance.  Whenever  this  is  to  be  effected,  the  chances  of  success  will 
be  greatly  increased  by  the  observation  of  a  few  simple  precautions. 
Small  fishes  are  much  more  easily  transported  than  those  of  full  size. 
To  save  the  trouble  of  changing  the  water  often,  its  temperature  should 
be  reduced  by  placing  in  it  pieces  of  ice  so  fixed  as  not  to  injure  the 
fish.  A  large  tin  can,  holding  from  twelve  to  twenty  gallons,  with  a 
wide  mouth,  similar  to  those  used  by  milk-men,  is  as  convenient  as 
anything.  The  lump  of  ice  may  be  suspended  in  a  netting  from  the 
mouth,  the  cover  of  which  should  be  pierced  with  holes  for  the  admis- 
sion of  air.  If  such  vessels  cannot  be  obtained,  barrels,  or  even  tubs, 
may  be  used,  care  being  taken  to  cover  them  with  some  kind  of  cloth 
of  loose  texture,  to  prevent  the  water  from  being  thrown  out  by  the 
jolting  of  the  carriage  or  rail-car  in  which  the  journey  is  performed. 


FISH    BREEDING.  229 

A  sufficient  supply  of  ice  should  be  procured  to  maintain  the  water  at 
a  low  temperature.  In  such  manner  Dr.  Garlicky  of  Cleveland,  tells 
us  that  he  kept  five  hundred  and  twenty  trout  in  a  barrel  of  water  for 
eighteen  hours  without  changing  the  water ;  and  Mr.  Henry  Brown 
recently  carried  twelve  hundred  trout  from  the  northern  part  of  Massa- 
chusetts to  Long  Island,  with  the  loss  of  only  two  or  three.  The 
water  was  not  changed,  and  ^e  trout  were  thirty-six  hours  on  the 
road. 

When  the  waters  from  which  the  fish  are  to  be  brought  are  not  too 
distant,  this  is  an  easy  mode  of  procuring  material  for  stocking  ponds. 
As  an  instance  of  what  may  be  effected  by  this  method,  in  stocking 
waters  of  considerable  extent  with  new  species,  the  following  may  be 
mentioned : 

In  the  winters  of  1852-53,  the  black  bass  of  the  lakes  (Grystes  nigri- 
cans) was  introduced  into  Waramang  lake,  situated  between  the  towns 
of  Washington  and  Warren,  in  Litchfield  county,  Connecticut.  "They 
have  in  that  lake,"  writes  our  informant,  F.  D.  Beeman,  Esq.,  of 
Litchfield,  '^multiplied  very  generously.  Their  growth  is  estimated 
to  be  about  one  pound  a  year,  and  they  have  been  frequently  caught 
weighing  five  pounds  and  upwards.  They  were  originally  brought  from 
a  small  lake  in  Duchess  county.  New  York.  They  are  a  hardy  fish, 
and  can  be  readily  transported  from  one  place  to  another  in  a  tub  of 
water,  covered  with  wet  canvas.  There  were  less  than  an  hundred 
bass  originally  placed  in  Waramang  lake ;  there  are  now  probably 
millions,  and  they  appear  to  propagate  and  flourish  better  than  any 
other  fish  in  the  waters  of  that  lake." 

The  black  bass  has  more  recently  been  introduced  into  another  lake 
in  Litchfield  county,  and  will  soon  be  established  as  a  denizen  of  many 
other  of  our  Connecticut  lakes.  It  is  a  fine  fish,  in  every  respect,  and 
is  well  worthy  the  attention  of  those  who  have  large  private  ponds. 
The  ease  with  which  it  may  be  transported,  the  rapidity  with  which  it 
multiplies,  the  sport  which  it  affords  the  angler,  and  its  excellence  on 
the  table,  form  a  combination  of  qualities  which  render  it  deservedly 
popular  with  those  who  know  its  merits,  and  which'  should  lead  to  its 
introduction  into  all  such  waters  as  are  suited  to  its  habits. 

BREEDING    OF    MIGRATORY   FISHES. 

In  addition  to  the  experiments  already  alluded  to,  others  of  even 
greater  interest,  in  some  respects,  are  now  in  progress.  Those  which 
are  next  to  be  mentioned  will  eventually,  it  is  hoped,  afibrd  much 
practical  information  in  regard  to  the  question  whether  the  breeding 
of  migratory  fishes  can  be  so  managed  as  to  be  made  a  source  of  profit 
to  the  breeder:  in  other  words,  whether  these  fishes,  after  being  reared 
in  private  waters,  and  allowed  to  follow  their  instincts  by  going  to  the 
sea  at  the  proper  age,  will  return  when  adult,  at  the  spawning  season, 
to  the  place  where  they  are  hatched,  in  sufficient  numbers  to  enable 
the  breeder  to  repay  himself  for  his  care  of  them  while  young,  by  cap- 
turing and  selling  them  when  full  grown.  Somewhat  similar  experi- 
ments have  been  made  in  other  countries,  for  the  purpose  of  settling 
the  same  question ;  but,  notwithstanding  the  enthusiastic  anticipations 


230  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

of  foreign  fisli  breeders,  we  have,  as  yet,  no  positive  and  reliable 
accounts  by  wbich  to  estimate  their  value.  The  importance  of  the 
subject  warrants  a  thorough  trial,  and  such,  we  hope,  it  is  to  receive 
by  the  means  now  to  be  described. 

Messrs.  U.  S.  Treat  &  Son,  of  Eastport,  Maine,  have  obtained  the 
control  of  three  large  ponds,  about  twenty  miles  from  Eastport.  The 
largest  of  these  is  about  three  quarters  of  a  mile  long,  by  half  a  mile 
wide,  and  they  all  have  a  common  outlet  into  the  St.  Croix  river. 
The  outlet  has  been  provided  with  a  gate,  by  means  of  which  it  may 
be  closed  or  opened  at  pleasure,  thus  enabling  the  owners  to  retain 
the  fish  in  the  ponds,  or  to  allow  them  to  proceed  to  the  sea.  The 
breeding  operations  were  commenced  in  the  spring  of  1857,  at  which 
time  a  number  of  salmon,  (S.  solar,)  striped  bass,  (Labrax  limaUis,) 
shad,  (Alosa  jprcestahilisj)  and  alewives  {A.  tyrannus)  were  placed  alive 
in  two  of  the  ponds,  the  salmon  in  the  largest.  The  shad  and  ale- 
wives,  Mr.  Treat  informs  us,  spawned  about  the  first  of  June,  and  in 
about  three  weeks  millions  of  their  young  were  seen.  The  gate  was 
then  closed,  and  the  growth  of  the  young  fish  watched  in  the  pond  for 
three  months,  after  which,  a  portion  of  them  were  allowed  to  proceed 
down  the  river  to  the  sea.  The  remainder  were  detained  for  two 
months  longer,  when  they  also  were  dismissed  to  salt-water.  The 
number  of  young  produced  by  this  first  spawning  was  estimated  at 
more  than  five  millions.  They  had  grown,  when  on  their  way  to  the 
sea,  to  the  length  of  three  to  five  inches.  The  salmon  spawned  in  the 
November  ensuing,  and  the  eggs  were  hatched  in  the  spring  after. 
Mr.  Treat  did  not,  however,  succeed  in  detecting  any  of  the  young 
until  the  summer  of  1859,  when  they  were  above  a  year  old.  They 
had  then  grown,  he  says,  to  the  length  of  ten  or  twelve  yiches,  and 
were  changing  from  the  trout-like  appearance  which  characterizes 
them  in  their  first  year,  and  were  taking  on  the  silvery  coat  of  the 
parent  fish.  As  the  lake  is  in  some  places  forty  feet  in  depth,  not 
many  of  these  young  salmon  were  captured;  but  enough  were  secured 
to  enable  Mr.  Treat  to  identify  them.  The  old  salmon  still  appear  to 
be  in  good  condition,  and  are  frequently  observed.  They  have  been 
in  the  lake  two  winters  and  two  summers.  Whether  they  continue  to 
breed  is  not  as  yet  known.  The  young  salmon  were  also  allowed  to 
follow  their  natural  instincts  and  to  proceed  to  the  sea  at  the  proper 
season.  Mr.  Treat  confidently  expects  the  return  of  his  fish — such 
of  them  as  survive  the  dangers  of  the  seas — as  soon  as  they  become 
capable  of  reproducing  their  species  and  feel  the  impulse  of  that  in- 
stinct which  induces  them  to  seek  the  fresh  water  for  the  purpose  of 
depositing  their  spawn.  We  shall  await  the  result  of  his  experiments 
with  great  interest,  and  hope  to  be  able,  in  some  future  report,  to 
announce  the  fulfillment  of  his  anticipations.  Several  other  important 
and  doubtful  questions,  as  to  some  of  the  habits  and  the  growth  of  the 
species  which  are  made  the  subjects  of  these  experiments,  will  also, 
perhaps,  be  solved. 

BREEDING   TROUT   AT   HARTFORD. 

Mr.  E.  C.  Kellogg,  of  Hartford,  Connecticut,   gives  the  following 
account  of  his  experiments.     He  was  among  the  first  to  attempt  the 


FISH   BREEDING.  231 

artificial  breeding  of  trout  in  this  country,  and  he  has  conducted  his 
experiments  with  great  intelligence  and  care.  His  observations  in 
regard  to  the  progress  of  development  of  the  embryo  fishes,  the  best 
and  most  certain  methods  of  impregnation,  the  growth  of  the  young 
fry,  and  many  other  points  of  interest,  have  been  exceedingly  patient 
and  minute,  and,  when  published,  as  they  may  be  in  the  Report  of 
next  year,  will  materially  add  to  the  stock  of  knowledge  already  pro- 
mulgated by  foreign  writers,  and  will,  we  are  certain,  prove  of  material 
benefit  to  those  who  desire  to  practice  the  art.  At  present,  we  have 
space  only  for  a  brief  notice  of  what  he  has  done  and  what  he  is  now 
doing. 

His  first  experiment  was  made  in  1855,  during  the  summer  of  which 
year  he  collected  a  number  of  trout,  to  be  used  as  breeders,  which  he 
placed  in  a  small  pond  in  the  town  of  Simsbury,  Connecticut.  A  slight 
dam  was  made  near  the  source  of  the  spring  by  which  the  pond  was 
supplied,  forming  a  smaller  pond,  and  at  the  lower  side  of  this  upper 
dam  a  temporary  hatching-house  was  erected,  in  which  was  placed  a 
box  partly  filled  with  gravel,  and  through  this  a  small  stream  of  water 
was  conducted.  In  November,  the  eggs  were  fecundated,  after  the 
prescribed  method.  In  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  it  was  apparent  that 
embryo  fish  were  being  developed  in  some  of  the  eggs,  and  in  proper 
time  about  seventy-five  trout  were  hatched.  The  fry  were  kept  in  the 
box  for  a  month  or  two,  and  were  then  allowed  to  run  into  the  larger 
pond  below.  In  the  succeeding  autumn  they  were  found  with  the  old 
fish,  apparently  doing  well. 

The  next  year's  experiments  at  Simsbury  failed  entirely,  the  water- 
pipe  becoming  stopped,  so  that  the  water  froze  in  the  hatching  box. 
Mr.  Kellogg,  however,  was  induced,  by  the  convenience  of  having  the 
Connecticut  river  water  on  his  premises,  to  make  a  trial  of  artificial 
breeding  in  the  cellar  of  his  house.  He  arranged  a  box  with  several 
partitions,  filled  it  partly  with  gravel,  laid  it  in  a  slanting  position,  so 
that  the  partings  formed  a  series  of  steps,  and  water  from  the  public 
reservoir  was  conducted  through  it.  By  this  means  he  succeeded  in 
hatching  about  sixty  trout  during  the  first  winter,  and  about  four  hun- 
dred during  the  winter  of  1858.  He  is  at  present  directing  the  con- 
struction of  works  for  artificial  breeding  on  a  more  extensive  scale,  and 
on  a  far  more  convenient  plan,  at  East  Hartford.  Through  the  liber- 
ality of  Colonel  Colt,  upon  whose  grounds  the  work  is  progressing,  no 
pains  nor  expense  are  spared  to  render  the  experiment  successful.  An 
excellent  spring,  running  out  of  a  gravel  bank  into  a  ravine,  furnishes 
a  good  supply  of  water.  Across  the  ravine  a  dam  has  been  thrown, 
raising  a  pond  of  about  sixty  feet  in  diameter  and  six  feet  in  depth. 
A  commodious  house  has  been  built,  in  which  are  the  arrangements 
for  hatching,  and  a  large  tank,  with  divisions,  to  hold  the  parent  fish 
at  the  time  of  spawning.  A  supply  of  breeding  fish  has  recently  beeti 
provided,  and  a  considerable  number  of  eggs,  probably  three  or  four 
thousand,  have  been  impregnated  and  placed  in  the  hatching  boxes.. 
Every  precaution  which  experience  and  ingenuity  could  suggest  has: 
been  used  to  secure  successful  results,  and  we  hope,  next  year,  to  ba 
able  to  make  a  satisfactory  report  of  these  operations. 

"That  there  is  some  difficulty  in  breeding  trout  artificially,"  write* 


232  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Mr.  Kellogg,  ^'I  think  all  who  have  experimented  will  allow.  It  is 
perhaj)s  somewhat  difficult  to  point  out  the  causes  of  failure,  which 
seem  to  lie  principally  in  the  uncertainty  of  fecundating  the  ova,  a 
very  large  proportion  of  which  often  proves  harren,  in  spite  of  every 
care  and  precaution.  We  must  suppose  that  some  one  of  the  conditions 
necessary  to  thorough  fecundation  has  been  disregarded  or  not  under- 
stood. There  is  no  reason  to  doubt,  however,  that  the  careful  obser- 
vations of  experimenters,  each  succeeding  year,  will  overcome  the 
difficulty,  and  will  lead  at  last  to  complete  success. 

' '  The  rapidity  with  which  fish  grow  with  good  feeding  is  truly  sur- 
prising. In  the  basin  of  a  fountain  in  my  garden  a  single  trout  has 
lived  during  this  season.  For  some  time  no  care  was  taken  to  feed 
this  fish,  it  having  been  left  to  depend  for  its  existence  upon  the  few 
insects  which  chanced  to  fall  into  the  water,  and  for  several  months  it 
increased  in  size  very  slightly.  After  being  fed  daily  with  worms  for 
a  few  weeks,  its  growth  was  remarkable.  In  a  single  month  it  has 
more  than  doubled  in  weight. 

''During  several  winters  I  have  kept  in  a  small  tank  in  the  cellar  a 
considerable  number  of  trout,  and  although  quite  thin  after  the  spawn- 
ing season,  they  have  become  fat  and  in  excellent  condition  before 
spring,  by  means  of  generous  feeding.  It  is  astonishing,  also,  to  notice 
how  easily  fish  may  be  domesticated.  Wary  trout,  after  only  a  few 
days'  confinement,  will  eat  readily,  watch  daily  for  their  accustomed 
allowance,  and  even  become  so  gentle  as  to  take  food  from  the  hand, 
like  chickens." 

PRACTICAL   HINTS   TO   FISH   BREEDERS. 

The  following  instructions,  upon  several  points  connected  with  the 
different  stages  of  artificial  fish  breeding,  are  partly  the  results  of  our 
own  observation,  and  partly  condensed  from  an  essay  by  Professor 
Vogt,  of  Geneva,  Switzerland,  translated  for  Mr.  Marsh's  report,  be- 
fore alluded  to.  This  essay  contains  a  very  great  amount  of  valuable 
and  curious  information,  in  respect  to  the  reproduction  of  fishes,  and 
the  best  methods  of  securing  success  in  artificial  fish  breeding.  It  is 
worthy  of  perusal  entire,  by  any  one  to  whom  it  may.be  accessible. 

1.  The  mere  contact  of  spawn  and  milt  does  not  suffice  to  efiect 
fecundation.  To  insure  the  production  of  a  living  creature  from  the 
egg,  the  active  element  of  the  milt,  which  consists  of  moving  micro- 
scopic corpuscles,  provided  with  a  thread-like  tail,  and  called  seminal 
animalcules,  must  penetrate  into  the  interior  of  the  egg,  and  there 
unite  with  its  substance.  Every  egg  is,  therefore,  infallibly  lost,  un- 
less it  has  thus  absorbed  the  constituent  of  the  male  generative  fluid. 

2.  The  perfect  eggs  of  fresh-water  fish  consist  of  an  external  skin, 
or  shell,  within  which,  enveloped  in  a  second  thinner  membrane,  called 
the  vitelline  membrane,  is  the  yolk.  The  yolk  is  always  bright  and 
clear,  sometimes  quite  colorless  and  transparent,  like  water,  (as  in  the 
white-fish,)  sometimes  of  an  amber  or  orange  color,  as  in  the  trout 
and  salmon.  The  outer  coat  of  the  egg  and  the  vitelline  membrane  lie 
in  close  contact,  so  long  as  the  spawn  remains  in  the  body  of  the  fish; 
but,  as  soon  as  the  eggs  are  deposited  in  the  water,  a  rapid  absorption 


FISH   BREEDING.  233 

commences,  the  water  penetrates  throiigli  tlie  external  coating,  which 
swells  and  becomes  distended,  thus  leaving  a  space  between  itself  and 
the  vitelline  membrane  around  the  yolk,  this  space  being  filled  with 
water.  The  vitelline  membrane  is  impervious  to  water,  so  long  as  the 
egg  is  in  a  healthy  state,  and  its  contents  remain  perfectly  clear  and 
limpid.  But  the  penetration  of  water  into  the  yolk  is  at  once  be- 
trayed, by  its  assuming  a  milky  color ;  and  this  is  an  infallible  proof 
of  the  unsoundness  of  the  egg. 

3.  An  orifice  is  observed  in  the  eggs  of  most  fresh- water  fish,  open- 
ing at  the  surface,  through  which  the  seminal  animalcule  penetrates 
to  the  interior  of  the  egg. 

4.  Since  the  spawn  can  be  impregnated  only  by  the  reception  of  the 
animalcule^  it  becomes  of  much  practical  importance  to  ascertain  how 
long  this  minute  being  retains  its  power  of  motion  and  impregnation. 
At  low  temperatures,  this  power  may  be  retained  for  hours,  and  even 
days,  if  the  milt  remains  in  the  organs  in  which  it  is  secreted.  The  eggs 
yf  trout  have  been  impregnated  by  milt  taken  from  the  male  after  it 
was  stiff-frozen.  But,  when  once  the  milt  is  placed  in  water,  the  power 
of  moisture  is  very  soon  lost.  It  has  been  found  that  the  animalcule 
of  the  mullet  perishes  in  three  minutes  and  ten  seconds ;  that  of  the 
carp  in  three  minutes ;  that  of  the  perch  in  two  minutes  and  forty 
seconds ;  and  this  in  the  degree  of  heat  most  favorable  to  vitality. 
Very  slight  variations,  above  or  beloiv  this  point,  destroy  the  animalcules 
with  great  rapidity.  The  temperature  which  seems  longest  to  main- 
tain their  vitality  is,  for  winter  fish,  like  the  trout,  41°  to  48° ;  for 
those  which  spawn  in  early  spring,  50°  to  55° ;  for  those  of  early 
summer,  63°  to  68° ;  and  for  those  of  hot  weather,  77°  to  87°. 

5.  It  becomes,  therefore,  a  matter  of  the  greatest  practical  import- 
ance to  perform  the  processes  of  impregnation  in  the  very  shortest 
possible  time.  Some  operators  mix  the  milt  first  with  water,  and  then 
immediately  drop  the  spawn  into  it,  believing  that  the  minute  currents, 
formed  by  the  absorption  of  water  by  the  egg,  have  the  efi'ect  of  direct- 
ing the  movement  of  the  animalcule  toward  the  orifice.  It  is  also 
supposed  that  the  swelling  of  the  egg,  in  consequence  of  the  absorp- 
tion of  water,  tends  to  close  the  orifice,  so  that  the  animalcule  cannot 
enter,  after  the  envelope  is  full  of  water.  However  this  may  be,  it  is 
found,  by  experience,  that  the  simultaneous  mixture  of  the  milt  and 
the  spawn  is  most  likely  to  effect  the  impregnation  of  the  greatest 
proportion  of  the  eggs ;  and  hence  it  is  recommended,  when  practi- 
cable, that  two  persons  should  work  together^  one  manipulating  the 
male  fish  and  the  other  the  female. 

6.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  ova  be  mature.  Fish  do  not 
deposit  all  their  spawn  at  once,  but  usually  through  several  successive 
days,  as  the  eggs  become  ripe.  The  operator  should,  therefore,  use  no 
violence  in  forcing  the  eggs  from  the  female ;  since  those  which  are 
fully  mature,  and  fit  for  impregnation,  will  fall  from  her  with  very 
little  pressure.  After  she  has  emitted  that  portion  which  is  fully  ripe, 
she  should  be  placed  in  the  tank  again  for  a  day  or  two,  when  a  second 
portion  will  be  ready  for  impregnation.  The  milt  of  a  single  male 
is  usually  sufiicient  for  the  eggs  of  several  females ;  and  it  may  be 
obtained  likewise  in  successive  portions. 


234  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

7.  An  apparatus  for  enabling  the  fish  to  spawn  naturally,  thereby 
obviating  the  necessity  of  taking  them  into  the  hand  at  all,  has  been 
used  in  France.  It  consists  of  a  sort  of  double-bottomed  cage,  the 
upper  bottom  being  an  open  frame-work  of  wire,  the  lower  a  movable 
sieve  of  metallic  cloth.  It  is  suspended  in  the  water  of  the  pond,  and 
the  male  and  female  fish  placed  in  it.  The  female,  by  rubbing  against 
the  bars  of  the  open-work  floor^  emits  her  eggs,  which  fall  through 
upon  the  sieve  below,  and  are  impregnated  by  the  male  in  the  same 
way.  We  are  not  definitely  informed  as  to  the  success  of  this  con- 
trivance, but  it  may  easily  be  tested. 

8.  After  the  eggs  are  fecundated,  their  hatching  still  requires  care. 
The  essential  points  are  an  abundant  supply  of  well  aerated  water,  at 
a  proper  temperature,  removal  of  unsound  eggs,  and  protection  against 
insects  and  parasitic  mildew  or  fungus.  Since  light  is  indispensable 
to  the  production  of  this  destructive  microscopic  vegetable,  it  has  been 
recommended  to  keep  the  eggs,  during  hatching,  in  darkness.  Dif- 
ferent sj)ecies  require  different  degrees  of  warmth.  The  eggs  of  tl^e 
trout  will  bear  a  temperature  nearly  as  low  as  32°,  but  would  be 
destroyed  by  remaining  in  water  as  high  as  55°.  They  require 
the  j)urest  water;  and  that  of  a  running  spring,  or  stream,  which 
can  be  constantly  renewed,  is  best.  If  this  cannot  be  had,  filtered 
water  is  recommended.  The  eggs  should  be  examined  once  or  twice 
a  day,  and  every  one  which  shows  the  least  degree  of  disease,  indi- 
cated by  the  opaque,  whitish  color  of  its  yolk,  should  be  removed 
with  a  pair  of  small  tweezers  or  forceps.  The  accumulation  of  sediment 
which  would  be  likely  to  breed  mildew,  should  be  also  removed,  by 
passing  over  the  eggs  a  soft  hair  pencil.  During  the  first  few  days  of 
development,  the  spawn  should  he  agitated  as  little  as  possible,  since  it  is 
at  this  period  that  the  foundation  of  all  the  organic  processes  and  of 
the  whole  structure  of  the  fish  is  laid.  After  the  eyes  of  the  young 
fish  begin  to  be  visible  through  the  egg-shell,  appearing  like  two  dis- 
proportionately large  black  dots,  the  egg  is  much  less  sensitive  to  rough 
treatment,  and  may  be  handled,  or  transported  to  a  distance,  with  less 
risk  than  at  any  other  period  of  its  development. 

9.  As  to  the  hatching  apparatus,  it  may  be  said  that  any  is  good 
which  admits  a  free  circulation  of  water,  excludes  rapacious  enemies, 
and  permits  ready  access  to  the  eggs,  and  the  easy  removal  of  such  as 
may  become  infected,  A  very  successful  operator,  Mr.  Knoche,  thus 
describes  the  apparatus  used  by  him : 

"For  a  breeding  chest,  I  employ  a  stone  trough  seven  feet  long,  two 
fe^t  broad^  and  one  foot  deep,  and  provided  with  a  wooden  cover  fitting 
into  a  rabbet,  and  secured  by  a  lock.  To  one  end  of  the  cover  is  nailed 
a  frame,  whose  length  is  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  cover,  and  which 
is  four  inches  wide  and  five  inches  deep,  forming  a  small  trough  placed 
across  the  cover  of  the  large  one  at  the  upper  end.  Within  this  frame 
several  holes  are  bored,  through  the  main  cover,  so  as  to  allow  the 
water,  supplied  from  above,  to  pass  into  the  trough.  A  piece  of  coarse 
linen  cloth  is  nailed  across  the  frame,  and  through  this  all  the  water 
which  enters  the  trough  is  strained.  Within  the  breeding-trough 
there  is  a  perforated  box,  which  distributes  the  water  received  from  the 
frame  evenly  and  quietly  through  the  trough.     At  the  opposite  end  of 


FISH   BREEDING.  235 

the  trough,  six  inches  ahove  the  bottom,  are  two  square  holes,  covered 
with  finely-perforated  tin  plate,  and  so  adjusted  as  to  permit  the  escape 
of  the  same  quantity  of  water  as  is  admitted  through  the  frame.  The 
trough  is  sunk  in  the  ground,  near  a  spring,  which  is  raised  by  a  dam 
to  the  height  of  a  foot,  and  the  water  is"  conducted  directly  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  frame,  on  the  cover  of  the  trough,  through  a  pipe  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  diameter.  The  bottom  of  the  trough  is  filled  up  to 
the  depth  of  three  inches  with  clean-washed  sand,  or  gravel,  and  the 
water  always  stands  three  inches  deep  on  the  sand.  When  the  eggs 
-are  to  be  introduced^  the  flow  of  water  from  the  spring  is  shut  off,  and 
the  impregnated  spawn,  after  standing  three  hours,  is  carefully  poured 
into  the  trough,  and  so  distributed  that  the  eggs  are  not  in  contact 
with  each  other.  The  distribution  is  effected,  without  touching  the  eggs, 
by  agitating  the  water  over  them  with  the  bearded  end  of  a  quill. 
The  trough  is  now  closed,  and  left  undisturted for  twelve  hours,  after 
which  the  water  from  the  spring  is  again  admitted,  and  kept  regularly 
flowing." 

This  process  may  be  greatly  varied  according  to  circumstances,  as 
in  the  cellar  experiments  of  Mr.  Kellogg.  Like  the  latter,  Drs, 
Mayor  and  Duchosal,  of  Geneva,  used  the  common  drinking  water 
from  the  public  reservoir.  They  placed  the  eggs  in  square  earthen 
pots,  arranged  on  the  steps  of  a  stand,  like  those  used  for  flower  pots. 

Each  pot  had  a  small  aperture  in  front,  into  which  was  introduced 
a  pipe,  to  convey  the  water  to  the  next  tier  below,  and  so  arranged  as 
to  keep  the  water  in  all  the  pots  one  inch  deep.  The  pipe  from  the 
reservoir  was  pierced  with  holes,  corresponding  to  each  pot  in  the 
upper  tier ;  these  pots,  which  were  about  a  foot  square,  received  a  con- 
stant stream  of  about  a  line  in  diameter,  directly  from  the  aqueduct 
pipe,  and  the  lower  pots  received  their  supply  from  the  tier  next  above. 
The  eggs  hatched  equally  well  in  all ;  but,  from  the  partial  exhaustion 
of  the  air  in  the  water  in  passing  through  the  upper  tiers,  the  eggs  in 
the  lower  tiers  were  somewhat  longer  in  hatching.  Other  contrivances, 
adapted  to  peculiar  contingencies,  will  be  readily  suggested  to  persons 
of  ingenuity.  For  hatching  eggs  in  spring  or  summer,  flat-bottomed 
earthen  pots  may  be  used,  with  small  holes  in  the  sides,  about  an  inch 
from  the  bottom,  so  as  to  admit  a  free  circulation  of  water.  These 
may  be  inserted  in  small  rafts,  made  of  wood,  and  thus  left  to  float 
in  the  current,  the  rafts  being  secured  by  a  cord,  so  that  the  pots  may 
be  drawn  to  the  bank  at  any  time  for  examination.  No  gravel  would 
be  necessary  in  these  pots. 

10.  After  the  exclusion  of  the  young  from  the  eggs,  so  long  as  the 
yolk-sac  remains  attached  to  the  abdomen  of  the  fry,  little  attention  is 
required.  It  is  well  to  remove  them  to  a  larger  receptacle,  as  a  long 
trough,  with  a  foot  of  water,  to  allow  them  space  for  their  movements. 
A  floating  box  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  so  loaded  as  to  swim 
horizontally,  and  moored  so  that  the  current  of  the  water  will  pass 
through  it  from  end  to  end,  fine  wire  net-work  being  fixed  at  each  end 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  brood. 

11.  After  the  yolk-sac  is  exhausted,  the  young  fish  require  food. 
Small  insects  and  larvee  form  their  principal  natural  nutriment,  and 
these  abound  in  every  brook  and  pond,  so  that  the  fry  may  usually  be' 


236  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

left  to  take  care  of  themselves  for  awhile.  The  pond  into  which  they 
are  admitted  should  he  carefully  cleansed,  and  should  not  contain  any 
of  the  larger  fish.  A  small  stream  running  into  the  pond,  up  which 
the  young  can  proceed,  would  he  peculiarly  favorahle  for  the  prosperity 
of  trout.  Left  thus  to  themselves,  Mr.  Knoche  has  generally  found 
about  half  the  original  number  at  the  end  of  the  year,  the  rest  having 
perished  or  escaped.  When  little  water  can  be  commanded,  and  only 
small  artificial  reservoirs  can  be  used,  feeding  becomes  necessary. 
Small  trout  devour  with  avidity  coagulated  blood,  boiled  or  dried 
flesh,  fragments  of  boiled  fish,  or  any  other  animal  substance  which 
can  be  divided  into  fine  fibers,  thus  resembling  worms  while  sinking 
in  the  water. 

12.  It  is  important  to  determine  what  particular  species  should  be 
selected  for  artificial  breeding  in  particular  localities.  As  a  question 
of  profit,  it  is  obvious  that  we  should  breed  the  kinds  most  valued  in 
the  market  for  which  they  are  bred,  commanding  the  highest  price, 
and  best  accommodated  to  the  natural  or  artificial  conditions  at  the 
disposal  of  the  breeder.  If  fish  from  distant  localities  promise  a  better 
return  than  native  species,  they  may  be  introduced.  On  these  points 
no  precise  rules  can  be  laid  down.  The  introduction  of  fish  from 
remote  localities  is  not  difficult.  The  best  period  for  transporting  the 
eggs  is,  as  already  noticed,  when  the  eyes  of  the  embryo  appear 
through  the  shell. 

13.  Of  the  success  of  private  operations,  where  the  breeding  is  arti- 
ficially conducted  from  the  spawning  to  the  market,  an  opinion  may 
be  formed  from  the  following  statement  of  Mr.  Knoche : 

' '  For  the  last  six  years  I  have  hatched,  annually,  about  eight  hun- 
dred fish  (trout)  from  a  thousand  or  twelve  hundred  eggs.  At  the 
end  of  a  year  from  hatching,  I  seldom  find  more  than  half  that  num- 
ber in  the  pond,  the  rest  having  perished  or  escaped^  probably  the 
latter,  as  it  is  very  difficult  to  make  a  pond  so  tight  that  the  fry  cannot 
sometimes  pass  out,  at  either  the  inlet  or  the  outlet  of  the  water.  My 
fish,  in  general,  thrive  well,  and  for  the  last  three  years  my  ponds  have 
supplied,  annually,  from  three  to  four  hundred  artificially-bred  trout, 
of  three  and  four  years  old,  those  of  the  latter  age  weighing  from  three 
quarters  of  a  pound  to  a  pound." 

FISH   AS   AN    ARTICLE   OF   DIET. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  fish  supply  an  article  of  diet  at  once 
palatable^  nutritious^  easy  of  digestion  in  most  cases,  and  conducive  to 
good  health.  But  what  are  their  nutritive  qualities  as  compared  with 
other  kinds  of  animal  food?  whether  different  species  of  fish  differ  ma- 
terially in  degree  of  nutritive  form?  and  whether,  as  food,  fish  possess 
any  peculiar  or  special  properties?  These  are  questions  of  great  inter- 
est to  consumers  offish,  but  to  which  it  is  even  yet  difficult  to  give  a 
satisfactory  answer.  An  inquiry  into  these  points  was  made,  a  few 
years  ago,  by  Dr.  John  Davy,  inspector  general  of  army  hospitals, 
&c.,  the  results  of  which  he  read  before  the  Koyal  Society  of  Edin- 
burg.  Taking  for  granted  the  proposition  "that  the  nutritive  power 
of  all  the  ordinary  articles  of  animal  food,  at  least  of  those  composed 


FISH    BREEDING. 


237 


priucipally  of  muscular  fiber,  or  of  muscle  and  fat,  to  whatever  class 
belonging,  is  approximately  denoted  by  their  several  specific  gravities, 
and  by  the  amount  of  solid  matter  which  each  contains,  as  determined 
by  thorough  drying."  Dr.  Davy  subjected  portions  of  several  species 
offish,  and  also  several  kinds  of  meat  and  other  alimentary  substances, 
to  the  test  of  very  accurate  processes,  in  order  to  ascertain  their  several 
nutritive  powers.  The  following  tables  show  some  of  the  results,  the 
fish,  selected  from  those  upon  which  Dr.  Davy  experimented,  being 
either  common  to  both  shores  of  the  Atlantic,  or  quite  similar  to  fishes 
known  by  the  same  name  among  us : 

TABLE  I 


Species  offish. 


Specific 
gravity. 


Solid  matter, 
per  cent. 


Time  when 
obtained. 


Haddock 

Hake 

Pollock 

Whiting 

Common  cod 

Mackerel 

Salmon 

Trout 

Trout 

Smelt 

Eel 


1056 
1054 
1060 
1062 
1059 
1043 
1071 
1053 
1050 
lOGO 
1034 


20.2 
17.4 
19.3 
21.5 
19.2 
37.9 
29.4 
22.5 
18.7 
19.3 
33.6 


August. 

October. 

October. 

March. 

April. 

October. 

March. 

March. 

October 

March. 

June. 


TABLE  II 


Kinds  of  food 


Specific 
gravity- 


Solid  matter, 
per  cent 


Time. 


Beef,  sirloin 

Veal,  loin 

Mutton,  leg 

Pork,  loin 

Common  fowl,  breast 
Grey  plover,  braast..., 


1078 
1076 
1069 
1080 
1075 
1072 


26.9 
27.2 
26.5 
30.5 
27.2 
30.1 


March. 

November. 

November. 

January. 

November. 

November. 


''These  results,"  says  Dr.  Davy,  " I  wish  to  have  considered  merely 
as  approximate  ones.  Casting  the  eye  over  the  first  table,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  range  of  nutritive  power,  as  denoted  by  the  specific 
gravity  and  the  portion  of  solid  matter,  is  pretty  equable,  except  in 
a  very  few  instances,  and  chiefly  those  of  the  salmon  and  the  mack- 
erel ;  the  one  exhibiting  a  high  specific  gravity,  with  a  large  propor- 
tion of  solid  matter  ;  the  other,  a  low  specific  gravity,  with  a  still 
larger  proportion  of  matter,  namely :  muscle  and  oil,  and,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  latter,  the  inferior  specific  gravity." 

Oil  also  abounded  in  the  eel,  and  hence  the  large  amount  of 
residuum  it  afforded. 

Comparing,  seriation,  the  first  table  with  the  second,  the  degree  of 


238  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

difference  of  nutritive  power  of  those  articles  standing  highest  in  each, 
appears  to  be  inconsiderable,  and  not  great  in  most  of  the  others. 
Thus  the  salmon,  the  mackerel,  and  the  eel  contain  more  solid  matter 
than  beef ;  and  the  specific  gravity  of  salmon  is  greater  than  that  of 
mutton.  These  results  are  certainly  surprising^,  and  not  in  accordance 
with  popular  and  long-received  notions. 

"That  fish  generally  are  easy  of  digestion,"  proceeds  Dr.  Davy, 
"excepting  such  as  have  oil  interfused  in  their  muscular  tissue,  ap- 
pears to  be  commonly  admitted  as  the  result  of  experience — a  result 
that  agrees  well  with  the  greater  degree  of  softness  of  their  muscular 
fiber,  comparing  it  with  either  that  of  birds  or  of  the  mammalia,  such 
as  are  used  for  food.  A  more  interesting  consideration  is,  whether 
fish,  as  a  diet,  is  more  conducive  to  health  than  the  "flesh  of  the  ani- 
mals just  mentioned,  and  especially  to  the  prevention  of  scrofulous 
and  tuberculous  disease.  From  such  information  as  I  am  able  to 
collect,  /  am  disposed  to  tliiiik  that  they  are.  It  is  vv^ell  known  that 
fishermen  and  their  families,  living  principally  on  fish,  are  commonly 
healthy — may  I  not  say  above  the  average?  and  I  think  it  is  pretty 
certain  that  they  are  less  subject  to  the  diseases  referred  to  than  any  other 
class,  without  exception." 

This  statement  is  proved  by  reliable  statistics,  collected  with  care  by 
Dr.  Davy,  who  proceeds  to  remark  that  if  this  exemption  be  mainly 
owing  to  diet,  and  that  a  fish  didt,  it  may  be  presumed  that  there 
enters  into  the  composition  of  fish  some  element  not  common  to  other 
kinds  of  food.  This  element  is  believed  by  him  to  be  iodine,  distinct 
traces  of  which  have  been  found  in  every  instance  in  which  he  sought 
for  it  in  sea-fish,  though  not  so  strongly  marked  in  the  migratory 
fish,  and  not  at  all  in  the  fresh-water  fish.  The  medicinal  effects  of 
cod-liver  oil  in  mitigating,  if  not  in  curing,  pulmonary  consumption, 
appear  to  be.  well  established,  and  as  this  oil  contains  iodine,  the 
analogy  seems  to  strengthen  the  inference  that  sea-fish  generally  may 
be  alike  beneficial. 

In  concluding  this  imperfect  notice  of  fish  culture,  which  we  hope 
to  follow  by  a  second  in  the  next  Keport,  we  refer  those  readers  who 
may  have  become  interested  in  the  subject,  and  who  may  desire  to  ob- 
tain further  information  as  to  many  points  upon  which  the  space  here 
accorded  will  not  permit  us  to  be  more  explicit,  to  two  works,  which 
are  easily  accessible  to  American  readers,  and  which  they  will  find 
useful  assistants  in  practical  fish  breeding.  They  are,  "A  Complete 
Treatise  on  Artificial  Fish  Breeding,"  &c.,  published  originally  in 
1854,  by  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York;  and  "A  Treatise  on  the 
Artificial  Propagation  of  certain  kinds  of  Fish/'  &c.,  by  T.  Garlick, 
M.  D.,  published  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  by  Thomas  Brown,  ISST. 


ENGLISH    PLOWS   AND   PLOWING.  239 

ENGLISH  PLOWS  AND  PLOWING. 


BY  HEKRY  F.  FRENCH,  OF  EXETER,  NEW  HAIUPSIIIRE. 


Even  a  casual  ol)servatioii  of  the  operation  of  plowing  in  England 
must  suggest  to  an  American  farmer  a  series  of  questions  for  solution, 
respecting  both  the  form  and  structure,  and  the  mode  of  use  of  the  plow. 
The  plows  made  by  Ransome  and  Simes,  which  I  saw  on  exhibition 
at  the  shows  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  and  of  the  JSuffolk 
County  Society,  perhaps  rank  as  high,  at  present,  as  any  plow  in  Eng- 
land. I  was  informed,  at  the  warehouses  of  the  manufacturers,  at 
Ipswich,  that  their  plow  in  common  use  as  a  seed  plow,  for  two  horses, 
weighs  two  hundred  and  eighty  pounds,  and  its  length  is  twelve  feet. 
It  turns  a  furrow  of  eight  or  nine  inches  in  width,  and  five  or  six  in 
depth,  which  may  be  increased  to  one  often  by  seven  inches. 

Actual  experiment,  at  the  warehouses  in  Boston,  shows  the  average 
weight  of  American  plows  designed  for  the  same  work,  with  wheel 
and  cutter,  to  be  about  two  hundred  pounds,  and  their  average  length 
about  seven  and  a  half  feet. 

The  English  implement  is  entirely  of  iron,  of  fine  workmanship  and 
finish,  with  two  wheels,  and  is  much  less  simple  in  its  structure  than 
the  American ;  yet  the  American  plow  seems  to  be  more  firm  and 
strong  than  the  other.  Indeed,  the  extreme  length  of  the  handles  and 
of  the  beam  of  the  English  plow,  notwithstanding  they  are  of  iron, 
gives  to  a  hand  accustomed  to  the  American  implement  a  feeling  of 
insecurity,  as  if  the  material  were  elastic,  and  would  not  be  stiff 
enough  to  control  the  work  were  a  stump  or  fast  rock  to  be  encountered 
in  the  furrow.  This  apprehension,  however,  is  idle  in  most  English 
fields,  which  for  a  thousand  years,  perhaps,  have  felt  the  pressure  of 
the  plowshare. 

But  the  difference  between  English  and  American  plowing  is  fully 
as  striking  as  that  between  the  plows.  The  worst-plowed  field  which 
I  saw  in  a  summer's  ramble  through  old  England  might  be  said,  liter- 
ally, to  appearance,  to  be  done  better  than  the  best-plowed  field  that 
can  be  found  in  a  New  England  farm.  There  seems  to  be  no  such 
thing  in  England  as  a  crooked  or  irregular  furrow,  but,  however  ex- 
tensive the  field,  the  work  appears  uniformly  as  straight  as  a  line 
could  be  laid  down  by  a  civil  engineer  with  his  instruments  ;  and 
whether  the  operation  be  really  more  thoroughly  performed  than  with 
us  or  not,  it  has  at  least  the  merit  of  being  accomplished  precisely  as 
the  plowman  desires. 

Our  first  impression  upon  these  observations  would  naturally  be, 
that  notwithstanding  the  English  plow  is  more  clumsy  and  expensive 
than  the  American,  yet  that  the  former  must  have  advantages  of 
st]*ucture,  which,  for  use  in  old  and  thoroughly-tilled  fields,  at  least, 
more  than  compensate  for  these  objections.  Yet  this^  however  natural, 
would  be  a  hasty  conclusion. 

Within  twenty  miles  of  Ipswich,  where  Ransome's  highly-finished 


240  AGRICULTUEAL    REPORT.  ^ 

plows  are  manufactured,  in  a  week  whicTi  was  spent  on  a  farm  and 
among  intelligent  farmers,  in  the  county  of  Suffolk,  an  entirely  differ- 
ent plow  was  generally  in  use — an  implement  so  ungainly,  so  large 
and  ill-fashioned,  that  it  seems  as  if  it  must  have  been  disinterred  with 
the  stone  coffins  of  the  Norman  knights,  which  occasionally  turn  up  in 
that  neighborhood,  or  have  been  found  in  the  antediluvian  deposits  of 
coprolites,  for  which  Suffolk  county  is  famous. 

The  plow  referred  to  is  that  which  is  usually  known  in  English 
books  as  the  Norfolk  plow,  the  peculiarities  of  which  are,  that  it  has 
but  one  handle,  and  that  its  beam,  running  upward  at  an  angle  of 
about  forty-five  degrees  from  the  level  surface  of  the  ground,  rests  upon 
a  frame- work  supported  by  an  axle,  upon  which  are  two  wheels  of 
about  the  size  of  the  small  wheels  of  a  Yankee  wagon. 

This  is  one  of  the  oldest  forms  of  the  plow  now  in  use.  A  drawing 
of  it  may  be  found  in  Gregory's  Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  pub- 
lished in  England,  in  1807,  under  the  title  "Husbandry." 

The  following  extract  from  the  same  article  will  indicate  primitive 
notions  which  its  writer  entertained  on  the  subject  of  plowing.  They 
are  hardly  less  antiquated  than  the  implement  in  question : 

''Upon  all  light  soils,"  he  says,  "'it  is  necessary  to  preserve,  at  six 
or  eight  inches  below  the  surface,  what  farmers  call  a  pan,  that  is, 
the  staple  at  that  depth  should  be  kept  unbroken,  by  which  means 
manure  will  be  kept  longer  on  the  top  ;  and,  in  dry  seasons,  the  less 
depth  the  pan  has,  the  less  liable  the  corn  will  be  to  burn,  provided 
the  pan  consists  of  earth  and  not  of  rock,  because  the  roots  of  the  corn 
will  find  more  moisture  by  striking  against  a  body  of  close  earth  than 
they  will  in  a  greater  depth  of  wallow  earth,  as  it  is  evident  the  former 
preserves  more  moisture  in  dry  seasons." 

A  drawing  of  "the  original  two- wheeled  plow,"  described  also  as 
the  Hertfordshire  plow,  may  be  found  in  the  "Compleat  Body  of  Hus- 
bandry," the  second  edition  of  which  was  published  in  1758.  It  does 
not  appear,  from  this  edition,  when  the  first  was  published,  but  the 
engravings,  said  to  be  from  original  drawings,  appear  very  ancient. 
This  "original  two-wheeled  plow"  there  figured,  is  very  nearly  like 
the  Norfolk  plow^  as  shown  in  Gregory's  Dictionary,  and  that  now  in 
common  use  in  Suffolk  county. 

Those  which  I  saw  were  of  such  style  of  workmanship  and  finish  as 
common  mechanics  on  a  farm  would  be  likely  to  give  to  their  prodw>- 
tions.  They  certainly  had  no  claim  to  the  beauty  of  simplicity,  or  to 
the  higher  beauty  of  scientific  adaptation  to  the  purpose  of  their 
creation  ;  yet  the  work  done  with  this  implement,  so  rude  and  so 
ancient,  seemed,  in  the  skillful  hands  of  English  plowmen,  to  be  just 
as  straight  and  even  as  that  performed  by  the  polished  and  modern, 
and  more  artistic  product  of  Mr.  Eansome's  shops. 

And  thus  we  have  the  mystery  of  EnglisH  superiority  in  plowing 
solved,  by  the  superior  skill  of  English  plowmen,  without  necessarily 
admitting  the  superiority  of  English  plows.  A  plowman  in  England 
is  a  plowman  always.  Destined  for  that  position  from  his  birth,  if 
not  long  before  predestinated  to  it,  embarrassed  by  no  hopes  or  aspira- 
tions for  a  higher  station  in  life,  he  takes  hold  of  the  plow-handle  in 
his  early  youth,  he  practices  in  that  more  equable  climate  almost  every 


ENGLISH   PLOWS    AND    PLOWING.  241 

day  of  every  montli  in  every  year  of  liis  life,  to  perfect  himself  in  this 
one  operation.  Trials  of  skill,  in  which  small  pecuniary  rewards,  or 
the  praise  of  his  employer,  are  accorded  to  the  winner,  for  the  hest 
performance  in  the  plowing  match,  are  not  unfrequent;  and  so,  hy  the 
division  of  labor  incident  to  large  farms,  and  hy  a  manual  dexterity 
and  accuracy  which  only  long  practice  can  give,  the  English  plow- 
man, with  the  implement,  whatever  its  form,  to  which  he  is  accus- 
tomed, produces,  on  the  particular  farm  to  which  he  is  attached  as  a 
laborer,  a  result  which  challenges  the  admiration  of  all. 

The  question,  however,  between  the  English  and  American  plows 
of  modern  construction  is  still  open :  Does  the  weight  or  the  length, 
or  does  any  other  peculiarity  of  the  English  plow,  upon  the  whole, 
contribute  to  the  utility  of  the  implement? 

It  may  be  said  that  differences  in  the  soil,  or  the  condition  of  the 
surface,  render  any  such  inquiry  fruitless  to  us,  because  a  plow  that 
may  be  suitable  and  best  for  old  fields  in  England,  may  be  quite  unfit 
for  the  newljr-cleared  lands  of  the  New  World.  Such,  manifestly,  is 
the  fact,  but  much  of  this  New  World  has  already  been  converted  into 
broad,  clear  fields,  and  much  of  our  best  alluvial  and  prairie  land 
becomes,  by  a  few  years'  culture,  as  free  from  obstructions  as  the  oldest 
fields  of  Europe. 

And  again,  as  has  been  stated,  the  English  plow,  of  w^hatever  form, 
is  of  far  greater  weight  than  any  American  plow,  and  should,  there- 
fore, other  things  being  equal,  possess,  proportionably,  a  greater 
strength,  and  so  be  suited  to  heavier  work. 

Had  we  found  the  American  plow  the  heavier  of  the  two,  it  would 
have  been  at  least  a  plausible  explanation  that  our  new  lands  require 
a  heavier  and  stronger  implement  than  those  of  a  country  already 
thoroughly  subdued. 

The  very  great  diversity  of  structure  of  the  various  plows  in  use  in 
England  itself  has  not  failed  to  attract  the  attention  of  scientific  agri- 
culturists, as  well  as  of  plow  manufacturers  in  England,  for  it  is 
manifest  that  the  difference  in  the  structure  of  the  plows  in  use  in  the 
different  sections  of  that  country  cannot  be  accounted  for  upon  the 
idea  that  the  difference  in  soil  and  crops  require  the  use  of  implements 
so  diverse,  especially  when  it  is  known  that,  throughout  the  varying 
climate  and  soil  of  Scotland,  there  is  but  one  form  of  plow  in  use,  or 
rather  it  should  be  said,  there  is  in  Scotland,  in  the  plows  in  use,  no 
variation  in  principle,  and  but  little  in  detail.  In  England,  on 
the  contrary,  with  no  greater  variation  of  climate  or  soil,  there  are  in 
use,  almost  side  by  side,  plows  varying  from  each  other  in  structure  as 
much  as  any  of  them  are  distinguished  from  those  in  general  use  in 
the  United  States. 

Although,  at  various  times,  ardent  advocates  for  progress  have  an- 
nounced that  the  plow  was  soon  to  be  superseded  by  some  implement 
that  shall  stir  the  ground  by  forking  or  digging,  propelled  eithei"  by 
steam  or  beasts,  as  may  be  convenient,  yet  it  is  probable  that  an 
implement  which,  for  two  thousand  years,  and  probably  much  longer, 
has  retained  its  position  as  the  first  and  most  important  agent  in  pre- 
paring the  soil  for  the  seed,  will  remain  in  use  long  and  extensively 
enough  to  warrant  a  careful  study  of  its  structure  and  mode  of  opera- 
16 A 


242  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

tion.  It  is  proposed,  tlierefore,  to  examine  some  experiments  that 
have  heen  recently  made  in  England,  with  a  view  to  ascertain  the 
effect  of  the  weight  and  different  structure  of  the  plow  upon  its  draft. 

It  is  a  fact  well  known  to  practical  farmers^  that  the  draft  of  differ- 
ent plows,  turning  the  same  width  and  depth  of  furrow,  in  the  same 
field,  and  performing  the  work  in  substantially  the  same  manner, 
varies  so  much  as  to  be  plainly  practicable  in  its  effect  upon  the  team. 
The  use  of  the  dynamometer,  by  which  the  power  exerted  upon  the 
plow,  or,  in  a  word,  the  draft  can  be  actually  measured,  has  confirmed 
and  made  definite  this  point,  which  before  rested  upon  conjecture,  or 
mere  estimate.  It  has  thus  been  ascertained,  by  a  trial  of  ten  different 
plows,  each  of  a  different  make  from  the  others,  that  the  difference  in 
draft,  in  performing  precisely  the  same  work,  amounted  to  forty-five 
per  cent.  The  experiment  was  made  in  turning  a  furrow  with  each 
plow,  nine  inches  in  width  by  five  inches  in  depth,  in  five  different 
kinds  of  soil,  and  noting  carefully  the  results  as  shown  by  the  dyna- 
mometer. Taking  the  average  of  the  five  trials,  it  appeared  that,  while 
the  plow  of  lightest  draft  required  a  power  of  three  hundred  and  one 
pounds  to  work  it,  the  plow  of  heaviest  draft  required  a  power  of  four 
hundred  and  forty-one  pounds  to  perform  precisely  the  same  work,  and 
the  other  eight  required  the  greatest  possible  variety  of  power  between 
these  extremes. 

At  a  trial  reported  in  the  transactions  of  the  New  York  State  Agri- 
cultural Society  for  1843,  page  61,  it  was  found  that  the  average  of 
resistance,  or  the  draft  of  twenty-four  different  jdIows,  tested  by  the 
dynamometer,  ranged  from  two  hundred  and  ninety-eight  to  four  hun- 
dred and  eighty-three  pounds,  showing  that  more  than  sixty  per  cent, 
more  power  was  required  to  move  one  plow  than  the  other,  in  the 
work  of  turning  a  furrow  twelve  inches  wide  by  six  inches  deep. 

In  another  series  of  experiments,  in  the  transactions  of  the  same 
society  for  1849,  page  559,  in  a  trial  of  twelve  different  plows,  we  find 
the  draft  to  vary  all  along  from  two  hundred  and  ninety  pounds  to 
four  hundred  and  ninety-three  pounds,  being  a  difference  of  seventy 
per  cent,  in  performing  the  same  work  of  turning  a  furrow  of  twelve 
by  six  inches. 

Surely  differences  so  great  as  these  in  the  labor  expended  in  the  use 
of  the  most  common  and  indispensable  implement  known  to  farmers, 
call  for  the  most  careful  examination  of  causes,  and  the  fullest  expo- 
sition of  principles  and  results. 

The  writer  is  not  aware  that  any  very  reliable  experiments  have 
ever  been  instituted  to  test,  by  the  dynamometer,  the  comparative 
draft  of  English  and  American  plows.  A  statement  of  such  an  ex- 
periment at  the  World's  Exhibition  at  London,  in  1851,  is  found  in 
the  transactions  of  the  New  York  Agricultural  Society  for  that  year, 
but  neither  the  width  nor  depth  of  the  furrow  is  given,  and  the  draft 
is  so  great,  if  we  are  correct  in  supposing  the  words  ^^ points  of  resist- 
ance'" to  mean  pounds  of  resistance,  as  clearly  to  indicate  that  the 
trials  were  not  well  conducted.  The  attention  of  the  plow  makers  has 
generally  been  turned  to  the  form  of  the  mold-board,  perhaps  more 
than  any  other  point,  in  their  attempts  to  construct  jdIows  of  easy 
draft.     This   is   doubtless  an  important  consideration  as  well  with 


ENGLISH    PLOWS    AND    PLOWING.  243 

respect  to  light  draft  as  to  good  work,  but  tlie  system  of  experi- 
ments under  consideration  seems  to  indicate  that  far  less  depends  upon 
the  exact  form  of  the  mold-board,  as  to  the  draft,  than  has  gene- 
rally been  supposed,  and  that  the  weight  of  the  implement  itself,  and 
the  resistance  to  the  coulter  in  cutting  the  furrow-slice,  affect  the 
draft  far  more.  And  the  same  experiments  furnish  results,  which 
will  probably  be  surprising  to  all  who  have  not  witnessed  or  read  of 
similar  trials,  as  to  the  effect  upon  the  draft,  of  the  use  of  wheels 
upon  plows,  either  under  the  beam  or  sole-plate,  as  to  the  effect  of  the 
depth  of  the  furrow,  and  as  to  the  influence  of  velocity  on  the  draft. 
For  the  sake  of  system  and  convenience  of  reference,  the  results  of 
such  well-conducted  experiments  as  have  come  to  my  knowledge,  with 
such  suggestions  as  have  occurred  to  me,  or  been  gathered  from  reliable 
sources,  will  be  given  under  the  following  arrangement : 

1.  The  influence  of  the  weight  of  the  plow  on  its  draft. 

2.  The  relative  influence  pf  the  mold-board,  or  turning  process,  and 
of  the  share  and  coulter,  or  cutting  process,  upon  the  draft. 

3.  The  influence  of  the  depth  of  the  furrow  upon  the  draft. 

4.  The  influence  of  velocity  on  the  draft. 

5.  The  influence  of  wheels  of  various  kinds  on  the  draft,  and  their 
utility. 

6.  The  eflect  of  the  length  of  the  various  parts,  as  the  beam,  the 
mold-board,  and  the  handles,  upon  the  operation  of  the  plow. 

First.    The  influence  of  the  weight  of  the  ploiv  on  its  draft. 

We  are  accustomed,  perhaps,  to  regard  the  weight  of  the  plow 
rather  as  affecting  the  convenient  and  easy  handling  of  it  to  the  plow- 
man, than  as  of  much  importance  to  the  labor  of  the  team.  We  readily 
perceive  that  it  is  far  easier  to  take  from  the  tool-room,  to  place  in  the 
cart,  to  take  out  again  and* place  upon  the  land,  an  implement  of  one 
hundred  pounds  weiglit,  than  of  twice  that  weight. 

All  who  have  held  the  plow  know  practically  how  much  more  con- 
venient a  light  plow  is  than  a  heavy  one,  in  setting  in  and  throwing 
out  at  the  end  of  the  land;  and  especially  does  a  farmer  upon  a  rough 
farm  appreciate  this  difference,  where,  as,  indeed,  on  many  New  Eng- 
land fields,  the  plow  is  thrown  or  lifted  out,  and  set  in,  at  almost 
every  rod  of  its  progress,  to  avoid  stumps,  or  stones,  or  roots  of  some 
almost  imperishable  tree,  felled,  perhaps,  a  half  century  ago.  Few, 
however,  will  be  prepared  for  the  results  which  have  been  developed 
by  the  experiments  now  on  record.  A  little  reflection  will  satisfy  us 
that  the  draft  of  the  plow  is  composed  of  two  elements,  one  of  which 
is  the  mere  force  necessary  to  move  the  plow,  resting  on  its  sole,  in  an 
empty  furrow,  or  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  the  other  force 
necessary  to  cut  and  turn  the  furrow,  or  do  the  work  of  plowing.  The 
heavier  the  plow  the  greater  the  force  necessary  to  move  it  along  the 
surface.  In  a  series  of  experiments  published  by  Mr.  Pusey  in  the 
English  Agricultural  Society  Journal,  it  appears  that  the  average 
draft  of  nine  different  plows,  in  an  empty  furrow,  was  in  proportion 
to  the  weight  as  three  to  four  ;  that  is  to  say,  that  a  plow  of  three 


244  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

hundred  pounds  weiglit  required  a  force,  as  shown  by  the  dynamome- 
ter, of  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  pounds  to  move  it,  when  not  at 
work.  By  the  same  experiments,  it  appears  that  the  average  draft  of 
the  same  plows,  working  and  turning  a  furrow  nine  inches  by  five, 
was  a  fraction  less  than  double  their  draft  in  the  empty  furrow.  Later 
experiments  confirm  this  result ;  and  it  may  be  taken  as  demonstrated 
that,  in  the  use  of  the  heavy  English  plow,  about  one  half  of  all  the 
force  of  the  team  is  expended  in  moving  the  implement,  when  at  ordi- 
nary light  work ! 

Weights  being  pat  upon  the  plows,  the  trials  were  repeated  several 
times,  the  weights  upon  each  plow  being  increased,  and  also  the  depth 
of  furrow. 

An  examination  of  the  carefully-arranged  tables  given  as  the  result 
of  these  experiments,  seems  clearly  to  establish  that  the  weight  of  the 
plow  is  a  constant  element  in  the  draft ;  so  that,  if  a  plow  require  two 
hundred  pounds  more  force  than  another  to  move  it  in  an  empty  fur- 
row^ it  will,  other  things  being  equal,  require  the  same  additional  two 
hundred  pounds  of  force  to  move  it  when  at  work,  at  any  depth,  in 
any  soil. 

Taking_,  then,  the  draft  of  the  plow  in  the  empty  furrow,  which  may 
be  called  the  surface  draft,  to  be  three-fourths  of  the  weight  of  the 
implement,  and  the  weight  of  English  plows  for  common  work  to  be 
that  given  me  at  the  factory  of  Kansome  &  Simes,  two  hundred  and 
eighty  pounds,  and  that  of  the  American  plows  to  be  one  hundred 
pounds,  we  have  the  difference  in  the  draft,  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
five  pounds,  or  three-fourths  of  the  difference  in  weight. 

When  we  consider  that  about  one-half  of  the  draft  of  the  English 
plow  is  expended  in  merely  moving  it,  we  see  that,  either  by  accident 
or  science,  we  have,  in  the  United  States,  made  a  decided  improvement 
upon  the  mother  country  in  the  reduction  of  the  weight  of  this  imple- 
ment. No  means  are  afforded  us  of  estimating  their  comparative 
strength,  but  from  observation  and  information  obtained  on  English 
farms,  my  impression  is  that  the  compact  and  simple  structure  of  our 
plows  renders  them  less  liable  to  break  or  get  oiit  of  repair  than  the 
best  modern  iron  plows  of  English  manufacture.  How  the  greater 
length  of  the  mold-board  affects  the  draft  of  plows  may  be  better  con- 
sidered after  examining  our  next  point. 

Secondly.   The  relative  influence  of  the  mold-hoard,  or  turning  process, 
and  of  the  share  and  coulter,  or  cutting  process,  upon  the  draft. 

The  soil  upon  which  the  experiments^  of  which  the  results  are  now 
to  be  stated,  were  made  is  described  as  a  deep,  firm,  steady  loam,  free 
from  stones — a  one-year-old  clover  bed.  The  trials  were  made  by  first 
measuring  the  draft  of  the  plow  when  at  work  in  the  ordinary  way, 
and  then  by  removing  the  mold-board,  and  leaving  the  share  and 
coulter  to  do  their  v/ork  of  cutting,  without  the  furrow.  The  furrow, 
in  this  trial  was  nine  by  six  inches.  The  whole  draft  of  the  plow  at 
work  was  thirty-four  stones.  The  removal  of  the  mold-board  dimin- 
ished the  draft  only  to  thirty-one  stones,  so  that  three  stones  only,  or 
ten  per  cent  of  the  whole  draft,  seemed  to  be  occasioned  by  the  mold- 


ENGLISH    PLOWS    AND    PLOWING.  245 

board.  The  surfacG  draft  of  this  plow  was  twelve  stones,  and  subtract- 
ing that  from  thirty-one,  we  have  nineteen  stones  as  the  labor  of 
cutting  the  furrow-slice. 

Analyzing  the  process  thus  far,  if  those  experiments  are  correct  and 
reliable,  as  the  foundation  for  general  estimates,  we  find  that  about 
thirty-five  per  cent,  of  the  labor  of  plowing,  at  the  depth  of  six  inches, 
is  expended  in  moving  the  implement,  about  fifty-five  to  the  operation 
of  cutting  the  furrow-slice  at  the  bottom  and  side,  and  only  about  ten 
per  cent,  to  the  action  of  the  mold-board,  or  process  of  turning  the 
furrow.  It  will  be  observed  that,  in  these  experiments  the  furrow  is 
deeper  by  one  inch  than  in  the  former  experiments,  where  the  result 
showed  the  surface  draft  to  be  about  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  whole  labor. 
A  further  statement  will  show  that  this  variation  in  tlie  depth  of  the 
furrow  will  just  about  account  for  the  difference  between  thirty-five  and 
fifty  per  cent,  set  down  as  the  surface  draft  in  the  two  cases. 

Thus  we  are  brought  to  the  consideration  of  the  third  point  pro- 
posed: 

Thirdly.  The  influence  of  the  depth  ofthefurroio  upon  the  draft. 

From  the  sort  of  natural  desire  which  men  have  to  establish  some 
principle,  rather  than  because  there  was  any  evidence  of  such  a  law,  it 
has  been  supposed  that  the  draft  of  the  plow  increases  with  the  depth 
of  the  furrow,  in  mathematical  proportion,  that  is  to  say,  according  to 
the  squares  of  the  depth. 

But  the  investigations  already  made,  though  far  from  satisfactory  as 
establishing  any  principle  or  law  of  increase,  are  conclusive  upon  the 
proposition  that  the  increase  of  draft  is  far  less  than  the  proportion 
named.  Much  depends  upon  the  form  of  the  plow,  and  whether  it  is 
made,  in  these  trials,  to  work  much  deeper  than  its  design  or  structure 
warrants. 

Much  depends,  also,  upon  the  subsoil,  and  especially  upon  the  ques- 
tion whether,  in  the  experiments  upon  this  point,  the  plow  is  run  at 
a  depth  so  great  as  to  strike  into  the  hard  pan,  or  stratum,  upon 
which  the  plow  sole  has,  for  many  years  of  tillage,  run ;  and  more 
than  all_,  perhaps,  depends  upon  the  particular  work  in  hand,  whether 
it  be  in  a  tough  sward  or  in  an  old  field.  The  English  experiments 
were  tried  in  a  clover  field  of  one  year,  where  there  could  be  nothing 
like  the  matted  turf  of  our  mowing  lands.  Taking  the  average  of 
their  trials,  with  different  plows,  it  was  found  that  it  required  an  in- 
crease of  power  of  about  ninety  pounds,  upon  increasing  the  furrow 
from  four  inches  to  six,  and  an  increase  of  power  of  three  hundred 
pounds  to  run  the  plow  eight  and  a  half  inches  deep.  An  examination 
of  the  details  of  these  trials  seems  to  indicate,  what,  perhaps,  might  be 
anticipated,  that  the  greater  the  draft  of  the  plow,  in  a  shallow  fur- 
row, the  less  its  increase  of  draft  in  the  deeper  furrow. 

This  may  readily  be  accounted  for  upon  the  idea  that  the  heavier 
plows,  used  in  the  experiments,  v/ere  intended,  and  properly  con- 
structed for  deeper  work.  From  all  the  results  yet  published,  it  would 
be  fair  to  infer,  that  an  increase  of  depth,  not  beyond  the  reasonable 
capacity  of  the  implement,  involves  an  increase  of  drafts  less  than  half 


246  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

that  stated  in  the  books  as  the  rule  ;  that  is,  according  to  the  squares 
of  the  depth. 

FouKTHLT.     The  influence  of  velocity  on  the  draft. 

We  are  accustomed  to  associate  the  idea  of  increased  speed  with  that 
of  greatly  increased  power.  With  regard  to  ships,  canal  boats,  and 
the  like,  it  is  considered  a  general  rule,  that  in  doubling  the  velocity 
of  a  body  moving  through  a  fluid,  that  body  not  only  impinges  on 
twice  as  many  particles  of  the  fluid,  but  on  each  of  them  with  twice  its 
former  force;  so  that  the  resistance  increases  as  the  squares  of  the 
velocity.  The  velocity  of  locomotives  upon  railways  is  limited  by 
various  circumstances,  so  that  it  is  well  understood  that  a  low  rate  of 
speed  is  far  more  economical  than  a  higher  rate.  But  the  resistance 
opposed  to  the  plan  in  its  work  is  mainly  attributable  to  one  prin- 
ciple, that  of  friction,  and  it  is  a  well  established  proposition  that 
friction  is  not,  in  general,  increased  by  an  increase  of  velocity. 

In  accordance  with  this  principle,  the  results  of  careful  experiments, 
with  the  dynamometer,  with  the  same  teams  and  plows,  at  various 
rates  of  speed,  indicate  no  difference  whatever  in  the  draft  of  the  plow, 
when  at  work  at  the  speed  of  one  and  a  half  miles,  and  three  and  a 
half  miles  per  hour.  It  was  found,  however,  that  although  the  average 
draft  was  substantially  the  same,  at  any  rate  of  speed  between  one  and 
a  half  and  five  miles  per  hour,  yet  that  the  oscillations  in  draft  were 
greatly  increased,  that  is  to  say  that  the  draft  at  a  slow  rate  was  more 
regular  than  at  a  higher  rate  of  speed.  This  is  readily  accounted  for, 
because  of  obstructions  in  the  soil.  A  stone,  for  instance,  upon  which 
the  plowshare  should  strike  with  double  the  usual  velocity,  would 
cause  a  momentary  increase  of  draft,  followed  by  a  decrease,  as  the 
plow  should  slip  past  it.  The  principle  thus  practically  established, 
that  increase  of  velocity  in  plowing  involves  no  increase  of  draft,  is  of 
the  highest  importance,  as  respects  the  question  whether  slow  or  fast 
moving  animals  should  be  employed  in  this  work.  An  ox-team,  mov- 
ing at  the  rate  of  one  and  a  half  miles  per  hour,  will  plow  an  acre, 
turning  a  furrow  nine  inches  wide,  in  seven  hours  and  twenty  minutes ; 
while  a  horse-team,  moving  at  the  rate  of  two  and  three  quarter  miles 
per  hour,  will  accomplish  the  same  work  in  four  hours,  and  the  actual 
power  exerted  on  the  plow  is  the  same  in  both  cases.  Hence  the  im- 
portance of  employing  active  animals  in  all  labor  of  this  kind  for 
.which  theyare  suited.  Slowanimals,  like  oxen,  cannot,  with  or  without 
a  load,  be  driven  rapidly;  but  within  the  natural  walking  pace  of  the 
animals  employed,  there  seems  to  be  an  actual  waste  of  power  in  pro- 
portion to  the  increase  of  the  time  employed  upon  the  plow,  or.  in  other 
words,  the  same  force  is  exerted  every  moment  of  eight  hours  in  plow- 
ing an  acre,  at  a  given  width  and  depth  of  furrow,  as  is  exerted  in  the 
four  hours  in  which  a  horse- team  ma,y  perform  it,  at  a  fast  walk. 
There  is,  however,  another  element  which  cannot  be  estimated  by  the 
dynamometer,  or  any  other  instrument,  yet  should  enter  into  our  con- 
sideration of  this  topic.  Every  animal,  in  moving,  with  or  without  a 
load,  carries  the  burden  of  his  own  body,  and  it  is  probably  true  that 
this  burden  is  somewhat  in  proportion  to  his  weight,  and  to  the  speed 
with  which  he  moves. 


ENGLISH   PLOWS    AND    PLOWING.  247 

To  illustrate  this,  we  have  only  to  look  at  the  facts  developed  by  the 
use  of  the  dynamometer  in  plowing  over  hills.  It  is  found  that  the 
draft  of  the  plow  is  very  little  varied  by  plowing  up  or  down  a  descent, 
while  every  farmer  knows  very  well  that  his  team  walks  much  harder 
in  ascending  than  in  descending. 

So  if  a  team  be  driven  up  a  steep  hill  without  a  load,  the  animals 
obviously  exert  themselves  more  than  in  moving  at  the  same  pace  on 
level  ground.  The  greater  difficulty  of  ascending  may  be  partly 
accounted  for  upon  the  common  principle  of  gravitation.  In  raising 
himself  to  the  top  of  a  hill,  to  a  position  twenty  feet  higher  than  he 
before  stood,  the  animal  has  exerted  as  much  power,  in  addition  to  his 
effort  on  the  levels  as  would  be,  mathematically,  necessary  to  raise 
the  same  dead  weight  the  given  height  in  the  same  time ;  and  some- 
thing more  may  be  added,  for  the  distorted  action  of  the  muscles,  and  in 
plowing  for  the  disturbance  of  the  true  line  of  draft.  Even  upon  level 
ground,  it  requires  some  exertion  for  any  animal  to  move,  and  this 
exertion  is  probably  proportioned,  in  some  measure,  to  the  rapidity  of 
the  motion.  Any  calculation  upon  this  point,  based  upon  the  difficult 
theories  of  momentum  would  be  of  no  practical  value.  Assuming,  as 
we  may,  upon  the  facts  disclosed  by  the  experiments  referred  to,  that 
the  draft  of  the  plow  is  not  substantially  increased  by  the  velocity  of 
its  movement,  it  is  for  the  farmer  to  consider  the  natural  pace  of  his 
animals,  the  saving  of  time  of  his  laborers,  as  plowmen  or  drivers,  by 
rapid  work,  the  increased  danger  of  injury  to  team  or  implements, 
where  the  ground  is  obstructed  by  stumps  or  stones,  and  make  the  best 
practical  use  of  the  developments  of  science  made  for  his  benefit. 

Fifthly.     The  influence  of  wheels  of  various  hinds  upon  the  draft,  and 

their  utility. 

The  greater  part  of  the  plows  used  in  England  are  supported  by  two 
wheels,  one  on  each  side  of  the  beam,  usually  arranged  so  that  one 
wheel  runs  in  the  furrow  an^  the  other  on  the  unplowed  land,  there 
being  a  difference  in  their  radius  of  about  the  depth  of  the  furrow. 
They  are,  however,  separately  adjustable,  so  as  to  be  changed  to  gauge 
furrows  of  different  depth.  The  theory,  as  stated  to  the  writer  by  a 
farmer,  who  was  defending  the  use  of  the  old  Norfolk  plow  with  its 
high  wheels,  is  plausible  enough  in  favor  of  wheels.  The  draft  of  the 
plow,  said  he,  results  from  its  friction  on  the  furrow-slice  and  on  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow,  and  whatever  v/eight  rests  upon  the  wheels  is 
taken  from  the  sole  of  the  plow,  and  relieves  the  draft  so  much  as  the 
difference  between  rolling  and  dragging  friction.  Various  trials  have 
from  time  to  time  been  made  in  England  with  a  view  to  determine  the 
influence  of  wheels  upon  the  draft.  Mr.  Handley's  trials,  reported  in 
the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  made  with  four  different 
plows,  indicated  an  advantage  from  the  use  of  wheels  of  about  fifteen 
per  cent.  Mr.  Pusey's  experiments  made  the  difference  still  greater, 
amounting  to  twenty-two  per  cent,  in  favor  of  the  wheels,  Mr.  Morton, 
in  a  series  of  carefully  conducted  experiments,  made  with  full  knowledge 
of  the  previous  trials  by  the  other  gentlemen  named,  arrives  at  the 
conclusion,  that  when  a  plow  is  properly  set,  the  addition  or  removal 
of  a  wheel  will  make  no  material  difference  in  the  draft.     There  is  a 


248  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

difficulty  in  determining  this  point  accurately.  Mr.  Pusey,  in  his 
trials,  took  off  tlie  wheels  from  a  wheel-plow,  and  made  the  comparison 
hetween  that  plow,  thus  used  as  a  swing-plow,  and  the  same  plow  used 
with  the  two  wheels  which  belonged  to  it.  Now  it  is  ohvious  that  a 
plow  properly  constructed  for  use  with  wheels,  and,  of  course,  to  rest 
a  portion  of  its  weight  upon  them,  might  be  increased  very  much  in 
its  draft,  by  throwing  that  weight  upon  the  sole  of  the  plow,  or  other- 
wise gauging  its  furrow  by  the  mode  of  holding,  or  of  attaching  the 
team  to  it,  to  prevent  its  burrowing  too  deep.  On  the  whole,  it  is 
believed  that  the  draft  of  the  plow  can  be  very  little  effected  by  the  use 
of  wheels.  Most  American  sod-plows  are  used  with  a  single  small 
wheel,  or  truck,  to  gauge  the  furrows.  Sometimes  this  is  directly 
under  the  end  of  the  beam,  and  sometimes  by  its  side,  and,  so  far  as 
gauging  the  furrow  is  concerned,  is  almost  indispensable,  but  it  is  not 
apparent  why  the  draft  of  a  plow  should  be  diminished  by  throwing  a 
weight  on  the  wheels,  if  the  plow  could  be  so  constructed  as  to  run  at 
the  desired  depth  uniformly  without  such  wheels. 

It  is  manifest  that  with  the  wheels,  or  without,  there  is  the  same 
cutting  process  to  be  performed^  which,  as  has  been  seen,  causes  more 
than  half  the  draft ;  there  is  the  same  friction  upon  the  mold-board, 
which  must  cause  nearly,  if  not  quite,  the  same  pressure  and  friction 
on  the  sole  ;  there  is  the  same  weight  of  the  implement  to  be  dragged, 
and,  certainly,  it  would  move  more  easily  on  wheels,  if  the  plow  were 
so  constructed  as  to  rest  part  of  its  weight  on  the  beam,  when  not  at 
work,  which  is  not  ordinarily  the  case.  What  gain  that  can  be  by  so 
arranging  the  parts  that  the  draft  of  the  team  shall  bring  a  weight 
down  upon  the  wheels  which  support  the  beam  is  not  perceived,  but  it 
seems  that  the  force  which  thus  bears  down  upon  the  beam  were  better 
applied  in  overcoming  the  legitimate  and  unavoidable  resistance  of  the 
soil  to  the  plow  in  its  proper  work.  If  the  wheels  are  useless,  it  is 
sufficient  objection  to  them  that  they  increase  the  weight  and  cost  of 
the  implement.  If  they  are  useful  merely  as  a  gauge  of  the  depth  of 
furrow,  the  single  wheel,  as  being  more  ^simple  and  easily  adjusted, 
and  as  being  a  lesser  obstacle  in  handling  the  plow,  especially  in  short 
work,  seems  preferable. 

Sixthly.     Tlie  effect  of  the  length  of  the  various  parts,  as  the  beam, 
the  mold-board,  and  the  handles,  on  the  operation  of  the  plow. 

The  English  plows  are,  on  an  average,  two  fifths  longer  than 
American  plows.  There  is  an  obvious  reason  why  short  plows  must 
be  used  in  the  new  lands  of  our  country,  and  in  the  stony  and  uneven 
lands  of  New  England.  Where  a  stump  is  to  be  avoided  in  every  ten 
feet,  or  a  stone  to  be  scaled  at  every  rod ;  where  the  share  catches  a 
hinder  root,  and  the  team  is  to  be  backed  every  five  minutes  through 
the  day,  and  the  plow  dragged  backward  by  main  strength ;  where  it 
is  to  be  set  in  again  as  often  as  it  is  thus  thrown  out,  with  a  precision 
of  aim  equal  to  that  required  in  rifle-shooting,  manifestly  nothing  but 
a  short,  stiff,  strong  implement  can  possibly  be  used.  For  such  land 
the  long  English  plow  has  no  pretense  of  fitness.  But  upon  the  old 
fields  and  bottom  lands,  upon  the  prairies,  after  they  are  once  broken, 
there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  the  same  j)lows  which  would  really 
be  most  suitable  on  English  farms  should  not  be  here  most  serviceable 


ENGLISH   PLOWS   AND   PLOWING.  249 

The  additional  lengtli  of  the  English  plows  seems  to  he  pretty  equally 
distributed  between  the  handles,  the  mold-board,  and  the  beam. 

Great  length  of  handles  gives  greater  power  in  controlling  the  move- 
ment of  the  plow,  and  greater  length  of  beam  gives  greater  steadiness 
to  the  draft ;  yet  the  increased  length  of  both  these  parts  necessarily 
increases  their  weight,  upon  the  principle  of  the  lever,  the  greater  the 
length  the  greater  the  strength  to  resist  the  power  applied. 

As  to  the  length  of  the  mold-board,  it  is  frequently  contended  that 
the  longer  the  curve  which  turns  the  furrow  the  less  the  resistance, 
the  mold-board  being  regarded  as  operating  as  a  wedge;  but  this 
idea  is  open  to  many  objections. 

This  part  of  the  subject,  however,  involves  so  many  considerations, 
which  belong  rather  to  the  plow-maker  than  the  farmer,  that  it  is 
hardly  appropriate  for  discussion  here.  Whatever  may  be  the  true 
theory  as  to  the  length  of  the  mold-boards,  its  increased  length  does 
not  necessarily  involve  the  increase  of  the  length  of  the  other  parts. 
To  the  practical  working  of  the  long  English  plows,  there  is  an 
obvious  objection  in  the  minds  of  all  who  have  seen  them  at  work  in 
small  fields.  Horses  are  almost  exclusively  used  there  upon  the  plow, 
and  are  harnessed  one  before  the  other,  and  with  greater  length  of 
draft-chains  than  we  are  accustomed  to  use. 

As  a  consequence  of  this  ''long  drawn  out"  establishment,  a  wide 
headland  is  left,  utterly  beyond  the  reach  of  the  plow,  so  that  where, 
in  America,  we  back  up  and  set  in  our  short  plow  close  to  the  fence, 
the  English  farmer  sends  a  man  with  a  spade  to  work  a  half  day  in 
finishing  up  the  land.  Where  labor  is  cheap,  as  in  England,  this  is  of 
much  smaller  importance  than  it  would  be  with  us. 

As  a  general  summary  of  the  matter,  as  to  the  comparative  merits 
of  the  English  and  American  plows,  it  is  believed  that  we  have 
improved  greatly  upon  the  models,  in  the  lightness  of  our  implement, 
in  the  less  cost  of  it,  and  by  dispensing  with  their  more  complicated 
arrangement  of  wheels.  Whether,  by  shortening  the  whole  imple- 
ment about  two-fifths,  we  have  not  sacrificed  to  our  peculiar  wants 
upon  new  fields  something  of  the  nice  control  which  the  length  of 
beam  and  handle  gives  to  the  English  plowman,  is,  at  least,  ques- 
tionable. Whether  we  have  gained  or  lost  by  our  changes  in  the 
length  and  form  of  the  mold-board,  is  still  undetermined,  and  must 
remain  so  till  botk  implements  are  tested,  in  the  same  field,  by  the 
dynamometer. 

Finally,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  generally,  their  plowmen  have 
more  skill  in  their  business  than  ours  in  New  England ;  and  he  must 
be  a  careless  observer,  or  blinded  by  prejudice,  who  does  not  see  that 
their  labor  in  this  important  department  is  better  performed  than  in 
our  own  country. 

STEAM   PLOWS   IN   ENGLAND. 

Fowler's  Steam  Plow. 

Steam  cultivation  is  attracting  great  attention  among  the  foremost 
agriculturists  in  England.     The  two  steam  implements  which  seem 


250  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT, 

now  to  dispute  for  supremacy  are  Fowler's  plow  and  Smith's  (of 
Wolston)  cultivator.  The  former  performs  its  work  strictly  by 
plowing,  the  latter,  as  the  inventor  elegantly  expresses  it,  by  '' smash- 
ing up"  the  soil,  by  means  of  teeth  operating  like  a  spade  to  stir, 
without  subverting  the  soil. 

To  Fowler's  steam  plow  was  awarded,  at  the  exhibition  of  theEoyal 
Agricultural  Society,  at  Chester,  in  England,  in  1858,  the  grand  prize 
of  £500,  and  at  Warwick  the  new  prize  of  £50,  in  1859,  which  fur- 
nishes the  best  evidence  we  can  have  of  the  comparative  merits  of 
English  implements,  and  entitles  it  to  a  prominent  place  in  any  article 
on  the  subject.  At  Ipswich,  in  England,  on  the  4th  of  July,  1857,  I 
saw  in  operation  Fowler's  steam  plow.  Having  previously  seen,  at 
the  workshop  of  Ransome  &  Simes,  the  same  implement,  and  having 
had  its  principles  of  operation  carefully  explained,  I  spent  several 
hours  with  it,  while  actually  at  work  upon  a  large  field,  where  it  had 
already  plowed  many  acres.  It  was,  while  I  observed  it,  turning 
furrows  seven  inches  deep,  by  about  ten  in  width,  carrying  three  at  a 
time,  and  performing  its  work  as  well  as  it  could  be  performed  in  the 
usual  way  with  horses.  I  carefully  paced  out  the  length  of  the 
furrows,  and  measured  their  depth  and  widths,  and,  with  my  watch 
in  my  hand,  timed  the  ojDerations.  The  machine  was  then  plowing 
one  acre  per  hour. 

The  arrangement  was  to  use  four  plows  and  open  four  furrows  at 
each  passage  across  the  field,  and  in  that  way  the  labor  accomplished 
would  be  one  third  more.  It  is  difficult,  without  drawings  for  illus- 
tration, to  describe  intelligibly  the  details  of  such  an  implement,  but 
its  general  plan  of  operations  may  be  readily  understood.  The  plows 
are  arranged  in  two  gangs,  of  three  or  more,  one  gang  at  each  end  of 
a  heavy  framework,  whicli  is  balanced  across  an  axle,  supported  by 
two  large  wheels,  like  those  of  a  heavy  gun-carriage.  This  frame- 
work, with  the  plows,  is  drawn  across  the  field  by  a  stationary  engine. 
As  it  is  drawn  northerly,  for  example,  in  its  work,  the  frame  which 
carries  the  plows  is  borne  down,  so  as  to  lift  the  gang  of  plows  at  the 
northerly  end  high  into  the  air,  bringing  down  the  southerly  end, 
with  its  plows,  so  that  they  enter  the  soil  lor  plowing.  The  depth  is 
gauged,  mainly,  by  a  large  wheel  at  each  end  of  the  framework, 
opposite  the  plows,  which  wheel  is,  in  turn,  lifted  into  the  air  or 
brought  down  to  the  surface,  with  the  gang  of 'plows  to  which  it 
belongs. 

Two  men  sat  upon  the  machine,  one  to  guide  its  motion,  by  apj)ro- 
priate  machinery,  the  other  to  make  signals  with  a  flag,  or  do  any 
other  useful  work  that  occasion  might  require.  The  engine  in  use  was 
upon  one  side  of  the  field,  and  was  called  a  stationary  engine.  It  was 
drawn  to  the  field  by  horses,  but  had  powers  of  locomotion  sufficient, 
I  think,  to  run  itself  along  the  headland.  The  jdIow  was  drawn  toward 
the  engine  by  a  wire  rqi)e,  which  passed  across  the  field,  round  a  pul- 
ley, made  fast  at  the  opposite  headland.  This  pulley  was  held  by  what 
was  called  an  anchor,  which  anchor  was  in  the  shape  of  a  four-wheeled 
low  cart  or  car,  loaded  heavily  with  stones.  The  wheels  of  this  car 
were  of  iron,  and  sharp  at  the  edges,  so  that  they  cut  down  nearly  to 
the  axle.     This  anchor  was  drawn  along  the  headland  by  a  windlass. 


ENGLISH    PLOWS    AND    PLOWING.  251 

worked  by  a  man,  in  a  direction  at  right  angles  with  tlie  furrow,  so 
that  the  strain  upon  the  pulley  was  at  right  angles  with  the  track  of 
the  wheels.  In  justice  to  the  inventor,  it  should  be  stated  that  he  had 
already,  it  was  said,  constructed  machinery,  to  be  worked  by  the  engine, 
to  move  the  anchor,  and  so  dispense  with  the  man  at  the  windlass. 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  this  machine  could  only  be  of  practical 
utility  on  level,  clear  fields,  of  large  extent.  It  could  only  be  used 
upon  level  fields  of  uniform  surface,  because  the  plows  are  set  in  an 
unyielding  frame,  and  must  run  at  the  same  level,  thus  running 
deeper  across  a  hillock,  and  more  shoal  in  a  small  depression.  They 
are  arranged  not  so  as  to  be  raised  and  depressed,  each  separately,  as 
the  machine  is  moving,  but  the  whole  gang  is  acted  upon  at  once. 
Again,  the  machine  would  be  of  no  use  in  a  small  inclosure,  because 
of  the  broad  headlands  requisite  to  accommodate  the  engine  on  one 
side,  and  the  anchor  on  the  other. 

It  could  be  of  little  use  in  a  field  obstructed  by  stones,  because  of 
the  inequalities  of  surface  produced  by  them,  and  because,  if  one  of 
the  plows  meets  an  obstruction  too  obstinate  to  yield,  the  power  of  the 
engine  must  generally  be  sufficient  to  break  the  plovv^,  or,  what  is  more 
common,  the  rope.  The  breaking  of  a  plow  must  involve,  at  least,  the 
necessity  of  a  delay  sufficient  to  detach  it  and  substitute  another,  and 
such  a  delay  of  so  large  and  expensive  a  force  as  we  shall  presently  see  is 
employed,  must  be  of  considerable  importance.  The  breaking  of  the 
rope,  which  I  was  informed  by  the  workmen  was  of  frequent  occurrence, 
is  soon  remedied  by  splicing  it,  but  is,  probably,  a  constant  source  of 
annoyance.  As,  however,  it  is  impossible  to  foresee  all  obstructionSj 
and  the  engine  must  exert  great-  power,  it  is,  perhaps,  best  to  make 
the  rope  the  weakest  part  of  the  machinery,  as  it  is  the  most  easily 
repaired. 

The  force  employed  in  this  operation,  as  I  witnessed  it,  beside  the 
engine,  consisted  of  five  men  and  a  boy,  namely,  the  engineer,  who 
remained  by  the  engine^  a  boy  to  carry  coal,  one  man  upon  the  plow 
to  manage  it,  another  man,  who  rode  part  of  the  time  on  the  plow, 
and  who  ran  along  before  it  to  remove  pulleys  or  rollers  over  which 
the  rope  traversed,  to  keep  it  from  friction  on  the  ground,  another 
man  to  tend  the  windlass  and  anchor,  and  the  other  to  keep  the  rope 
in  place,  with  a  crowbar,  that  it  might  wind  properly  round  the  drums 
of  the  engine. 

In  estimating  the  value  of  such  an  implement  as  this,  there  are 
certain  elements  always  to  enter  into  our  calculations.  First.  The 
amount  of  labor  performed.  A  span  of  horses  and  a  plowman  would, 
in  England,  as  a  regular  day's  work,  plow  one  acre  of  such  land  as 
that  under  experiment.-  They  would  work  six  hours,  without  feeding, 
and  in  that  time  complete  the  day's  work.  This  is  the  practice,  I 
think,  in  most  of  England  as  to  working  horses.  Six  plowmen  and 
twelve  horses  would,  tor  six  hours,  perform  the  same  work  as  the  five 
men  and  boy,  and  the  engine,  and  all  the  machinery.  But  the  engine 
would  not  then  be  fatigued, but  might  labor  on,  while  the  horses  must 
rest.  Stilly  taking  into  account  the  liability  of  complicated  machinery 
and  of  so  great  a  length  of  rope  to  accidents  which  must  cause  delay, 
perhaps  the  steam  plow  could  hardly  be  expected  to  be  actually  at 


252  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

work  nine  hours  per  day,  any  more  tlian  tlie  horses.  Second.  The 
expense  and  time  employed  in  moving  the  engine,  and  plow,  and 
anchor  to  the  field*  of  operation,  and  placing  them  in  position.  I  did 
not  see  the  engine  or  machinery  moved  with  horses,  hut  this  item  is 
worth  a  place  in  our  estimate^  both  aS'  to  expense  and  time.  Third. 
The  cost  of  working,  which  has  been  already  considered,  but  there  is 
to  be  added  to  the  cost  of  the  labor  already  named,  the  expense  of 
supplying  the  engine  with  fuel.  Both  the  coal  and  water  are  of  heavy 
freight,  and  must  be  conveyed  to  the  engine  by  horses  and  men. 
Their  cost,  at  the  field,  must  depend  so  much  on  the  locality  that  it  is 
useless  to  attempt  an  estimate.  Probably  an  additional  pair  of  horses 
and  a  man  would  be  usually  employed  to  supply  the  meat  and  drink 
of  the  steam  giant.  Fourth.  The  cost  of  machinery,  and  of  repairs 
upon  it.  It  was  said  that  this  engine  and  plow  could  be  furnished, 
ready  for  use,  at  £500,  or  $2,500.  It  would  require  an  engineer  to 
estimate  the  cost  of  repairs.  Unless  the  machine  could  be  kept  in 
constant  use,  the  interest  on  the  cost  would  be  a  heavy  item,  and,  in 
all  cases,  must  be  a  constant  element  to  be  regarded.  The  engine 
would  be  adapted  to  other  farm  labor,  such  as  threshing,  grinding, 
and  the  like.  Such  engines  are  in  constant  and  extensive  use  for 
threshing,  through  England^  on  large  farms.  The  inventor  of  this 
steam  plow  had  taken  a  large  contract  to  plow  for  several  proprietors, 
a  practice  which,  perhaps,  should  be  kept  in  view  in  this  discussion, 
though  the  difficulty  of  moving  the  engine  from  farm  to  farm,  in  this 
country,  would  be  far  greater  than  in  England,  because  our  roads  are 
not  so  well  made. 

Upon  the  best  estimate  that  I  have  been  able  to  make,  it  seems  to 
me  that  Fowler's  steam  plow  can  never  be  made  an  instrument  of  gen- 
eral practical  utility,  either  in  this  or  in  any  other  country.  Perhaps 
a  more  competent  person,  with  such  data  as  has  been  furnished,  may 
form  an  estimate  more  favorable. 

Simplicity  is  usually  economy,  in  agriculture  especially,  and  there 
does  not  seem,  upon  the  theory  of  this  machine,  any  such  promise  of 
performance  as  to  compensate  for  the  great  expenditure  in  its  struc- 
ture, and  the  numerous  obstacles  to  its  practical  operation. 

Since  1857,  Fowler's  plow  has  been  extensively  used  in  England, 
and  may  be  said  to  be  fairly  introduced  there,  but  it  may  be  inferred, 
from  the  tone  of  agricultural  writers  and  speakers  as  gathered  from 
newspapers,  that  it  is  quite  doubtful  yet  whether  it  is  really  a  val- 
uable acquisition  to  agriculture.  Subsequent  experiments  seem  to 
indicate  that  my  own  estimate  of  the  performance  of  the  plow  was  too 
large.  A  recent  writer  in  the  Mark  Lane  Express  states  that  at  one 
trial,  which  he  witnessed,  the  plow  turned  seven  acres  in  twelve  hours, 
and  another  account  gives  ninety-six  square  rods  per  hour  as  the  result 
of  its  labor. 

It  is  claimed,  however^  that  Mr.  Fowler  has  recently  greatly  re- 
duced the  weight  and  cost  of  his  machinery.  The  essential  principle 
of  a  stationary  engine  and  plows  or  cultivators  worked  by  means  of 
ropes  and  pulleys  remains. 


ENGLISH    PLOWS    AND    PLOWING.  263 


BoydelVs  Patent  Traction  Engine. 

The  question  in  En-gland  between  stationary  and  locomotive  engines 
for  cultivation  seems  strangely  enough  to  be  going  almost  by  default 
in  favor  of  the  former,  while  in  this  country  there  appears  to  be  a  gen- 
eral consent  that  only  a  self-moving  engine  is  worthy  of  notice.  Boy- 
dell's  elephantine  engine  attracted  great  attention,  and  disputed  the 
prize  with  Fowler's  plow,  at  the  Salisbury  exhibition  in  1858.  It 
has,  apparently,  fallen  far  behind  in  the  face  of  competition,  and  in  a 
respectable  English  journal  has  been  lately  spoken  of  as  a  mechanical 
absurdity,  which  wears  itself  but  hourly  as  it  travels.  This  brief 
condemnation  is  full  of  import  to  American  inventors,  who  are  giving 
attention  exclusively  to  locomotive  engines,  and  whose  chief  embarrass- 
ment thus  fiir  has  been  that  their  machines  all  break  dov/n  in  every 
attempt  at  public  exhibition.  A  brief  description  of  Boydell's  imple- 
ment may  be  useful  to  us  for  warning  as  well  as  example. 

This  engine,  as  exhibited  at  Salisbury,  was  operated  to  draw  six 
plows,  opening  six  furrows  across  the  field.  It  is  distinguished  from 
the  other  steam  plows  that  have  been  mentioned  by  being  worked  by  a 
locomotive,  instead  of  a  stationary  engine,  which  works  on  the  earth  like 
some  huge  animal,  puffing  and  snorting,  and  taking  along  its  six  plows 
with  no  apparent  consciousness  of  effort.  It  possesses  another  pecu- 
liarity :  that  of  laying  down  an  endless  railroad  track  for  its  wheels  to 
run  upon,  and  taking  it  up  as  it  proceeds.  Attached  to  the  wheels  of 
the  engine  are  large  flat  blocks,  six  to  each  wheel,  like  rackets  on  a 
horse  to  keep  him  from  sinking  in  soft  ground,  which  are  laid  down 
in  turn  by  the  wheel  in  its  revolution,  and  on  which  the  iron  rim  of 
the  wheel  runs.  This  engine  works  about  in  a  very  intelligent  sort 
of  way,  comes  to  the  field  from  a  common  road,  drawing  its  tender 
with  coal  and  water,  and  even  carries  the  extra  clothing  and  dinner 
of  the  laborers.  It  turns  readily  at  the  end  of  the  furrow,  stalks  off 
to  its  water  tank  when  it  is  thirsty  and  helps  itself  to  water,  and  when 
it  is  hungry  or  fatigued,  goes  for  its  own  coal  for  refreshment.  It  is 
claimed  that  the  same  engine  can  draw  your  timber  to  market  or  the 
mill  upon  common  roads,  haul  in  your  hay  and  grain,  work  your 
threshing  machine,  and,  in  short,  do  most  of  the  work  of  the  farm 
instead  of  horses.  This  machine  was  not,  at  Salisbury,  doing  such 
good  plowing  as  Fowler's,  but  the  quality  of  the  work  is  not  at  present 
of  such  importance.  It  is  not  a  question  of  mere  plowing,  it  is  a 
question  as  to  the  best  mode  of  applying  the  power  of  the  steam  engine, 
whether  as  a  stationary  or  locomotive  engine,  for  it  is  obvious  enough 
that  when  we  have  once  found  a  convenient  and  economical  power, 
plows,  harrows,  digging  machines,  or  anything  else  may  be  worked  by 
it.  Boydell's  engine  is  guided  by  a  driver,  who  sets  on  the  forward 
part,  while  the  engineer  rides,  like  a  footman  behind.  Three  double 
plows  were,  at  Salisbury,  attached  to  it  by  chains,  and  these  were  held 
by  three  men,  who  walked,  following  and  holding  the  plows  in  the 
usual  manner.  Many  of  the  objections  to  the  stationary  engine  are 
obviated  by  this  invention.  No  horses  are  required  to  move  it  from 
place  to  place,  or  draw  its  supply  of  food  and  water.     The  cumbrous 


254  AaRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

"anclior,"  with  tlie  long  ropes,  are  liere  dispensed  witli;  and  if  the 
adjustment  of  the  plows,  as  used  by  Fowler,  is  found  most  convenient, 
there  is  nothing  to  prevent  its  adoption,  and  the  drawing  of  his  plows 
with  this  locomotive  engine. 

Smith's  {of  Wolston)  Cultivator. 

In  the  progress  of  all  arts  and  sciences  it  is  observed  how  principles, 
at  one  time  deemed  most  vital,  come  afterward  to  be  regarded  as  of 
secondary  importance,  and  still  later,  again  assert  their  original  claim 
to  attention.  Pulverization  of  the  soil  was,  more  than  a  century  ago, 
advocated  by  Jether  Tull  as  the  one  essential  to  good  husbandry,  and 
he  even  regarded  manure  as  valuable  only  as  assisting  to  pulverize  the 
soil  by  fermentation.  In  later  years,  chemistry  assumed  a  conspicuous 
position  in  agriculture,  and  many  have  been  inclined  to  regard  more 
the  constituent  elements  of  plants  and  of  artificial  manure  than  the 
meclianical  condition  of  the  soil,  like  quack  doctors,  whose  attentions 
are  so  much  occupied  by  their  specifics,  that  they  entirely  overlook  the 
condition  of  their  patients. 

But  now,  after  the  practical  failure  of  the  theories  of  some  distin- 
guished chemists,  agriculturists  are  again  disposed  to  regard  the 
physical  condition  of  the  soil  as  of  primary  importance,  and  the  opera- 
tions of  drawing,  subsoiling,  and  otherwise  opening  a  greater  depth  of 
soil  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  and  to  the  roots  of  the  plant, 
engage  the  attention  of  the  farmer.  As  land  becomes  more  valuable, 
it  is  found  more  convenient  to  add  another  seed-bed  to  the  field  by 
preparing  it  under  the  shallow  furrow  turned  by  our  fathers,  rather 
than  by  annexing  our  neighbor's  farm,  in  the  covetous  desire  to  pos- 
sess all  the  land  that  adjoins  our  own.  And  so  we  are  looking  for  more 
power  to  work  our  land  deeper^  and  to  pulverize  it  more  thoroughly. 
In  England,  four  or  five  plowings  are  considered  an  essential  prepara- 
tion for  a  good  crop  of  turnips.  In  America,  where  labor  is  more 
costly  and  products  usually  cheaper,  we  the  more  need  some  more  aids 
to  our  husbandry.  Twig  says  that  Romulus^  in  his  distribution  of  the 
land,  allotted  two  acres  to  each  citizen,  and  that  after  the  expulsion  of 
the  kings  it  was  increased  to  seven.  Columella  tells  us  that  the  patri- 
monial estate  on  which  Cincinnatus  employed  himself  consisted  of  four 
acres !  Yet  we,  whose  single  farms  are  larger  than  the  city  of  Rome, 
with  her  seven  hills,  are  plodding  along,  bound  to  the  old  notion  that 
the  plow  used  by  the  Romans,  or  at  least  its  principles  of  operation, 
must  be  forever  preserved.  Every  one  knows  how  much  better  is  the 
preparation  of  the  garden  by  forking  up  and  raking,  than  by  turning 
with  plows  and  harrowing ;  and  the  implement  desired  now  in  place  of 
the  plow  is  a  forking  or  digging  machine,  that  shall,  at  one  operation, 
stir  the  ground  to  sufficient  depth,  leaving  it  as  nearly  as  possible  in 
the  condition  of  a  garden  bed  prepared  with  a  fork.  Such  a  machine 
has  been  attempted  by  Smith,  of  Wolston.  At  Salisbury,  in  1857, 
when  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  repeated  their  oifer  of  £500  for  a 
steam-plow,  Smith  was  excluded  from  the  competition  by  the  condi- 
tion which  made  it  essential  that  the  implement  should  turn  the  soil 
over,  while,  as  already  observed,  it  is  an  essential  feature  of  the  Wol- 


ENGLISH   PLOWS    AND    PLOWING.  255 

ston  system  that  tlie  soil  should  be  "stirred  and  smashed  up,"  and  not 
turned  over. 

At  the  Chester  exhibition,  however,  in  1858,  Smith  and  Fowler 
being  competitors,  the  j)rize  of  £500  was  awarded  to  Fowler,  and  the 
gold  medal  to  Smith.  From  Dickens's  "All  the  Year  Round"  we  give 
the  best  description  that  can  be  found  of  Smith's  machine  : 

"Mr,  Smith  uses  an  ordinary  agricultural  portable  steam  engine,  of 
from  eight  to  ten  horse  power,  which  he  fixes  at  one  corner  of  the 
field,  of  from  ten  to  twelve  acres.  In  front  of  the  engine  is  a  wind- 
lass, or  capstan,  with  two  drums  of  a  peculiar  shape,  with  a  coil  of 
wire  rope  around  it,  and  this  rope  is  led  over  four  anchored  pulleys, 
one  at  each  corner,  and  along  each  side  of  the  field.  The  windlass  at- 
tached to  the  fly-wheel  of  the  steam  engine  by  a  driving  band  can  be 
instantaneously  driven  in  either  direction.  Four  different  plows^  or 
cultivators,  are  used  as  occasion  requires.  To  the  bow  of  the  one  in 
use  two  ends  of  the  rope  are  attached.  An  engine-driver,  a  man  at 
the  windlass,  a  plowman,  an  assistant  to  shift  the  pulleys,  and  a  boy, 
are  the  staff"  required.  The  plow  cultivator  begins  by  traveling  along 
the  more  distant  side  of  the  field,  between  the  two  anchored  pulleys  ; 
at  the  end  of  the  first  journey  the  pulley  in  front  is  shifted,  the  engine 
is  reversed,  and  in  thirty  seconds  the  plow  is  traveling  back.  And 
thus,  by  alternately  shifting,  bringing  up  each  of  the  two  most  distant 
anchors,  strip  by  strip,  the  whole  field  is  'smashed  up,'  in  parallel 
lines,  to  the  spot  where  the  engine  stands. 

"His  plow  No.  4  consists  of  a  very  strong  frame,  in  which  are  fixed 
three  subsoil  plows,  with  a  pair  of  wheels  in  front  to  guide  it,  and 
above  the  center  another  pair,  to  regulate  the  depth.  The  shares  for 
breaking  up  clay  soil,  in  autumn,  are  set  to  work  six  or  eight  inches 
deep,  (a  depth  impossible  with  horse-power.)  The  points  of  the  shares 
become  imbedded  in  the  subsoil,  and  the  whole  mass,  nearly  a  yard 
wide  and  six  or  eight  inches  deep,  is  torn  from  its  position  and  more 
or  less  mingled  together,  leaving,  for  the  most  part,  the  weeds  or  grass, 
which  it  is  desirable  to  destroy,  near  the  surface.  An  implement  of 
greater  breadth  and  more  shares,  on  light  and  moderately  tenacious 
soils,  has  been  made  to  move  more  than  ten  or  twelve  acres  a  day. 
But,  for  a  description  of  the  four  Wolston  cultivators,  those  further 
interested  must  refer  to  the  inventor's  own  pamphlets  and  pictures. 
The  obvious  drawback  of  the  system  consists  in  the  loss  of  power  by 
the  friction  of  the  rope  along  four  sides,  and  consequent  induct  friction. 
Common  farm  laborers  have  been  repeatedly  and  easily  taught  the  du- 
ties of  Smith's  system  of  steam  cultivation.  According  to  universal 
testimony,  nothing  can  exceed  the  quality  of  the  work  and  the  satis- 
factory result  in  crops  of  all  kinds." 

It  seems  to  be  admitted  that  Smith's  system  requires  two  operations — 
the  first  to  stir  up  and  break  the  soil,  and  the  second  to  pulverize  it ; 
the  two  operations  being  completed  at  the  rate  of  three  and  a  half 
acres  a  day.. 

It  is  said  that  Smith,  before  1859,  had  sold  some  thirty  sets  of  his 
machinery  to  purchasers  who  were  successfully  working  them. 

The  idea  which  has  thus  been  advocated  by  Mr.  Smith  seems  at  about 
the  same  time  to  have  possessed  some  ingenious  agriculturist  on  the 


256  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

otlier  side  of  the  Channel.  In  a  walk  near  Paris,  in  July,  1857,  I 
accidentally  came  upon  a  steam  cultivator,  or  digging  machine,  in 
full  operation.  It  was  a  locomotive  engine,  with,  I  think,  twelve 
spades,  or  forks,  working  in  pairs,  on  bent  axles,  from  which  the 
spades,  if  they  may  be  so  called,  projected  at  right  angles.  My  im- 
pression is,  that  each  pair  of  spades  struck  the  ground  and  entered  it 
separately,  each  of  the  six  pairs  successively  doing  its  work,  as  the 
locomotive  traversed  the  ground,  and  thus  forking  up  the  soil  to  the 
depth  of  six  or  twelve  inches,  at  the  will  of  the  operator,  and  four 
and  a  half  feet  wide.  The  machine  was  under  examination  by  some 
commission  at  the  time,  and  I  was  informed  that  no  report  had  yet 
been  made  upon  it,  no  patent  secured,  and  that  no  description  or  draw- 
ing of  it  could  be  obtained.  I  took  a  great  deal  of  pains,  afterward, 
to  obtain  information,  and,  from  my  inability  to  do  so,  inferred  that 
there  were  reasons  why  the  inventor  desired,  at  present,  that  his  ma- 
chine should  not  be  made  public.  I  was  told  upon  the  ground  that 
the  engine  was  only  of  three  horse-power  ;  but  its  performance  indi- 
cated far  more.  It  moved  upon  broad  wheels,  however,  over  the  soft 
ground^  which  had  been  before  stirred  by  it,  and  turned  without  diffi- 
culty, at  the  end  of  the  furrow.  The  spades,  I  think,  were  upon  three 
or  four  independent  axles,  and  worked  between  the  wheels  of  the  en- 
gine. Doubtless,  the  invention  will  soon  be  made  public,  and  a  full 
description  of  it  given  to  the  world.  With  my  inability  to  converse 
on  a  technical  subject  in  the  French  language,  I  could  not  understand 
its  details,  and  find  it  impossible  to  convey  more  than  a  general  im- 
pression of  the  working  of  the  machine. 

AMERICAN   STEAM   CULTIVATORS. 

■  In  a  glance  at  what  has  been  done  and  attempted  by  Americans,  in 
the  way  of  cultivation  by  steam,  we  shall  be  struck,with  the  predomi- 
nant idea  of  "going  ahead."  While  the  greatest  performance  claimed 
for  any  English  implement  is  one  acre  per  hour,  or  eight  or  ten  acres 
a  day,  we  find  American  machines  actually  plowing  an  acre  in  ten 
minutes,  and  promising  to  plow  sixty  acres  per  day.  With  the  motto, 
however,  which  is  no  favorite  with  us,  of  '■'festina  lente,"  it  would 
seem  that  more  real  progress  might  probably  be  made.  For,  we  shall 
see  that  in  nearly  every  attempt  at  operating  these  implements  the  ex- 
periments closed  by  the  breaking  of  some  part  of  the  machinery.  The 
United  States  Agricultural  Society,  in  their  premium  list  for  the  exhi- 
bition at  Chicago,  in  1859,  offered  their  grand  gold  medal  of  honor 
''for  that  machine  which  shall  supersede  the  plow,  as  now  used,  and 
accomplish  the  most  thorough  disintegration  of  the  soil,  with  the 
'^  greatest  economy  of  labor,  power,  time,  and  money." 

The  medal  was  awarded  to  Fawke's  Steam  Plow,  together  with 
|3,000,  offered  by  the  Illinois  State  Agricultural  Society,  in  connection 
with  the  Illinois  Central  Kailroad  Company;  and  thus  this  implement 
is  placed,  at  once,  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  American  steam  culti- 
vators, and  claims  our  particular  attention. 


ENGLISH   PLOWS   AND   PLOWING.  257 


Faivkes's  Steam  Plow. 

This  is  the  invention  of  Joseph  W.  Fawkes,  of  Christiana,  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  striking  peculiarities  of  this  machine  seem  to  be,  that  it 
is  a  locomotive,  running  on  a  large  roller,  or  drum,  six  feet  in  diameter 
and  six  feet  long,  instead  of  wheels,  the  design  being  to  obviate  the 
ordinary  objection  to  locomotives,,  that  their  wheels  cut  into  the  soil, 
and  obstruct  the  motion.  The  engine  draws  behind  it  a  gang  of  eight 
plows,  as  shown  at  Chicago,  though  it  is  manifest  that  the  number  is 
unlimited,  and  that  cultivators,  harrows,  and  other  pulverisers,  may 
readily  be  substituted  ;  the  great  desideratum  is,  a  locomotive  practi- 
cable on  a  reasonable  proportion  of  land,  and,  at  the  same  time,  cheap 
and  durable.  This  machine,  and  Waters' s  steam  plow,  which  was  its 
only  competitor,  were  both  caused  by  the  committee  to  run  twice  round 
the  half-mile  track  at  Chicago,  and  to  turn  a  single  furrow,  within  the 
inclosure.  They  were  then  taken  to  the  smooth,  open  prairie,  for  final 
trial.  The  result,  as  reported  by  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture, 
was,  that  Fawkes's  implement  plowed  at  the  rate  of  one  acre  in  seven- 
teen minutes,  or  three  and  a  half  acres  per  hour,  including  turns,  and 
the  work  was  excellent.  There  was  some  detention  by  clogging  of  the 
plows,  which  may  be  easily  obviated.  It  Avould  seem  that,  after  plow- 
ing about  two  acres,  the  steam  got  too  low  for  the  continuance  of  the 
experiment ;  and  the  committee  suggest  some  improvement  as  expedient 
for  increasing  the  power  of  the  engine.  The  committee  conclude  by 
remarking,  that  while  they  "^are  by  no  means  prepared  to  certify  that 
Mr.  Fawkes's  plowing  machine  has  reached  the  degree  of  perfection 
only  to  be  had  after  much  practical  working  on  a  farm,  they  do  not 
regard  its  several  weak  points  as  invalidating  its  claim  to  public  favor, 
for  enough  good  work  was  done,  in  the  two  miles  of  furrow  it  run  on 
Friday,  to  prove  it  to  have  great  merit." 

For  the  benefit  of  those  who  desire  an  understanding  of  the  details 
of  this  implement,  we  add  a  description  of  it,  by  the  committee  of 
mechanists  who  conducted  the  recent  trials  of  steam  plows  at  the  fair 
of  the  Illinois  State  Agricultural  Society : 

"To  form  a  complete  conception  of  this  steam  plow,  let  the  committee 
recall  the  appearance  of  a  small-sized  tender  of  a  locomotive  engine. 
Let  about  half  the  forward  portion  of  the  sides  and  tank  be  removed. 
We  now  have  something  which  resembles  the  body  of  Fawkes's  machine. 
In  the  middle  of  the  forward  portion  of  the  platform  stands  the  upright 
boiler,  which  is  about  6^  feet  high  and  4  feet  in  diameter,  the  fire-box 
and  ash-pit  being  of  course  below  the  level  of  the  platform,  and  the 
fire-door  opening  forward.  The  boiler  contains  220  l|-inch  tubes, 
which,  computed  together  with  the  fire-box,  gives  3T5  feet  of  fire  sur- 
face. Steam  may  be  got  up  in  15  minutes,  although  twice  that  time 
is  usually  necessary.  The  fuel  may  either  be  bituminous  coal  or  wood. 
The  cylinders  are  horizontal,  9  inches  in  diameter  and  15  inches  stroke, 
and  are  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the  boiler.  The  pistons  communi- 
cate motion  not  to  the  side-wheels,  but  to  a  drum  or  roller,  6  feet  in 
diameter  and  6  feet  long,  which,  as  the  sides  of  the  platform  overhang 
its  end,  is  comparatively  out  of  sight.  The  drum  is  placed  about  mid- 
17— a 


258  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

way  between  tlie  front  and  back  of  the  machine ;  before  it  depends  the 
fire-box,  and  over  and  behind  it  is  the  tank ;  so  that  when  the  boiler 
and  tank  are  full  they  nearly  counterbalance  each  other  on  the  axles 
of  the  driving  drum. 

''This  drum  is  composed  of  two  iron  heads  or  'spiders,'  and  an 
intermediate  one;  to  these,  thick,  narrow  planks,  cut  like  staves,  fitting 
elosely,  are  bolted  and  form  the  periphery.  The  adhesion  is,  therefore^ 
produced  by  a  surface  of  wood  six  feet  long,  which  never  becomes 
polished,  and  the  bearing  of  which  is  always  across  the  grain.  There 
is  no  slipping ;  the  machine  is  started  and  stopped  instantly ;  and, 
except  when  propelling  itself  a  considerable  distance  on  turnpike  or 
paved  roads,  the  wear  and  tear  is  slight.  This  substitution  of  the 
driving-roller  for  the  ordinary  side-wheels  wonderfully  increases  trac- 
tion, and  prevents  sloughing  in  wet  or  yielding  soil;  while  moderate 
irregularities  of  surface  scarcely  affect  the  onward  march  of  the  plow. 
Another  great  advantage  is  gained  by  the  gearing  of  the  drum.  Instead 
of  being  attached  directly  to  a  crank  on  the  axle  of  the  drum^  each 
connecting  rod  communicates  motion  to  a  pinion  which  turns  easily, 
but  without  shake  on  the  axle  just  mentioned;  the  pinion  interlocks 
with  a  cog-wheel  which,  by  a  pinion  on  its  axis,  imparts  motion  to  the 
cog-wheel  "bolted  to  the  drum  ;  the  whole  being  so  proportioned  that 
six  strokes  of  the  piston  cause  one  revolution  of  the  drum. 

' '  Increase  of  power  and  of  control  over  the  movements  of  the  engines 
are  secured. 

"  I-n  front  of  the  fire-box  is  a  short  tapering  bow  of  sheet-iron,  which 
serves  as  a  seat  for  the  fireman  and  a  receptacle  for  fuel.  The  bow  is 
supported  by  a  body-bolt  on  a  truck  composed  of  two  iron  guide-wheels 
three  and  one-half  feet  in  diameter  and  fifteen  inches  broad.  The 
truck  moves  freely  like  the  front  wheels  of  a  chaise,  and  is  controlled 
by  a  steering  wheel  in  charge  of  the  engineer,  so  that  the  whole 
machine  is  turned  as  readily  and  as  short  as  a  farm-wagon.  The 
engine  is  thirty  horse  jlower.  The  entire  length  of  the  machine  is 
about  18  feet;  its  weight  with  water  and  fuel,  10  tons;  and  cost, 
including  'donkey'  engine  and  pump,  about  $4,000.  By  this  pump, 
water  may  be  drawn  from  a  well  or  creek,  and  the  tank  filled,  or  water 
forced  from  the  tank  to  the  boiler. 

"The  tank  holds  twelve  barrels,  sufiicient  for  three  hours'  running. 
The  plows,  eight  in  number,  are  attached  to  one  frame,  which  is 
suspended  by  chains,  passing  over  grooved  pullies,  in  two  beams, 
projecting  from  the  seat  of  the  engine.  These  chains  communicate  to 
a  windlass,  in  charge  of  the  fireman  in  front,  by  which  a  gang  of  plows 
may  be  raised  or  lowered  at  pleasure,  and  the  frame  of  plows  is  drawn 
by  other  chains,  which  are  attached  to  the  under  side  of  the  frame  of 
the  engine." 

Waters' s  Steam  Plow. 

James  Waters,  of  Detroit,  formerly  of  Pennsylvania,  is  the  inventor 
of  a  steam  plow,  which,  at  Chicago  and  elsewhere,  has  attracted  much 
notice.  It  is  thus  well  described  by  a  correspondent  of  the  "Country 
Gentleman : " 


ENGLISH   PLOWS   AND   PLOWING.  259 

'^This  macliine  has  four  cylinders,  5f  inches  in  diameter,  the  stroke 
of  the  piston  being  12  inches.  The  boiler,  which  is  the  one  used  on 
locomotive  engines,  is  6  feet  in  length,  with  100  flues,  and  can  bear  a 
pressure  200  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  The  driving  wheels  are  10 
feet  in  diameter,  and  26  inches  on  the  face,  each  braced  with  two  sets 
of  iron  spokes  athwart  each  other.  They  are  turned  by  means  of  a 
pinion  connected  with  the  main  shaft  or  axle-tree,  which  works  into 
an  internal  gearing  of  the  size  of  the  inside  diameter  of  the  wheels. 
On  the  outside  pieces  or  ridges  of  iron  are  attached  to  prevent  the  wheels 
from  slipping.  There  are  two  leading  wheels,  5  feet  in  diameter,  and 
13  inches  on  the  face.  The  weight  of  the  whole  machine  is  7^  tons, 
which  is  applied  on  the  front  of  the  driving  wheels  to  produce  a  steady 
motion.  Two  men  are  required  to  work  this  engine,  one  to  steer  and 
the  other  to  attend  to  the  fire.  Its  working  power  is  150  pounds  of 
steam,  while  it  can  be  moved  with  only  15  or  20  pounds.  Underneath 
the  boiler  is  an  iron  tank  and  a  fire-box.  There  is  also  a  tender, 
which  is  used  for  carrying  both  wood  and  water. 

''Frye's  gang  plow,  another  Detroit  invention  of  considerable  merit, 
is  the  only  kind  of  plow  which  this  machine  has  drawn  yet.  The 
shares  of  this  plow  are  fixed  on  a  triangular  frame,  which  supports 
two  gangs,  and  runs  on  three  wheels.  They  are  made  expressly  for 
the  prairies,  and  will  cut  a  wide  or  narrow  furrow  according  to  their 
arrangement  on  the  frame.  Mr.  Waters  states  that  the  width  of  the 
cut,  counting  thirteen  shares,  is  19  feet,  and  that  he  can  plow  sixty 
acres  a  day." 

At  the  trial  at  Chicago  thirteen  plows  in  three  gangs  were  used, 
hitched  one  behind  the  other,  which  with  the  engine,  tender,  and 
water  cart,  made  a  train  of  thirty-seven  feet  in  length.  The  machine, 
after  showing  its  locomotive  powers  on  the  track,  was  put  to  its  trial  on 
the  prairie,  and  made  an  astonishing  start  turning  a  breadth  of  furrows 
of  nineteen  feet  at  one  operation,  and  running  three  hundred  feet  in 
two  minutes,  or  at  the  rate  of  an  acre  in  sixteen  minutes,  when  the 
performance  came  to  an  end  by  the  breaking  of  a  wheel.  It  seems 
manifest  that  Mr.  Waters' s  machinery  is  cumberous  and  expensive, 
and  equally  manifest  that  he  failed  at  Chicago  for  want  of  care  or 
skill  in  operating  his  implement^  rather  than  in  the  principles  of  his 
plow. 

An  obvious  objection  to  this  machine  is  its  great  length,  which 
renders  it  unfit  for  small  fields,  and  the  fact  that  it  does  not  finish  up 
its  work^  but  leaves  a  strip  of  fifty  feet  in  the  middle  to  be  finished  by 
horse-power. 

By  the  report  of  the  committee  at  the  Chicago  exhibition  it  appears 
that  two  other  substitutes  for  the  plow  were  offered  for  examination, 
but  no  account  of  the  performance  of  either  has  been  published.  One 
of  these  was  offered  by  John  Van  Doren  &  Co.^  of  Chicago,  and  is 
described  as  ''  a  rotary  cultivator,  driven  by  steam  and  self-j)ropelling. 
Beside  plowing,  it  may  be  applied  to  other  uses,  such  as  harvesting 
grain,  cutting  grass,  and,  having  a  pulley  of  suitable  dimensions, 
may  be  used  as  stationary  power  for  farm  machinery.  This  machine 
was  at  work  at  various  times  on  the  fair  grounds,  but  when  the  com- 
mittee sent  ofiicial  notice  that  they  were  ready  to  test  it  in  detail  the 


260  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

owner  could  nowhere  be  found,  and  no  opportunity  was  afterward 
afforded  until  the  close  of  the  exhibition." 

The  other,  offered  by  B.  F.  Fields  of  Milwaukie,  Wisconsin,  say 
the  committee,  is  ''a  revolving  plow  and  seeding  machine,  and  is  thus 
made:  There  is  an  outer  slatted  drum  of  iron,  4|  feet  in  diameter  and 
5  feet  wide,  made  in  three  sections.  Inside,  on  an  eccentric  shaft,  are 
fixed  three  sets  of  20  spades  each,  set  8  inches  apart  on  'spiders,'  but 
all  turning  on  one  shaft.  As  they  come  in  turn  below,  the  spades 
project  beyond  the  outer  drum  through  the  apertures,  and  the  weight 
of  the  machine  (2  tons)  being  thrown  upon  them_,  they  enter  the 
ground  to  the  depth  of  8  inches.  The  machine  turning  as  it  travels 
forward,  the  spades  coming  behind  lift  the  earth  as  they  emerge,  and 
disturb  its  relative  position  as  would  a  spade  in  the  hands  of  a  man, 
except  that  the  soil  is  not  inverted.  Behind  the  spading  apparatus, 
on  the  back  part  of  the  frame  which  surrounds  the  whole,  is  a  row  of 
ordinary  drill  sheaths  to  deposit  the  seed  in  the  ground,  which  is  fed 
to  them  by  suitable  hoppers  with  valves." 

It  is  fair  to  conclude,  from  the  facts  thus  brought  together^  that  the 
subject  of  steam  cultivation  is  attracting,  both  in  England  and  America, 
the  greatest  attention.  As  yet,  while  we  cannot  admit  that  in  either 
country  any  improvement  has  been  tested,  which  so  combines  efficiency 
and  economy  as  to  give  us  assurance  of  its  general  adaptation,  enough 
has  been  done  to  give  us  confidence  that  steam,  especially  on  our 
broad  prairies,  must  ere  long  render  efficient  aid  to  the  farmer  in 
tilling  the  soil. 


CONSTEUCTION  AND  AEMT^GEMENT  OE  HOUSE 

STABLES. 


(condensed  from  dr.  RUEF]?,  professor  at  IIOHENHEIM,  GERMANY.) 


As  most  diseases  of  our  domestic  animals  originate  from  the  domes- 
tication to  which  they  have  been  subjected,  a  condition  often  far 
removed  from  the  natural  one,  it  devolves  as  a  principal  duty  upon 
the  breeder  and  owner  to  take  such  care  of  them  that  this  change  of 
life,  instead  of  an  injurious,  may  have  a  beneficial  result.  Attention 
given  to  horses  combines  economical  advantages,  as  feeding  them  in 
stables  is  not  only  a  saving  of  fodder,  but,  under  certain  circumstances, 
also  of  labor. 

The  place  where  domestic  animals  are  kept  forms  an  essential  con- 
sideration. In  all  countries,  not  sparsely  settled,  and  therefore  thor- 
ougly  cultivated,  animals  pass  a  great  portion  of  the  year,  and  even 
of  every  day,  in  the  stable.  This  applies  especially  to  horses,  and 
easily  explains  the  fact  of  more  care  and  expense  being  bestowed  on 
them  than  on  any  other  domestic  animals.  Yet  it  is  equally  true  that 
the  labc<r  and  money  expended  for  such  stables  are  often  insufficiently 
rewarded  by  the  welfare  of  their  occupants,  because  the  construction 


AEEANGEMENT    OF    HORSE    STABLES.  261 

and  arrangement  are  seldom  executed  with  a  degree  of  information 
corresponding  to  the  importance  of  the  matter,  and  for  the  special 
reason  that  the  necessary  knowledge  of  architecture  and  diet  is  rarely 
united  in  the  builder. 

In  many  cases,  building  a  stable  is  left  to  the  architect  alone,  who, 
when  provided  with  ample  means,  is  apt  to  indulge  too  much  in  his 
esthetic  genius,  often  regardless  of  things  appearing  to  be  insignifi- 
cant in  themselves,  though  very  important  with  respect  to  the  prin- 
cipal object.  Such  things  are  often  neglected,  because  of  their  being 
in  contrast  with  his  views  of  architectural  beauty,  and  opposed  to  his 
plans.  If,  however,  the  means  are  limited,  as  generally  happens, 
the  building,  notwithstanding  the  best  wishes  and  knowledge,  will 
often  be  erected  in  such  a  manner  as  will  not  answer  even  the  most 
indispensable  requirements. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  keeper  of  horses  would  not  seem  able  of 
himself  alone  to  arrange  his  buildings,  as  he  has  commonly  no  knowl- 
edge or  experience  in  architecture.  It  would,  therefore,  always  be  best 
for  the  proprietor  and  the  architect  to  exchange  their  ideas,  and  unite 
in  carrying  out  such  purposes.  I  have  myself  received  numerous  in- 
structions from  architects  ;  had  the  experience  of  many  years  in  keep- 
ing horses ;  examined  plans  of  stables  in  various  places  and  countries ; 
and  have  been  led  by  my  position  to  a  profound  study  of  the  diet ;  so  that 
I  entertain  no  fears  of  architects  being  dissatisfied  at  my  undertaking 
to  furnish  some  advice  on  the  arrangement  of  stables.  At  the  same 
time,  I  hope  agriculturists  and  owners  of  horses  will  be  pleased  to 
receive  such  views  as  are  based  on  my  own  experience. 

In  the  first  place,  a  stable  should  be  protected  from  climatical  in- 
fluences, humidity,  heat,  cold,  and  winds.  Again,  it  should  afford 
security  from  all  mechanical  injuries,  providing  even  for  comfort,  so  that 
the  animals,  being  left  entirely  undisturbed,  may  gather  new  strength 
for  the  performance  of  their  services.  Atmosphere,  light,  and  heat, 
as  the  fundamental  requirements  of  life,  are  entitled  to  the  highest 
consideration  in  the  arrangement  of  stables,  and  in  their  application 
they  should  be  made  capable  of  modification  by  man.  The  following 
points,  individually,  seem  to  deserve  special  attention. 

Location. — In  constructing  a  horse  stable,  the  principal  front  should 
be  to  the  west,  so  as  not  to  be  too  much  exposed  either  to  the  northern 
winds  or  the  hot  sun  during  the  middle  of  the  day.  If,  from  want  of 
room,  any  other  locality  must  be  selected,  the  stable  should  be  pro- 
tected from  the  above  influences  by  the  cultivation  of  trees,  or  shutters, 
blinds,  &c.  It  would  not  be  at  all  advantageous  to  locate  a  stable 
near  a  hill-side,  or  any  other  elevation,  especially  one  consisting  of  a 
loose  and  porous  soil,  or,  being  of  rock,  if  the  layers  should  descend 
toward  the  stable,  as,  thus  situated,  the  water  will  frequently  find  its 
way  into  the  building ;  at  any  rate,  the  wall  next  the  slope  will  be 
injured ;  and  besides,  such  stables  are,  for  the  most  part,  humid  and 
unhealthy.  If  such  a  position  cannot  be  avoided,  a  trench  should  be 
dug  around  the  stable  at  a  distance  of  some  four  feet  from  the  ground 
wall,  the  bottom  of  the  trench  to  be  always  lower  than  the  level  of  the 
stable  floor;  or  a  loam  stamp  may  answer  the  purpose.  These  precau- 
tions are  indispensable  if  a  creek  runs  near,  the  surface  of  which  is 


262  AGRICULTUKAL    REPORT. 

always,  or  even  for  a  time,  higher  than  the  bottom  of  the  stable. 
Wherever  the  location  is  such  that  the  droppings  of  the  roof  or  other 
waters  would  cause  a  general  wetness  both  of  the  ground  and  the 
bottom  of  the  stable,  drainage  must  be  provided  for. 

Stables  are  often  joined  to  other  buildings ;  when  to  dwelling-houses, 
they  have  the  advantage  of  being  uniformly  warmed.  Though  the 
warmth  evaporating  from,  horse  stables  during  winter  is  agreeable,  yet 
such  a  close  proximity  is  not  to  be  generally  recommended,  as  the 
ceiling  and  windows  of  stables  are  not  so  constructed  as  to  protect 
sufficiently  the  human  inmates  from  ammoniacal  vapors,  and  as  the 
flies,  always  numerous  in  such  situations,  are  very  troublesome  to  man. 
Yet  there  should  be  an  easy  access  from  the  dwelling-house  to  the 
stable,  which  would  allow  a  convenient  superintendence ;  for  especially 
in  rearing  horses  is  the  ]3roverb  applicable :  ' '  The  eye  of  the  master  is 
worth  as  much  as  a  sack  of  fodder."  On  farms,  all  kinds  of  draft 
animals  are  usually  kept  together  in  one  stable,  for  the  purpose  of 
better  overseeing  them  and  of  saving  time  in  the  distribution  of  labor. 
But  there  are  many  disadvantages  in  this  practice,  especially  if  the 
egress  from  the  stable  is  one  and  the  same  for  horses  aod  draft  oxen. 
Mutual  injuries  would  result,  and  an  undue  cooling  of  the  stables  in 
winter,  as  oxen,  on  account  of  their  slowness,  require  the  doors  to  be 
kept  open  for  a  longer  time.  An  additional  reason  will  be  found  in 
the  fact  that  horses  require  for  their  welfare  a  higlier  degree  of  tempera- 
ture in  the  stable  than  oxen. 

The  ground. — The  ground,  on  which  the  stable  is  to  be  erected, 
should  be  solid;  especially  avoiding  peaty  or  marshy  ground,  other- 
wise the  evaporations  penetrating  the  flooring  would  fill  the  close 
rooms  built  above,  and  render  the  premises  unhealthy.  Loose  ground 
absorbs  too  much  urine,  which,  decomposing,  will  generate  dangerous 
vapors  of  bad  odor.  In  case  of  such  improper  foundation  being 
unavoidable,  solid  stone  pavements,  tight  gutters,  spouts,  and  drains, 
must  be  provided. 

External  ivall. — The  inclosure  is  sometimes  very  imperfect.  Stables 
on  pastures  are  often  without  any  walls,  only  a  roof  supported  by 
columns  being  provided  as  a  shelter  from  rain  and  the  heat  of  the  sun. 
If  something  better  may  be  intended,  these  "sheltering  huts"  are 
merely  closed  with  boards,  and  cribs  and  racks  furnished  for  the  purpose 
of  feeding,  if  necessary.  Nor  is  there  much  more  solidity  in  stables 
constructed  of  hurdle-work.  The  mode  of  building  of  mud,  or  layers  of 
stamped  clay,  has  no  claim  to  durability,  as  it  affords  no  firm  support 
for  cribs  and  racks,  which  in  horse  stables  require  to  be  solid.  Stables 
of  beams  and  rafters,  or  the  log-house  structure,  the  interstices  of 
which  are  filled  with  moss,  will  keep  warm,  yet,  being  perishable, 
they  will  not  only  be  too  expensive  where  timber  is  dear,  but  are  also 
much  exposed  to  the  danger  of  fire. 

I  have  seen  a  stable  in  the  form  of  a  log-house,  with  filled  walls, 
which  lasted  thirty-one  years.  The  pine  logs,  usually  from  three  to 
four  feet  long,  are  inserted  by  means  of  tenons  in  the  grooves  of  the 
perpendicular  oak-columns  and  corner  posts.  To  prevent  the  air  from 
penetrating  through  the  joinings,  grooves  are  made,  both  on  the  upper 
and  under  side  of  the  logs,  and  laths  inserted  in  the  grooves.     The 


ARRANGEMENT    OF    HORSE    STABLES.  263 

logs  employed  are  usually  from  six  to  seven  inches  in  thickness.  These 
wooden  walls  should  be  wainscoted,  and  as  they  are  more  liable  to 
injury  near  the  windows,  they  should  be  carefully  protected  there,  by 
being  covered  with  tin  or  painted  with  tar.  Such  buildings  will  be 
more  durable  if  the  roofs  project  to  a  grcEit  extent. 

The  best  massive  walls  are  those  made  of  granite,  limestone,  and 
sandstone.  The  most  suitable  material  for  building  stables  is  tufaceous 
limestone,  resisting,  in  consequence  of  its  porous  quality,  the  rapid 
change  of  temperature,  retaining  firmly  and  for  a  long  time  its  plas- 
tering, and  being  in  many  localities  very  cheap  and  easy  of  manufac- 
ture. In  the  majority  of  stable  walls  of  stone,  there  is  an  essential 
evil,  to  be  noticed  in  the  generation  of  niter,  in  consequence  of  which 
not  only  the  quality  of  the  stone  is  impaired,  but  the  stable  is  kept 
humid,  on  account  of  the  hygroscopic  qualities  of  the  salt  produced. 
The  formation  of  niter  is  explained  by  the  unavoidable  decomposition 
of  the  excrement  of  animals,  under  the  influence  of  humidity  and 
warmth,  promoted  by  the  want  of  cleanliness,  and  the  properties  of 
the  walls.  Especially  stones  of  a  very  porous  nature,  for  instance, 
soft  sandstones  containing  much  clay,  the  yellow  sandstone,  porous 
limestone,  limestone  with  organic  remains,  as  shell  lime  in  some  local- 
ities, mortar  and  loam,  containing  kali,  favor  the  generation  of  niter. 
Solid  and  polished  limestones,  as  marble  and  granite,  will  not  permit 
the  formation  of  saltpeter,  which  is  also  prevented  by  smooth  plaster- 
ing. All  varieties  of  stone,  however,  containing  lime,  kali,  and  mag- 
nesia, will,  particularly  when  favorably  influenced  by  the  want  of 
cleanliness,  warmth  and  humidity,  form  saltpeter.  But  as  this  forma- 
tion is  confined  to  a  certain  distance  from  the  surface  of  the  ground 
and  the  wall,  special  regard  must  be  had  that  the  lower  portions  of  the 
wall  most  exposed  to  humidity  should  be  built  of  the  best  and  densest 
material. 

Ceilings. — ^Vaulted  ceilings  of  brick  or  stone  afford  the  greatest 
security  against  fire;  they  keep  warm  in  winter  and  cool  in  summer; 
prevent  the  falling  of  filth  from  above,  and  permit  no  vapors  to  pene- 
trate into  the  upper  portion  of  the  building ;  but  on  account  of  the 
side  pressure  caused  by  the  vault,  they  require  stronger  walls,  and  are 
therefore  expensive^  both  at  the  outset  and  in  reparation.  Besides, 
the  vaults  allow  only  imperfect  ventilation.  Wanting  good  and  dura- 
ble stones,  the  ceilings  must  be  plastered,  but  on  account  of  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  vaults  not  being  uniformly  warmed  and  moistened, 
such  ceilings  will  soon  crack  and  fall.  Owing  to  this  variation  of  tem- 
perature, vapors  will  collect  on  certain  parts  of  the  vault,  and  fre- 
quently fall  in  drops  from  the  ceiling  in  winter,  so  that  either  some  of 
the  animals  will  be  molested,  or  portions  of  the  stable  will  always  be 
damp  and  impure. 

If  it  is  intended  to  make  a  cheaper  ceiling,  it  must  yet  be  remem- 
bered that  solidity  is  important,  so  that  neither  the  dwellings  that 
may  be  above  the  stables  shall  be  molested  by  the  vapors  from  below^ 
nor  that  the  beams  and  rafter  shall  thus  be  affected.  If  there  is  fodder 
stored  away  above  the  stables,  it  will  also  suffer  from  these  vapors, 
and  the  filth,  dust,  and  offal  of  hay  falling  through  the  ceiling  will 


264  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

render  tiie  skin  of  the  horses  impure,  cause  itcliing,  and  even  in  some 
cases,  disease  of  the  eyes. 

Ceilings  made  with  gypsum  are  unsuitable,  as  they  will  not  last 
long ;  the  wire  and  nails  which  support  them  rusting  off,  and  allow- 
ing the  material  to  drop,  so  that  the  animals  will  be  dangerously 
excited,  or  even  considerably  injured.  The  advantages  of  plastered 
ceilings,  in  preventing  vapors  from  penetrating,  may  also  be  secured 
by  making  them  oblique,  grooves  being  formed  in  the  rafters,  into 
which  boards  are  obliquely  inserted,  so  as  to  render  them  durable  and 
easy  of  reparation.  As  better  security  against  fire  and  the  penetration 
of  vapors^  they  may  receive  at  the  top  a  layer  of  mud  mixed  with 
gravel,  or  of  loam  with  chopped  straw.  They  will  thus,  also,  retain 
a  greater  degree  of  warmth.  The  loam  may  be  spread  above  to  a 
height  equal  with  the  rafters,  if  the  upper  room  is  intended  for  storing 
away  fodder ;  or  there  may  be  a  common  flooring,  the  space  between 
which  and  the  oblique  ceiling  to  be  filled  with  a  non-conductor  of 
heat,  for  instance:  ashes,  awns  of  barley  and  chaff.  The  filling  up 
will  keep  warm,  without  being  liable  to  catch  fire,  as  many  believe ; 
for  a  fire  may  even  be  extinguished  by  means  of  chopped  straw  and 
chaff. 

It  should  always  be  kept  in  view  to  prevent  the  beams  of  the  ceil- 
ings from  becoming  rotten,  a  thing  which  so  often  happens.  Some, 
are  of  opinion  that  this  object  could  be  accomplished  by  shutting  off 
the  beams  from  the  space  of  the  stable  by  another  ceiling,  and  thus 
protecting  them.  But  it  should  be  remembered  that  air  and  humidity 
are  not  so  easy  to  be  kept  off,  and  that  they  will  still  penetrate  through 
the  joinings  of  the  lower  ceiling.  The  injurious  consequences  of  these 
vapors  will  be  more  apparent  when  they  are  confined,  as  is  indeed  the 
case  if  the  rafters  are  wainscoted  both  above  and  below.  Should  a 
current  of  air,  however,  be  permitted  to  pass  through,  the  ceiling 
would  become  too  cold,  and  the  vapors,  precipitated  too  freely,  would 
destroy  the  wainscoting.  Were  awns  or  chaffs,  which  would  keep 
warm,  put  between,  the  air  would  still  penetrate,  thus  moistening  the 
beams ;  and  in  this  case  also,  on  account  of  insufiicient  change  of  air, 
they  would  be  destroyed. 

The  worst  method  of  constructing  a  ceiling  is  that  of  wainscoting 
by  means  of  nails;  it  will  soon  be  destroyed,  the  nails  not  being 
durable. 

Others  are  of  opinion  that  the  beams  could  be  better  secured  by 
leaving  them  perfectly  free  at  the  ceiling ;  they  put  on,  therefore,  a 
wainscoting  above,  or,  for  the  sake  of  cheapness,  small  boards  from 
one  rafter  to  another,  upon  which  they  make  a  flooring  of  loam,  or, 
still  better,  of  gypsum.  This  kind  of  ceiling  is  very  suitable  when 
it  is  intended  to  keep  fodder  above  the  stable. 

The  stables  should  never  be  of  such  height  as  to  prevent  their  being 
perfectly  warmed.  The  destruction  of  the  beams  of-  the  ceiling  is 
merely  caused  by  their  becoming  thoroughly  moistened,  a  circumstance 
produced  by  too  strong  a  cooling  of  the  air  saturated  with  vapors. 
Any  stable  in  which  the  upper  layers  of  atmosphere,  being  otherwise 
always  the  warmer,  are  rendered  so  cold  that  the  watery  vapors  are 
precipitated,   (in  fluid  form,)  must,  on  the  whole,  be  too  cool.     A 


ARRANGEMENT   OP    HORSE    STABLES.  265 

height  of  ten  or  eleven  feet  would  seem  to  he  most  suitahle  where  not 
more  than  six  horses  are  kept. 

The  floor. — The  part  of  the  floor  on  which  the  horse  stands  may  he 
constructed  in  a  different  manner  from  the  passage-way.  The  former 
must  he  convenient  for  resting,  and  strong  enough  to  hear  the  long- 
continued  pressure  of  the  hody  of  the  animal ;  it  must  also  be  so  con- 
trived as  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  impurities. 

As  to  the  direction  of  the  surface  of  this  standing-place  frequent 
mistakes  are  made.  From  over-care  to  secure  the  flowing  off  of  the 
urine,  the  descent  is  often  made  too  sloping,  being  five  per  cent.,  and 
even  six  per  cent.  Thus  the  horses  are  placed  on  a  declivity,  requir- 
ing a  continual  strain  of  the  muscles  of  the  limbs  and  back;  the 
animals  become  tired  in  the  stables,  instead  of  resting;  and  their 
joints  grow  diseased,  showing  excrescences,  barbels,  defective  posi- 
tions, &c.  Horses  not  shod,  and  colts,  will,  on  a  sloping  floor,  use 
to  excess  and  wear  away  the  front  part  of  the  hoof,  while  the  proper 
standing  parts  are  so  little  employed  that  they  cannot  sufiiciently 
expand,  thus  becoming  goat-hoofed  and  heel-bound,  as  indicated  by 
too  upright  a  position  in  the  pasterns  and  fetlock,  known  as  ' '  goat- 
footed." 

Whoever  may  observe  horses  in  such  situations,  will  find  that,  if 
possible,  they  choose  an  oblique  direction,  so  as  to  gain  a  horizontal 
position  for  the  length  of  their  bodies.  The  care  employed  for  the 
flowing  off  of  the  urine  is,  in  most  cases,  not  founded  on  perfect  rea- 
son, because  the  males  only  would  discharge  their  water  within  the 
stand,  while  the  mares  would  wet  the  stand  but  little.  Besides,  with 
horses  receiving  no  green  fodder,  this  discharge  is  not  so  copious  as  to 
cause  so  much  anxiety  about  drainage.  At  the  same  time,  if  there  is 
always  litter  on  hand,  as  it  should  be  in  a  well-arranged  stable,  no 
water  will  flow  from  the  stand. 

A  descent  of  the  floor  of  from  one  to  two  per  cent,  is  most  suitable; 
horizontal  stands  not  answering  the  system  of  the  body  of  the  horse, 
which  is  generally  somewhat  higher  behind  than  in  front ;  such  con- 
struction, therefore,  shoving  the  over-weight  of  the  hind  part  toward 
the  front  or  forepart  of  the  animal.  But  in  the  passage-way  a  hori- 
zontal floor  is  the  best,  the  objection  being  with  regard  to  cleanliness ; 
therefore,  it  may  be  a  little  arched,  with  a  descent  of  from  two  to  three 
per  cent. 

The  material  of  the  floor  often  consists  merely  of  earth,  or  of  loam 
beaten  down ;  or  it  is  a  barn-floor,  composed  of  loam  mixed  with  iron 
scales  and  blood;  again,  a  floor  is  made  of  gypsum,  or  four  and  a  half 
parts  of  gravel  with  one  of  hydraulic  lime. 

There  are,  however,  some  floors  unsuitable  for  stables.  Loam  mixed 
with  sand,  so  often  employed,  is  too  liable  to  crumble.  It  would  be 
better  to  use  pure,  uniform,  and  well-worked  loam,  which  should  be 
applied  to  a  thickness  of  from  8  to  10  inches,  and  well  beaten.  A 
layer  of  hydraulic  or  black  lime,  two  inches  in  height,  on  the  mois- 
tened surface  of  the  loam  would  contribute  so  much  to  the  solidity  of 
the  floor  that  it  would  for  a  long  time  resist  the  tread  of  the  horses. 

Another  good  floor  may  be  formed  of  seven  parts  of  peat  ashes, 
finely  sieved,  and  one  of  slaked  lime.     Both  substances  are  made  with 


266  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

water  into  a  stiff  dough,  wliicli  is  put  on  and  stamped,  either  alone  in  a 
large  quantity^  or  on  a  common  loam  floor  in  a  more  limited  quantity. 

As  all  these  substances  are  slower  in  drying  than  gypsum,  the  surface 
requires  to  be  frequently  moistened  in  order  to  delay  its  drying  until 
the  inner  layers  shall  have  become  perfectly  united.  In  this  manner 
the  bursting  and  splitting  of  the  mass  may  be  obviated  by  repeated 
beating  and  stamping.  If  the  materials  for  such  floors  are  not  well 
selected,  or  if  the  layer  is  too  thin,  they  require  frequent  reparations, 
and  are  both  expensive  and  troublesome. 

They  will  not  last  long,  in  any  situation ;  the  action  of  the  urine 
softens  them,  and  they  are  loosened  and  broken  by  the  shoes  of  the 
horses.  They  may  only  be  applied  in  rather  large  running  stables 
where  young  colts  are  kept,  or,  if  at  all  in  others,  in  the  passage-way, 
where  horses  are  neither  too  heavy,  nor  frequently  brought  in  and  out, 
and  where  there  is  great  attention  paid  to  cleanliness.  Neither  are 
those  floors  to  be  recommended  for  colt  stables,  where  the  colts  are 
confined  to  one  stand. 

Macadamized  floors,  in  inclosed  spaces  on  which  there  is  no  driving 
of  carriages,  will  never  attain  the  same  solidity  and  uniformity  as  is 
observed  on  open  roads,  and  are,  therefore,  totally  unfit  for  stables. 

Common  pavements  are  the  most  durable,  and  therefore  the  cheap- 
est, the  price,  of  course,  depending  not  only  on  the  locality,  but  also 
on  the  different  kinds  of  stones  to  be  used.  Pavement,  when  used  in 
the  stand,  has  the  disadvantage  of  more  rapidly  loosening  and  wearing 
out  the  horse  shoes  than  on  a  floor  made  of  wood.  Some  of  the 
blocks,  also,  will  inevitably  sink,  causing  four-sided  holes  or  pits, 
which  are  known  to  be  dangerous.  A  pavement  neglected  and  out  of 
order  will  produce  an  unequal  pressure,  contusions  of  the  body  of  the 
horse  occupying  the  stand,  &c. 

For  the  same  reason,  those  pavements  made  of  rolling  stones,  and 
which  so  many  see  fit  to  recommend,  should  never  be  employed.  It 
was  thought  that  the  sliding  of  the  horses,  so  common  in  paved  stands, 
could  be  prevented  by  employing  stones  not  larger  than  a  fist,  but  it 
is  precisely  on  such,  well-rounded  and  highly-arched  as  they  are,  that 
the  foot  is  most  liable  to  slide.  Moreover,  a  great  deal  of  dirt  collects 
in  the  numerous  deepenings  and  gutters  between  the  stones.  To  a 
great  extent  the  sliding  may  be  obviated  by  allowing  the  floor  in  the 
stand  but  a  very  small  descent,  as  above  intimated,  and  by  employing 
a  material  not  too  hard  or  rough  ;  for  instance,  mixed  sandstone. 
Granite  would  be  better  than  shell-lime.  Lias-lime,  or  Jura-lime, 
though  sandstone  wears  off  the  horse  shoes  more  rapidly  than  any 
other  variety  of  stones. 

The  best  pavement  both  for  the  stand  and  passage-way  is  made  of 
double-burned  bricks,  which,  after  being  closely  laid  with  the  high 
edge  on  a  flat  stratum  of  similar  stones,  are  fastened  with  cement.  All 
stone  floors  are,  besides,  liable  to  the  objection  of  being  a  cold  place 
of  rest  for  the  animals,  and  of  subjecting  them,  under  certain  circum- 
stances, to  catching  colds^  a  fact  which  will  not  so  often  occur  on  a 
wooden  floor,  that  being  a  non-conductor  of  heat.  If  horses  are 
obliged  to  rest  on  an  uncovered  floor,  either  standing  or  lying,  their 
tired  muscles  and  irritated  feet  will  certainly  sooner  and  better  be  re- 


ARRANGEMENT   OP   HORSE    STABLES.  267 

lieved  on  a  soft  wooden  floor  than  on  a  hard  pavement.  The  disad- 
vantages mentioned,  however,  in  regard  to  the  stone  j)avement  may  he 
removed,  or  at  least  modified,  hy  a  good  litter,  so  that  a  stone  floor 
may  safely  he  recommended  to  all  farmers  provided  with  a  sufficient 
supply  of  straw. 

Woodmen  pavements  are  not  at  all  suitahle  for  floors  in  the  stand,  as 
the  hlocks,  heing  often  different  in  age  and  solidity,  wear  out  unevenly, 
leaving  pits,  as  in  the  stone  pavements  above  mentioned.  This  mate- 
rial also  readily  absorbs  the  urine,  which  decomposes,  producing  bad 
odors  in  the  stable  and  decay  in  the  wood  itself.  It  is  generally  suit- 
able only  where  carefully  kept  dry,  and  may  well  be  applied  in  the 
passage-way,  for  on  such  a  pavement  the  tread  of  the  horses  is  secure 
and  pleasant  to  them;  nor  does  it  wear  their  shoes.  The  stratum 
below  the  wooden  blocks  ought  to  be  porous,  consisting,  if  possible,  of 
sand,  so  that  the  liquids  accidentally  leaking  through  the  joinings 
shall  not  collect  below  the  wood  ;  as  a  preventive,  fine  sand  is  some- 
times swept  and  strewn  into  the  joinings.  The  blocks  should  be  from 
seven  and  a  half  to  ten  inches  in  height.  In  some  large  stables,  this 
wooden  pavement  in  the  passage-way  lasted  over  twenty-one  years, 
without  requiring  any  essential  repairs. 

Where,  from  the  greater  value  of  horses,  it  is  the  desire  to  arrange 
everything  in  the  best  way  with  regard  to  the  health,  strength,  and 
even  comfort,  of  the  occupants  of  the  stables,  and  where  there  is  no 
scrupulous  regard  to  expense,  the  floor  of  the  stand  is  made  of  boards. 

These  stands  may  be  constructed  in  different  ways.  The  simplest 
method  is  to  lay  the  boards  directly  on  the  sand  or  the  natural  ground. 
Another  method  consists  in  first  laying  down  a  floor  of  stone,  bricks, 
or  asphalt,  which  may  conduct  the  liquids  leaking  from  the  wooden 
floor  into  the  principal  channel,  either  by  a  deepening  on  the  lower 
surface,  or  by  one  or  two  gutters.  On  this  water-tight  floor,  and  in 
the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  stand,  three  oaken  beams  are  laid, 
upon  which  the  boards  are  finally  placed,  so  as  to  give  them  a  secure 
foundation.  All  these  board  stands  are  somewhat  expensive,  as  they 
require  freqent  repairs.  It  has  been  asked,  which  of  the  two  methods 
is  the  most  durable,  or  the  best?  To  the  hollow  floors  it  is  objected 
that  they  are  dangerous  to  horses,  whose  hoofs  might  easier  be  caught 
in  the  holes  often  caused  by  the  blocks  decaying  through,  producing 
distortions  of  the  limbs ;  or,  it  is  feared  the  horse  will  stamp  through 
the  worn-out  boards,  and  fracture  his  bones. 

This  stamping  is  not  so  dangerous  as  some  may  believe,  for  an  atten- 
tive keeper  will,  from  time  to  time,  remove  the  defective  boards;  nei- 
ther will  an  intelligent  builder  construct  the  drains  on  the  lower  floor 
of  so  great  a  descent  that  the  foot  would  be  injured  by  descending  in 
them.  Two  gutters  made  lengthwise,  or  a  single  flat  gutter,  would 
be  sufficient  to  carry  off  the  urine  leaking  through  the  board  stand. 
Their  descent  need  not  exceed  from  five  to  six  per  cent.,  while  that  of 
the  board  floor  should  be  one  to  two  per  cent. ;  the  hollow  space  below 
thus  being  but  three  inches  at  the  deepest  spot,  provided  the  floor  has 
not  been  unnecessarily  raised  by  the  beams.  If  there  is  a  double  gut- 
ter on  the  lower  floor,  the  beams  may  be  dispensed  with,  by  construct- 


268  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT, 

ing  tlie  edges  of  tlie  gutters  and  tlie  backs  between  both  gutters  in  so 
accurate  a  manner  that  the  boards  can  be  laid  down  flat  and  solid. 

Some  are  of  the  opinion  that  boards  laid  down  hollow  are  sooner 
liable  to  rot  and  to  be  destroyed,  if  they  only  become  wet  from  below, 
and  therefore  they  prefer  laying  them  immediately  on  the  ground ; 
thus  the  whole  board  is  always  kept  wet  on  all  sides,  as  the  water  is 
continually  coming  up  through  the  joinings.  It  is  said  that  the  wood 
is  thus  just  as  well  preserved  as  if  it  were  totally  kept  under  water. 
But  experience  shows  that  the  boards  are  less  injured  by  decay  than 
by  shoes,  hoofs,  and  sometimes  even  by  the  teeth  of  the  horses.  The 
hollow  floors  are  always  clean  and  dry,  while  boards  laid  directly  on 
the  ground  are  wet  and  dirty,  spattering  the  hoofs,  and  often  the  legs, 
with  manure  water,  which  is  the  cause  of  rottenness  of  the  frog  and 
malanders.  A  board  laid  hollow,  on  an  average,  will  keep  for  three 
years,  so  that  the  stand  may  still  be  said  to  be  in  good  condition. 

In  laying  these  boards,  provision  should  be  made  that  they  may 
easily  be  taken  up  again,  either  for  changing  or  cleaning  them.  In 
changing  them,  the  boards  occupying  the  forepart  of  the  stand,  and 
not  having  been  injured  so  much,  may  be  substituted  for  those  forming 
the  back  part,  which  are  therefore  more  worn.  They  may  be  cleaned 
by  taking  up  the  front  board  and  washing  out  the  slab-floor  below, 
pouring  a  bucketful  of  water  through  the  opening  made  by  the  re- 
moval of  the  first  board.  This  operation  should  take  place  every  eight 
days.  All  the  boards,  however,  should  be  taken  up  once  every  three 
months,  so  that  the  slab-floor  and  gutters  may  be  thoroughly  cleansed 
with  broom  and  water. 

Those  boards  lying  immediately  on  the  ground,  being  always  wet, 
become  softened,  and  are  therefore  apt  to  wear  out  faster  by  the  feet 
of  the  horses  than  dry  wood  of  the  same  quality.  It  seems  to  be  im- 
probable that  wood  continually  saturated  with  and  buried  in  manure 
water  should  be  less  liable  to  rot  than  wood  accessible  to  air,  and 
therefore,  for  the  most  part,  in  a  dry  condition.  To  facilitate  the  flow 
of  urine  through  the  boards,  holes  are  made  in  them.  This  method, 
however,  is  unnecessary,  and  tends  to  accelerate  the  decay  of  the  boards. 
The  urine  will  find  a  way  of  itself  through  the  joinings.  The  prom- 
inent part  of  the  shoes  of  horses  are  sometimes  caught  in  such  holes, 
and  thereby  loosened ;  besides,  perforated  wood  is  more  apt  to  absorb 
manure  water. 

In  English  stables,  plates  of  cast-iron,  perforated  in  the  shape  of  a 
T,  are  sometimes  used  for  the  back  part  of  the  board  floor  to  facilitate 
the  flow  of  urine.  Cast-iron  floors  will  probably  come  into  general 
use  in  stalls,  because  they  are  easy  of  removal  and  never  entirely  loose 
their  value,  as  in  the  case  with  wood  and  stone. 

As  boards^  when  kept  dry,  are  durable,  they  may  be  used  for  the 
floor  of  the  forepart  of  the  stall,  and,  closely  joined,  also  for  the  back 
portion.  With  regard  to  the  proper  material,  oak  is  the  best,  but  the 
most  costly.  Beside,  horses  are  more  liable  to  slip  on  it  than  they 
would  be  on  soft  kinds  of  wood.  If,  however,  but  narrow  boards  are 
employed,  or  if  four-cornered  beams  are  laid  across  the  ribs,  so  as  to 
be  changed  four  times,  or  whenever  their  surfaces  may  be  worn  out, 
the  horses  will  not  so  often  slip,  on  account  of  the  many  joinings. 


ARRANGEMENT   OP   HORSE   STABLES.  269 

Bed  fir  resists  moisture  longer  than  white  pine.  Healthy  and  dry 
wood,  which  has  not  been  cut  during  the  running  of  the  sap,  (an  im- 
portant consideration  in  the  building  of  stables,)  should  be  procured. 

From  the  preceding,  it  would  seem  that  board  floors  are  most  suit- 
able for  light  horses,  whose  weight  will  not  produce  much  injury,  and 
especially  for  mares,  wetting  at  most  the  two  last  boards.  In  addition 
to  this,  it  is  thought  that  the  use  of  horse  shoes  without  points,  as  they 
are  employed  in  Italy,  France,  and  England,  is  especially  favorable  to 
the  preservation  of  a  wooden  flooring. 

In  order  to  check  the  decay  of  wood  in  damp  stables,  it  may  be 
soaked  before  use  in  a  solution  of  sublimate  of  mercury  or  kyanizing. 
■This  method,  however,  is  expensive.  Beside,  attention  may  be  called 
to  the  process  patented  by  Bernett,  consisting  of  muriate  of  zinc  dis- 
solved by  iron  vitriol  and  in  water,  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  six. 
Particular  attention  is  called  to  the  method  proposed  by  Miinzing,  of 
soaking  in  sulphate  of  manganese.  In  consequence  of  the  application 
of  these  saline  liquors,  the  albumen  of  the  wood,  by  which  decay  is 
principally  generated,  is  made  to  coagulate,  so  that  decomposition,  as 
is  the  case  in  smoked  meat,  is  very  much  delayed,  if  not  altogether 
prevented. 

In  some  studs,  the  floors  of  the  stalls  are  made  of  asphalt.  Though 
these  appear  to  be  very  clean,  yet  there  are  many  disadvantages  con- 
connected  with  them.  Horses  will  crumble  the  material  in  a  short 
time  with  their  shoes,  making  its  repair  difficult,  as  special  mechanics 
would  be  required.  Horses  not  shod  are  liable  to  slip  on  this  kind 
of  floor,  notwithstanding  it  may  have  been  provided  with  notches. 
Yet,  where  not  too  costly,  it  may  be  recommended  for  stables  of  cattle. 

It  may  be  here  mentioned  that  in  England  some  stables  have  the 
floors  of  their  stalls  made  of  gutta  percha  and  caoutchouc.  This  ap- 
pears to  be  a  luxurious  experiment,  no  doubt  agreeable  and  beneficial 
to  the  horses,  but  not  easy  to  introduce  generally. 

Finally,  the  arrangement  of  stable  floors  deserves  our  full  attention, 
as  the  expense  of  the  building  itself,  the  health  of  the  animals,  and 
cleanliness,  are  intimately  connected  with  it. 

Accommodation. — The  space  of  a  stable  ought  to  be  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  horses.  The  room  required  for  horses  of  every  size  if 
nearly  the  same  ;  it  would  be  unreasonable  to  take  a  small  race  as  a 
basis  for  the  capacity  of  a  stable,  even  if  small  animals  were  usually 
kept. 

A  single  stand  should  be  six  feet  wide  and  eleven  long,  being  sixty- 
six  square  feet.  Horses  measuring  from  seventeen  to  eighteen  hands 
are  rare,  and  require  a  width  of  seven  feet,  while  those  measuring 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  may  be  content  with  five  feet.  If  the  stand? 
are  too  narrow,  there  will  be  no  convenience  for  cleaning  or  giving 
food,  the  animals  cannot  rest  themselves,  and  wear  out  the  narrow 
floor  much  sooner  than  they  would  a  broad  one.  If  the  stall,  however, 
be  too  broad,  the  horse  will  often  place  himself  crosswise  in  his 
stand,  be  more  apt  to  strike  into  the  chains,  and  will  find  more  occa- 
sion for  kicking  against  the  horses  in  his  neighborhood. 

Should  there  be  but  one  row  of  stands  in  a  stable,  the  width  of  the 
passage  should  be  at  least  from  six  to  seven  feet,  so  as  to  allow  the 


270  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

"horses  to  turn  themselves  in  it  without  receiving  any  injury;  but, 
unfortunately,  the  space  assigned  for  this  purpose  is  too  frequently 
only  found  to  contain  but  from  three  to  five  feet,  so  that  men  and  ani- 
mals entering  here  are  exposed  to  the  danger  of  being  kicked  by  the 
horses  occupying  their  stands.  If  the  passage  should  lead  between 
two  rows  of  stands,  so  that  the  back  parts  of  the  horses  are  opposed 
to  each  other,  it  should  be  at  least  from  nine  to  twelve  feet  wide.  If 
they  are  placed  with  their  heads  opposite  each  other,  it  would  be  suffi- 
cient to  have  a  fodder  passage  three  feet  wide  between  the  two  rows  of 
stands,  though  a  width  of  from  five  to  six  feet  would  be  better.  Such 
an  arrangement  would  not  only  save  time,  but  also  afford  security  in 
feeding  ;  it  is  also  thought  that  the  horses,  in  consequence  of  the  lively 
intercourse  going  on  in  front  of  them,  would  become  less  liable  to 
taking  fright. 

The  height  of  a  stable  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
horses  intended  to  be  kept.  The  lowest  height  admissible  is  ten  feet. 
It  is  true,  there  are  some  so  low  that  the  horses  touch  the  ceiling  with 
their  heads.  This  is  a  cruelty,  and  brings  its  own  punishment  by  the 
impaired  health  (?f  the  animals.  The  upper  atmosphere  in  a  closed 
room  is  always  the  warmest,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  most  impure; 
while  the  floor,  with  its  pavement  and  humidity,  cooled  through  the 
openings  of  the  gutters  and  the  draught  of  cold  air  from  the  door, 
will  be  productive  of  cold  feet.  Thus,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that 
the  blood  should  rise  to  the  head,  and  diseases  of  the  brain  and  eyes 
be  produced  in  those  stables  ;  for  the  proverb,  originally  designed  for 
man,  is  equally  applicable  to  our  domestic  animals: 

"  Would  you  be  well,  and  would  you  grow  old? 
Keep  your  feet  warm  and  keep  your  head  cold." 

For  two  horses  of  middle  size  the  height  of  a  stable  should  be  eleven 
feet ;  for  a  larger  number,  say  from  three  to  eight  heads,  twelve  to 
thirteen  feet  would  be  sufficient.  But  where  there  is  a  very  large 
number,  as  in  cavalry  stables,  stud  establishments,  &c.,  it  would  be 
advantageous  to  increase  the  height  to  from  sixteen  to  twenty  feet.  A 
more  lotty  ceiling  might  be  considered  a  luxury,  but  a  rather  incon- 
venient one,  as  it  would  hardly  be  equally  warmed  in  winter,  so  that 
dampness  in  some  parts  could  not  be  prevented,  or  ventilation  must 
be  avoided  in  order  to  retain  sufficient  heat.  Many  agricultural  stables 
admit  of  fodder-wagons  being  driven  into  the  passage,  in  which  case 
the  height  must  be  greater  than  would  seem  to  be  advantageous  for  a 
proper  temperature. 

If  the  size  of  a  stable  be  not  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  animals 
kept,  the  stands  not  occupied  should  be  filled  out  with  straw,  &c., 
and  if  the  horses  are  not  sufficient  to  produce  the  warmth  required  in 
vfinter,  the  ceiling  should  be  brought  lower  down,  by  extending  poles, 
rails,  or  bars,  and  filling  the  intermediate  space  with  straw.  No  such 
straw  should  afterward  be  used  for  any  other  purpose  than  litter. 

Division  of  Stalls. — To  avoid  frequent  troubles  and  even  heavy  losses 
of  animals,  each  horse  should  have  his  separate  stall ;  for  even  the 
best-natured  will  at  times  make  use  of  his  natural  weapons,  and  usually 
peaceful  neighbors  will  fight  each  other  in  the  most  violent  manner, 


ARRANGEMENT   OP   HORSE    STABLES.  271 

SO  that  tlieir  lives  or  liinhs  are  frequently  risked.  This  division  is 
especially  necessary  with,  regard  to  those  horses  of  an  irritable,  envious, 
and  mettlesome  disposition.  Mares  seem  to  require  particular  attention 
in  the  breeding  season,  though  they  are,  at  other  times,  exemplary, 
quiet,  and  peaceful. 

The  most  simple  separation  of  stands  is  made  by  inserting  poles, 
Avith  one  end  between  the  rundles  of  the  rack  and  the  other  fastened  to 
the  floor.  This  is  but  a  very  imperfect  contrivance,  yet  it  must  be 
admitted  that  horses  usually  show  respect  for  such  a  line  of  demarca- 
tion, notwithstanding  the  lowly  laid  pole  at  the  end  does  not  prevent 
them  from  kicking.  It  seems  that  they  are  afraid  of  getting  the  pole 
between  their  feet,  or  that  there  is  not  so  much  cause  for  kicking,  as 
the  two  neighbors  cannot  so  easily  touch  each  other.  The  poles,  how- 
ever, may,  according  to  their  application,  answer  more  or  less  the 
object  contemplated.  There  is  an  essential  advantage  in  raising  the 
lower  end  of  the  poles  a  few  feet  above  the  ground,  so  that  the  horse, 
when  kicking,  should  strike  the  barrier  instead  of  his  neighbor.  This 
location  of  the  poles  may  be  effected  in  different  ways.  In  stables 
where  there  are  no  posts,  at  least  no  stand-posts  right  and  left  at  the 
end  of  the  stands,  they  are  suspended  by  traces  or  chains  fastened  either 
to  the  ceiling  or  the  rafter,  and  the  forepart  placed  either  in  rings  in 
front  or  at  the  side  of  the  crib,  or  secured  by  means  of  small  chains  or 
hooks.  These  hanging  poles  can  readily  and  cheaply  be  put  up  in 
every  locality,  and  have  the  advantage  of  allowing  horses  more  room  ; 
besides,  no  stand-posts  being  required,  the  tails  of  the  animals  are  not 
liable  to  injury  by  rubbing.  Still  the  room  thus  afforded  is  too  ample, 
and  the  horses,  bj^  swinging  the  poles,  voluntarily  or  not,  come  into 
contact,  which  often  incites  them  to  kick. 

It  is  always  better  to  fasten  the  poles  to  the  posts  in  the  rear  of  the 
stand,  so  as  to  allow  but  a  limited  side-movement ;  the  poles  should  be 
capable  of  being  easily  raised,  for  it  will  frequently  occur  that  the  horse 
will  roll  himself  under  the  poles,  and,  in  suddenly  jumping  up,  will 
strike  against  them,  falling  crosswise  on  his  back,  frequently  causing 
dangerous  injuries;  for  instance,  laceration  of  the  spinal  marrow,  &c. 
This  being  generally  known,  dividing  or  separating  poles  fastened  into 
the  stand-posts  are  rarely  found,  or  in  those  short  stands  only  where 
the  horses  are  prevented  by  the  post  from  rolling  themselves  into  the 
stand  adjoining. 

There  are  several  contrivances  for  hanging  the  poles,  the  simplest  of 
which  is  the  following.  A  groove  is  made  in  the  stand-post,  in  which 
groove  the  separating  pole  is  shoved  down  to  within  three  and  a  half 
or  four  feet  of  the  ground,  and  moved  upward  to  a  height  of  six  feet. 
To  prevent  the  pole  from  falling  out  after  it  has  been  raised  beyond  the 
length  of  the  groove,  a  rope  is  drawn  through  the  tenon  of  the  pole. 
This  rope  is  fastened  to  the  stand-post  at  both  the  upper  and  lower  end 
of  the  groove,  so  that  the  pole  is  held  by  the  rope  in  a  proper  position 
in  case  the  tenon  should  be  moved  beyond  the  groove. 

Another  and  well-known  arrangement  consists  in  the  long  iron  hook, 
turning  itself  by  means  of  an  enarthrosis  at  the  point  of  its  insertion 
into  the  stand-post.  This  movable  hook  is  held  in  an  upright  positiop 
by  a  ring  fastened  at  some  higher  point  of  the  post.     If  the  horse 


272  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

happens  to  lie  under  the  separating  pole,  the  ring,  by  being  shoved  up, 
detaches  itself  from  the  hook  so  as  to  hang  out  the  pole.  The  movable 
hook  is  principally  intended  for  hanging  the  pole  with  ease,  in  case 
the  horse  has  struck  across  the  pole  and  rides  on  it ;  in  this  case  the 
ring  is  shoved  off  the  hook,  and  the  latter  turned  downward,  letting 
the  pole  and  the  horse  down  to  the  floor.     (See  figure  1,  plate  2.) 

As  the  mere  poles  would  afford  but  insufficient  protection  from 
kicking,  walls  of  various  kinds  are  suspended  from  these  poles.  The 
simplest  and  cheapest  are  straw-mattings.  Long  rye-straw,  somewhat 
wet,  is  turned  round  the  pole,  and  the  lower  ends  twisted  by  means  of 
three  rows  of  packing-thread,  to  a  thickness  of  from  four  to  six  inches. 
These  partitions  have  the  advantage  of  not  causing  any  contusions,  but 
by  being  frequently  kicked  at  they  will  soon  be  torn  in  pieces,  so  that 
they  will  not  answer  for  unquiet  horses.  This  straw  wall  is  only 
fastened  to  the  hind  part  of  the  pole,  because  it  would  be  too  soon 
spoiled  by  gnawing  if  hung  up  at  the  forepart. 

More  durable  are  the  wooden  walls  suspended  from  the  poles,  con- 
sisting either  of  a  contiguous  board,  or  of  several  boards  joined.  They 
must  be  provided  with  ledges,  or  made  double,  else  they  will  burst 
after  the  first  kicks  from  a  powerful  horse.  They  are  suspended  from 
the  poles  by  means  of  leather  straps  or  ropes,  but  iron  bands  are 
decidedly  preferable  ;  the  nails,  however,  must  be  carefully  driven  in, 
and  their  condition  always  receive  attention. 

These  movable  partitions  afford  the  advantage  of  comfortably  lying 
down  ;  the  horses  may  turn  round  without  receiving  injury,  and,  when 
kicking,  the  effects  and  scratchings  will  be  less  violent ;  yet,  after 
several  years  observations  and  experience,  I  must  pronounce  against 
movable  partitions,  as  the  danger  of  horses  harming  each  other,  when 
engaged  in  violent  combats,  is  greater  than  in  stalls  with  immovable 
partitions,  beside  the  movability  is  frequently  the  principal  cause  for 
such  combats. 

Comparing  both  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  movable  with 
immovable  partitions,  the  latter  seem  to  deserve  the  preference. 
Though  generally  known  and  in  use,  they  are  rarely  so  arranged  as  to 
answer  the  purpose.  Most  of  the  fixed  partitions  are  too  low,  so  that 
the  horses  may  strike  beyond  them,  which  is  the  more  dangerous  as 
the  partitions  cannot  readily  be  removed.  The  wall  near  the  crib  is 
usually  from  four  to  five  feet  high ;  toward  the  end  from  three  to  four 
feet,  and  consequently  there  is  a  descent.  This  arrangement  is  explained 
by  the  fact  that  the  horses  present  a  more  stately  appearance  in  a  stall 
low  at  the  back  part ;  the  height  in  front  corresponds  with  that  of  the 
crib.  This  structure  is  certainly  irrational,  as  the  protection  and 
insurmountable  separation  in  the  rear  is  of  more  importance  than  near 
the  crib.  It  would  be  better  to  have  a  partition-wall  of  at  least  four 
feet,  and  of  equal  height  throughout  the  length  of  the  stall.  A 
grooved  sill  is  laid  on  the  ground,  with  its  tenons  immediately  inserted 
in  the  wall,  or  in  a  wooden  crib-post  in  front,  and  into  the  stand-post 
in  the  rear.  Above  there  is  a  strong  pole,  likewise  grooved,  inserted 
both  in  front  and  rear,  to  correspond  with  the  sill.  Then,  there  are 
boards  from  one  and  a  fourth  to  two  inches  in  thickness,  perpen- 
dicularly inserted  into  the  grooves  of  both  the  upper  pole  and  the 


ARRANGEMENT   OP   HORSE  STABLES.  273 

sill.  The  boards  should  be  rather  strongs  so  that  repairs,  which  other- 
wise would  frequently  become  necessary,  may  be  saved.  By  giving 
the  partition  an  uniform  height,  an  essential  advantage  is  gained  with 
regard  to  expense,  for  we  are  enabled  to  change  the  position  of  the 
boards,  and  such  of  them  as  may  have  been  split  by  kicking  can  be 
transferred  to  the  front.  Injured  boards  may  easily  be  replaced  by 
keeping  some  of  the  same  length  on  hand.  By  means  of  a  vv^edge  the 
grooved  pole  is  mortised  into  the  stand-post,  so  that  it  can  be  taken 
out  for  changing  the  boards.  To  insert  the  boards  lengthwise, 
running  parallel  with  the  grooved  pole,  as  is  done  sometimes,  is  not 
advantageous,  because  long  wood  is  more  liable  to  split,  and  is  usually 
exposed  to  the  full  force  of  both  feet^  besides,  repairs  are  more  expen- 
sive, as  the  boards  to  be  inserted  would  require  some  eight  or  ten  feet 
in  length. 

The  walls  of  the  stalls  are  sometimes  made  by  wainscoting  both 
sides  of  the  grooved  pole  down  to  the  sill,  so  as  to  join  the  side  of  the 
pole  to  the  board-wall ;  but  nailing  the  boards  is  always  more  danger- 
ous than  to  shove  them  in  the  grooves.  If  boards  are  used  for  this 
arrangement,  the  double-walls  will  become  too  expensive;  and  if  light 
planks  are  used,  they  will  soon  be  demolished ;  besides,  the  hollow 
space  between  the  two  wainscotings  will  serve  as  a  retreat  for  rats 
and  mice. 

Most  contentions  being  caused  by  envy  of  fodder  or  mutual  vexations 
of  the  animals,  care  is  usually  taken  to  keep  their  heads  also  separate. 
In  general  it  is  deemed  sufficient  to  prevent  the  horses  stretching  into 
the  adjoining  stands,  so  that  they  may  not  bite  each  other,  and  steal 
their  fodder ;  studs,  however,  of  an  especially  irritable  nature,  will, 
particularly  in  the  breeding  season,  by  the  mere  snuffling  of  a  neighbor, 
be  incited  to  the  most  violent  kicks.  The  top  partition  walls  opposite 
the  fore  part  of  the  horse  should  therefore  be  constructed  in  accordance 
with  the  necessary  requirements.  These  tops,  or  ''swan-necks,"  may 
be  either  solid,  or  of  slat-work,  the  latter  being  sufficient  in  most  cases, 
and  having  the  advantage  of  not  darkening  the  stands  too  much.  To 
answer  its  purpose,  a  "swan-neck  "  should  extend  one  third  the  length 
of  the  grooved  dividing  pole,  and  half  the  height  of  the  rack.  These 
portions  being  very  liable  to  be  gnawed  when  made  of  wood,  ought 
to  be  covered  with  iron.  As,  however,  slat-work  thus  protected 
is  expensive,  and  as  even  hard  wood  is  easily  destroyed  by  some 
horses,  tops  of  cast-iron,  without  ornament,  are  strongly  recommended. 
(Figure  2,  plate  2.) 

Figures  2  and  3  are  drawings  of  tops,  cast  at  the  Koyal  Foundry 
at  Wasseralfingen,  Wirtemberg.  Figure  2,  weighing  about  forty-two, 
and  figure  3,  thirty-eight  pounds,  and  costing  three-and-a-half  cents  a 
pound. 

The  slats  being  brittle  and  fragile,  horses  should  never  be  fastened 
to  them.  If  any  part  of  this  division  should  happen  to  break  it  should 
be  immediately  repaired,  as  the  sharp  corners  and  sides  left  by  the 
fracture  are  frequently  the  cause  of  dangerous  injuries.  "Swan- 
necks  ' '  may  be  fastened  by  inserting  them  in  a  groove  of  the  pole  and 
18 A 


274  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

in  tlie  wall  and  screwing  them,  so  that  in  case  of  repairs  becoming 
necessary,  tliey  can  easily  be  removed. 

If  tliere  are  two  posts  at  the  rear  of  the  stand,  they  should  be  con- 
structed with  regard  to  the  welfare  of  the  horse,  and  not  exclusively  to 
please  the  esthetic  taste  of  the  architect,  as  is  often  the  case  in  stables 
otherwise  arranged  with  the  greatest  luxury.  The  cast-iron  posts  are 
often  provided  with  octagonal  pedestals,  adorned  with  various  high 
reliefs,  against  which  unquiet  horses,  even  when  not  engaged  vfith 
their  neighbors,  will,  during  the  operation  of  cleansing,  strike  their 
feet  and  hurt  themselves.  These  posts  should  always  be  round 
throughout  their  entire  length,  or,  at  the  least,  the  corners  should  be 
rounded,  that  the  beauty  of  the  tail  may  not  suffer  by  being  frequently 
rubbed  against  them.  To  guard  against  such  rubbing,  either  a  piece 
of  sole  leather,  with  inverted  nails  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  or 
the  skin  of  a  hedge-hog,  should  be  appropriately  fastened  on  the  post; 
or  the  horse  may  be  kept  off  by  fixing  a  bar  at  each  of  the  grooved 
poles,  within  the  last  two-thirds,  the  bars  at  the  commencement  being 
firmly  fixed  to  the  poles,  while  in  the  rear  there  is  a  distance  of  half 
a  foot  between  the  post  and  the  bars  of  each  side,  the  two  bars  con- 
verging from  front  to  rear,  thus  narrowing  the  stand  somewhat  in  the 
rear,  without  being  an  obstacle  to  lying  down.  This  at  the  same  time 
renders  it  impossible  for  the  horse  to  touch  the  post. 

Again :  The  tail  of  the  horse  is  often  deformed,  in  consequence  of 
all  parts  of  the  stand  not  being  even  and  smooth.  In  trying  to  keep 
off  the  flies,  single  hairs  are  easily  caught  by  detached  woody  fibres, 
or  by  some  joint  of  a  chain^  and  so  torn  off.  The  posts  and  other  at- 
tachments may  therefore  be  covered  with  paper,  or  heavily  oiled,  thus 
preserving  the  tail  from  injury  when  it  is  frequently  swung  in  summer. 
Planed  columns  of  oak  wood  might  serve  the  same  purpose.  Soft 
wood  is  liable  to  splinter,  and  the  lower  parts  soon  became  rough  and 
deformed  by  being  kicked  against.  In  England  there  are  many 
stables  with  cast-iron  posts. 

"Where  valuable  horses  are  kept,  but  of  an  irritable  nature,  frequently 
kicking  when  being  cleaned,  the  walls  of  the  stands  and  posts  should 
be  provided  with  cushions  or  straw  mattings.  In  the  stall  itself  there 
should  be  no  projecting  nail,  nor  even  the  head  of  one.  All  arrange- 
ments requiring  many  nails,  for  instance,  tin  coverings,  should,  if 
possible,  be  avoided.  Whoever  may  be  unable  to  furnish  his  stable 
with  stone  and  iron,  should  try  to  protect  the  wood  from  being 
gnawed  by  painting  it  with  tar,  or  giving  it  a  coat  of  bitter  substances, 
such  as  the  decoction  of  wormwood,  nut-shells,  &c.  The  best  protec- 
tion consists  in  covering  walls  and  wood  with  cast-iron  or  delf-ware; 
this  mode,  however,  being  expensive,  tin  covering  is  frequently  re- 
sorted to.  Zinc  is  preferred  to  iron  i3late,  on  account  of  oxydizing  less 
rapidly.  It  seems  to  have  a  disagreeable  taste  for  the  tongue  of  the 
horse,  for  most  of  them  are  fond  of  licking  the  rusty  iron,  while  they 
will  rarely  touch  the  zinc.  An  additional  advantage  is,  it  is  capable 
of  a  closer  application  to  the  wood  than  iron,  which  is  always  molting 
and  drawing  the  nails  out  of  the  wood,  causing  their  heads  to  project  so 
as  to  frequently  injure  the  skins,  eyes,  &c.,  of  the  horses.  For  the 
same  reason,  straps  with  buckles  should  be  avoided  in  fastening  the 


ARRANGEMENT   OF   HORSE   STABLES.  275 

"kicking  boards"  to  the  dividing  pole,  and  every  hinge  about  tlie 
stand  should  be  well  rounded. 

By  extending  all  posts  to  the  ceiling,  the  floor  above  the  stable,  as 
well  as  the  building  generally,  will  receive  a  stronger  support.  Free 
standing  posts,  unconnected  with  the  ceiling  or  the  rafters,  are  defi- 
cient in  firmness,  even  if  they  are  inserted  in  the  ground  to  a  great  depth; 
by  being  kicked  and  pressed  against,  they  soon  become  loose.  There 
is  still  more  danger  in  having  very  low  posts,  over  which  the  horse 
when  kicking  may  even  jump.  The  lowest  admissible  are  five  feet, 
being  at  the  same  time  adequate  to  all  partition  stand-walls,  though  a 
too  low  division  is  far  less  objectionable  than  a  post  too  low,  which,  in 
case  a  horse  should  happen  to  hang  upon  it,  will  cause  contusions  dan- 
gerous to  the  life  of  the  animal,  A  foundation  of  stone  for  the  posts 
would  protect  them  from  decay. 

Doors. — The  number  of  doors  should  correspond  to  th-e  si^e  of  the 
stable.  Though  it  is  not  necessary  to  pay  the  same  scrupulous  regard 
to  the  danger  of  fire  in  horse  stables  as  must  be  done  in  those  for 
cattle  and  sheep,  as  these  animals  can  only  with  the  greatest  trouble 
be  driven  out  from  a  building  on  fire,  yet  it  is  always  advantageous  to 
give  a  stable  several  chances  of  egress ;  it  will  not  be  required  that  all 
should  be  opened  and  used  for  everyday  purposes. 

The  door  most  in  use  should  be  on  the  side  toward  the  sun,  so  as  to 
prevent,  on  its  being  opened,  much  cold  air  from  rushing  in,  and  that 
the  horses,  on  going  out,  shall  not  be  made  to  feel  uncomfortable  by 
the  change  of  temperature. 

If  two  doors  are  needed  in  a  stable^  they  should  be  opposite  each 
other,  as  the  circulation  of  fresh  air  is  thereby  favored,  without  a  draft 
touching  the  animals,  the  space  between  both  doors  usually  forming 
the  passage.  It  is  best  to  place  the  doors  at  the  narrow  gable-end, 
because  this  would  facilitate  the  superintendence  of  the  whole  stable. 
At  the  same  time,  there  is  not  so  much  pressing  of  the  animals  in 
going  out  as  there  would  be  at  a  door  in  the  middle  of  the  building. 

The  door  should  be  ten  feet  high,  if  possible,  so  as  to  allow  a  horse- 
man to  ride  without  injury  into  the  stable,  and  the  width  at  least  six 
feet,  so  that  two  horses  may  pass  at  once,  and  that  harness  and  saddle 
shall  not  be  damaged. 

The  height  referred  to  is  also  favorable  to  the  circulation  of  air 
above.  It  is  altogether  objectionable  to  provide  the  doors  with  promi- 
nent sills,  as  these  give  frequent  occasion  for  stumbling,  disloca- 
tions, &c. 

The  door-posts  should  be  round,  or,  at  least,  their  edges.  Stables 
for  colts,  which  are  in  the  habit  of  pressing  with  haste  and  force 
through  the  doors,  should  always  be  provided  with  movable  cylinders, 
fixed  outside  or  inside  of  the  edges,  or,  still  better,  to  the  inner  side 
of  the  door-posts.  This  method  will  prevent  injury  to  the  hips,  when 
the  colts  are  driven  in  or  out.  To  be  really  serviceable,  cylinders 
should  be  at  least  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  six  feet  in  height.  The 
precaution  contemplated  is  often  lost,  on  account  of  the  axle  getting 
rusty,  thus  preventing  the  movement.  This  obstacle  must  be  avoided 
by  affording  ample  room  to  the  axle  and  the  ring,  and  by  frequent 
greasing. 


2t6  AGRICULTURAL   REPOR*. 

The  door  should  be  provided  with  two  wings,,  for  a  single  door  of 
the  requisite  width  would  he  too  heavy,  and,  being  often  opened  for  ,, 
the  passage  of  men,  would  not  allow  the  stable  to  retain  sufficient 
warmth  during  winter.  If  both  wings  were  from  five  to  six  feet  wide, 
one  of  two  feet  and  a  half  or  three  feet  would  afford  space  for  a  con- 
venient passage.  Doors  from  eight  to  nine  feet  in  height  and  four  in 
width  may  answer  for  small  stables. 

A  chain  secured  across  the  door- way  at  the  height  of  four  feet  would 
keep  those  horses  which  may  have  become  unfastened  from  going  out, 
if  the  doors  were  opened  in  summer  for  the  purpose  of  ventilation.  If 
intended  to  keep  them  open  during  warm  nights,  the  chain  must  be 
capable  of  being  locked^  so  as  to  guard  against  thieves.  Half-doors, 
or  those  divided  in  the  middle  of  their  height,  Vv^ould  answer  the  same 
purpose.  Doors  and  wings  should  always  open  outward,  as  most 
horses,  and  particularly  colts,  would  press  in  that  direction.  There 
should  be  no  self-closing  doors;  for  if  they  are  not  made  to  stand  im- 
movable on  their  hinges,  they  v/ill  produce  frequent  injuries  to  animals 
and  harness,  on  their  passage.  A  practical  arrangement  for  retaining 
the  v/armth  of  the  stable  consists  in  putting  up  inner  doors,  or  lining 
the  outer  ones  with  leather,  bands  of  twisted  straw,  or  cotton,  or 
boards  of  cork. 

Preferable,  however,  and  in  addition  to  the  common  door,  would  be 
a  closed  space  in  front,  serving  at  the  same  time  as  a  room  for  harness, 
saddles,  &c.,  and  for  cleansing  purposes.  This  space  may  be  either 
under  the  same  roof  with  the  stable,  or  otherwise. 

A  great  advantage  would  thus  be  gained  in  not  permitting  the 
external  cold  to  touch  the  horses  immediately  on  the  door  proper 
being  opened. 

Special  regard  should  be  paid  to  the  manner  of  locking  both  the 
outer  doors  and  those  of  the  various  divisions  of  the  stable.  All  pro- 
jections, such  as  long  latches,  hooks,  knobs,  &c.,  are  traps  for  harness 
and  other  articles,  and  should  be  avoided.  The  lock  itself  should  be 
sunk  in  the  wood-work.  Whenever  the  doors  are  locked  from  the 
outside,  an  ordinary  bolt  is  usually  sufficient;  but,  to  prevent  the 
consequences  of  insecurity,  the  bolts  within  should  be  so  constructed 
as  to  close  themselves;  which  may  be  readily  accomplished  by  making 
them  of  heavy  iron,  and,  instead  of  a  horizontal,  giving  an  oblique 
position,  when  their  own  weight  will  fasten  them.  A  bolt  in  reach 
of  the  horses  must  be  provided  with  a  stay-spring. 

The  space  in  front  of  the  stable-door  should  always  be  level,  without 
holes  or  obstructions,  because  most  horses,  in  the  act  of  going  out,  are 
awkward,  stumbling,  or  wild,  and  therefore  apt  to  make  a  misstep 
and  fall.  In  the  same  place,  and  perhaps  on  the  building  itself,  rings 
should  be  fastened  for  tying  the  horses,  to  cleanse  them  in  the  open 
air^  when  the  vi^eather  is  fine. 

Stable-windows. — Light,  one  of  the  most  essential  incentives  of  life, 
promotes  especially  those  animal  operations,  sensation  and  movement ; 
while  its  absence  favors  the  vegetative  part,  nourishment  and  the  in- 
crease of  fat.  Light  stables  render  their  inmates  always  lively,  and 
capable  of  easily  receiving  impressions ;  while  dark  ones  deaden  the 
nerves  and   produce  laziness  and  unwieldy  increase  of  fat.      Aside 


ARRANGEMENT   OP   HORSE    STABLES.  277 

from  these  effects  on  tlie  general  organism,  a  glaring  light  irritates  the 
eye,  which  becomes  diseased  if  long  subjected  to  its  influence.  The 
continued  absence  of  light_,  or  too  much  darkness,  will  deaden  the 
optic  nerve  and  make  it  insusceptible.  Finally,  it  has  been  proved 
by  experience  that  a  sudden  transition  from  inactivity  to  great  activity 
can  rarely  be  sustained  without  injury  to  the  organ. 

These  few  principles  must  regulate  the  construction  of  stables,  and 
especially  the  arrangement  of  their  windows. 

Kequiring  of  horses  particularly  the  development  of  the  animal  part, 
or  power  of  rapid  movement,  we  find  the  production  of  fat  unfavorable, 
and  even  directly  opposed  to  it,  and  therefore  must  provide  much  light 
in  stables.  The  eye  being  so  imj)ortant  in  the  service  required,  we 
must  maintain  the  health  and  activity  of  the  horse  by  modifying  the 
impressions  of  light.  In  this  respect  a  stable  should  be  as  well  sup- 
plied as  the  dwelling  of  man,  thus  favoring  general  order  and  facili- 
tating cleansing  and  control.  As  horses  are  for  the  most  part  fastened 
to  their  stands,  and  sometimes  unable  to  avoid  the  effects  of  the  sun- 
light on  the  visual  organ,  the  windows  must  be  so  arranged  as  not  to 
incommode  the  animals. 

The  windows  not  only  serve  to  convey  light,  but  also  air  into  the 
stable.  It  is,  however,  known  that  currents  of  air  may,  under  certain 
circumstances,  have  an  injurious  effect  on  health.  In  accordance  with 
this  the  following  rules  may  be  laid  down  with  regard  to  the  arrange- 
ment of  windows.  These  should  not  be  in  front,  but  in  the  rear  of 
the  animals ;  if  there  is  but  one  row  of  stands  in  the  stable,  this  rule 
is  usually  observed.  If  it  should,  however,  be  necessary  to  put  up  a 
window  in  front  of  the  horses,  it  should  be  placed  at  such  a  height  as 
to  alloT\r  the  rays  of  light  and  the  currents  of  air  to  pass  above  their 
heads.  When  the  building  does  not  admit  of  giving  the  windows  the 
position  referred  to,  the  panes  next  to  the  eye  of  the  horse  should  be 
ground  glass,  or  common  glass  may  be  thus  prepared  by  simply  rub- 
bing it  with  emory  or  fine  sand,  or  painting  it  with  lime.  Panes  of 
a  blue  tint  would  be  still  better,  modifying  to  a  great  extent  the  effects 
of  the  rays  of  light  on  the  eye. 

Eeflections  from  a  bright  surface  being  almost  as  irritating  as  the 
direct  sun-beams,  the  walls  of  the  stable  should  not  be  white^  but  a 
pleasant  color  should  be  produced,  by  the  addition  of  either  yellow  or 
green  ochre  or  pine  soot.  This  should  be  done  especially  with  walls 
fronting  the  heads  of  the  horses. 

For  new  stables  a  skylight  is  recommended,  as  it  also  favors  the 
circulation  of  air.  Side  windows  may  then  be  omitted,  or  constructed 
on  a  very  small  scale.  If  it  is  intended  to  procure  sufficient  light  from 
the  sides,  the  stables  will  either  become  too  high  or  the  windows  will 
carry  the  light  directly  to  the  eyes.  Stables,  therefore,  amply  lighted 
from  the  sides,  and  yet  not  injurious,  are  rarely  found. 

In  case  the  windows  are  so  low  as  to  be  reached  by  the  head  of  the 
horse  the  panes  must  be  secured  by  wire-work,  or  a  similar  contrivance, 
against  being  broken. 

The  material  for  window  frames  deserves  special  attention,  as  no 
part  of  the  stable  is  so  much  exposed  to  moisture,  and,  therefore,  to 
decay.     At  these  places  the  cold  and  warm  layers  of  air  meet  together, 


278  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

producing  drops  of  water.  This  dampness  not  onlj'-  destroys  the  wood, 
but  changes  its  form,  causing  either,  directly,  the  glass  to  spring,  or, 
indirectly,  the  breaking  of  the  panes  in  opening  or  shutting,  on 
account  of  the  sash  being  too  tight. 

Material  not  so  liable  to  injury  from  dampness  should  therefore  be 
chosen  for  window  frames.  Oak  wood  is  for  the  most  part  employed; 
wood  of  the  red  fir  is  almost  as  good,  though  it  is  more  apt  to  swell 
than  the  oak,  yet  it  will  longer  resist  moisture.  It  would  be  worth 
while  to  paint  the  wood  about  the  windows  with  oil  color,  to  diminish 
the  evils  referred  to.  Cast-iron  frames  are  decidedly  preferable  to 
wooden  ones,  as  the  expense  for  repairs  would  be  greatly  lessened. 
Tar  putty  is  coming  into  general  use  for  securing  the  panes.  To 
facilitate  the  replacing  of  the  windows,  after  cleaning  them,  it  would 
be  advisable  to  make  the  hinges  of  unequal  length.  The  same 
should  be  observed  with  doors.  In  stables,  where  there  are  sensitive 
and  irritable  horses,  fly-windows  (being  the  first  of  double  windows, 
and  covered  with  a  texture  of  fine  wire)  and  curtains  should  be  applied, 
so  as  to  modify  the  light.  To  prevent  the  windows  from  freezing  up 
salt  should  be  applied  to  the  frames,  as  salt  water  will  only  freeze  at 
a  very  low  temperature,  which  is  rarely  the  case  in  stables. 

Drains. — Drains  for  the  urine  of  horses  and  other  liquids  occasion- 
ally discharged  are  made  in  all  stables;  for,  if  the  removal  of  these  liquids 
were  left  to  natural  evaporation,  the  atmosphere  would  always  be  sur- 
charged with  humidity,  injurious  to  health  ;  it  would  under  certain 
circumstances  become  too  cool;  and  decomposition,  with  its  conse- 
quences, bad  odor,  and  gaseous  air,  dangerous  to  lungs  and  eyes^ 
would  be  produced,  if  those  liquids  were  allowed  to  remain  for  some 
time  in  the  stable. 

Though,  in  stables  which  are  kept  clean  and  always  provided  with 
litter,  no  urine  is  seen  flowing  off  for  months  through  the  existing 
drains,  yet  drains  should  not  be  omitted,  as  they  may  be  needed  for 
certain  emergencies,  as  in  a  new  method  of  feeding,  for  instance,  large 
quantities  of  green  fodder. 

There  are  usually  open  gutters  made  of  paving-stones ;  they  should 
not  be  so  near  to  the  stand  as  to  catch  the  hind-hoofs  of  the  horse,  in 
case  he  should  back  off  from  the  crib,  and  should  be  flat,  so  as  not  to 
cause  the  animal  to  make  missteps  in  going  or  returning.  Where  there 
are  hollovv^  stand-floors  the  principal  gutters  in  the  rear  of  the  stands 
should  be  sunken,  and  therefore  covered.  In  such  cases  they  are,  for  the 
most  part,  made  of  stones,  cut  in  the  shape  of  gutters,  with  a  groove 
above  to  receive  the  covering  board.  These  gutter-covers  are  generally 
provided  with  holes  so  as  to  alloAv  the  liquids  to  escape,  and  are  some- 
times made  of  cast-iron,  rough  on  the  top. 

Open  drains  are  usually  preferable,  because  they  admit  of  being- 
easier  and  oftener  cleansed.  They  are  recommended  for  all  stables 
where  the  stands  are  paved,  and  require  no  j)articular  expense,  as  they 
can  be  made  in  the  first  arrangement  of  the  pavement.  If  the  gutters 
are  covered,  they  must  have  considerable  descent,  so  as  to  cause  the 
liquid  to  fiow  ofi"  of  its  own  accord.  If  open  the  descent  cannot  be 
so  great,  because  the  gutter  would  become  too  deep  in  the  rear  of  the 
last  stands  of  the  row.  The  operation  of  but  a  slight  descent  in  open 
gutters  could  be  easily  assisted  by  the  application  of  a  broom. 


I 


ARRANGEMENT   OP   HORSE   STABLES.  279 

The  gutters  should  discharge  their  contents  beyond  the  stable  into  the 
dung  place  or  into  a  special  basin  of  dung  water ,  not  situated  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity,  but  a  few  rods  distant.  The  neighborhood  of  the  dung 
place  increases  the  bad  odor  and  insects,  especially  flies.  Where  the  gutter 
penetrates  the  wall  of  a  stable,  the  opening  is  frequently  too  large,  always 
admitting  a  draft  on  the  animals  standing  near.  Its  size  need  not  be 
more  than  that  of  the  gutter  itself.  To  exclude  rats  and  mice,  an  iron 
grate  is  usually  applied.  It  would  be  cheaper,  however,  to  widen  the 
sole  of  the  gutter  one  foot,  and  deepen  it  five  inches,  either  inside  or 
outside  of  the  wall,  and  insert  a  small  plank,  so  as  to  bring  its  lower 
edge  about  one  inch  below  the  level  of  the  sole  of  the  rest  of  the  gutter. 
The  space  immediately  under  the  edge  of  the  little  board  will  be  con- 
stantly filled  with  liquid,  preventing  vermin  from  entering,  and  still 
allowing  the  water  to  run  off;  this  arrangement  will  also  shield  from 
drafts.  Instead  of  this  regulator,  an  iron  grate  may  be  used,  extending 
to  the  bottom  of  the  deepening,  so  that  their  passage  would  still  be  pre- 
vented, in  case  of  a  deficiency  of  water  in  the  sink.  The  water  will 
thus  never  be  checked,  as  the  mud  frequently  collecting  will  settle 
below,  the  grate  being  always  kept  open  above.  Grates  applied  at  the 
end  of  a  gutter  of  equal  level  are  liable  to  obstruction. 

Ventilation. — Without  air  there  is  no  life,  or,  more  properly  speaking, 
no  health  without  pure  air.  I  will  not  now  attempt  to  discuss  the 
constituent  parts  of  atmospheric  air,  presuming  them  to  be  generally 
known.  Its  consumption,  however,  by  a  horse  is  less  known.  The 
lungs  of  a  middle-sized  horse  draw,  at  one  inhalation,  some  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  cubic  inches.  In  a  normal  process  of  breathing  he  will 
consume  seventy-two  thousand  cubic  inches  per  hour,  and  one  thousand 
seven  hundred  and  twenty-eight  cubic  feet  per  day. 

The  principal  object  of  the  consumption  of  this  air  is,  by  means  of 
its  oxygen,  to  bring  the  carbon  of  the  blood  into  combustion,  thus 
maintaining  the  necessary  heat.  The  animal  receives  this  carbon 
through  its  food.  It  may  be  assumed  that  a  horse  acquires  about  nine 
pounds  of  carbon  per  day,  which  is  brought  into  combustion  by  respi- 
ration. This  operation  requires  about  two  hundred  and  eighty-eight 
cubic  feet  of  oxygen,  forming  but  the  fifth  part  of  the  atmospheric  air, 
so  that  one  thousand  four  hundred  and  forty  cubic  feet  of  atmospheric 
air  are  requisite  for  the  process  of  combustion  going  on  within  the 
body.  The  product  of  this  is  carbonic  acid,  which,  as  is  well  known, 
is  an  irrespirable  gas,  producing  by  itself  sudden  death,  and  making 
the  air,  even  when  mixed  in  a  small  proportion,  say  from  six  to  eight 
per  cent.,  altogether  unfit  for  respiration  by  animals. 

Accordingly,  a  horse,  kept  in  a  space  fifteen  feet  long,  ten  high,  and 
twelve  wide,  the  usual  dimensions  of  a  stable  for  two  horses,  would 
perish  within  a  few  hours ,  if  the  space  were  hermetically  closed .  Fortu- 
nately, there  are  no  buildings  thus  sealed.  If,  through  the  process  of 
respiration,  by  which  carbonic  acid  and  watery  vapor  are  produced  a 
surplus  of  carbonic  acid  beyond  the  normal  proportion  (1.2500)  should 
be  created,  Nature  herself,  by  her  own  accord,  provides  a  proportion  of 
mixture  still  suitable  for  the  use  of  the  animals,  by  making  the  various 
gases  continually  penetrate  each  other.  Thus,  an  equalization  of  all 
the  different  atmospheric  strata  is  effected,  which  is  further  favored  and 


280  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

accelerated  "by  the  motion  of  air,  drafts,  &c.  This  natural  tendency  of 
the  various  kinds  and  strata  of  air  to  mix  with  each  other,  has  a 
more  powerful  effect  than  all  ventilators,  fans,  or  hellows. 

The  more  inert  watery  vapors,  and  some  kinds  of  gas  originating 
from  the  decomposition  of  the  excrements,  are  more  liable  to  become 
stagnant,  and  will,  even  if  they  do  not  directly  menace  the  life  of  the 
animal,  still  be  productive  of  disturbances  in  some  organic  functions, 
and  thus  be  detrimental  to  health. 

The  products  of  this  decomposition,  for  instance,  carbonate  of  ammonia 
and  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  will  particularly  show  their  effects  where 
manure  is  purposely  suffered  to  remain  for  weeks^  especially  in  winter, 
in  order  to  use  the  heat,  generated  by  the  decomposition,  for  warming 
stables,  and  to  prevent  cold  air  from  rushing  in  on  the  removal  of  the 
manure.  But  these  kinds  of  gases,  far  from  sustaining  the  jDrocess  of 
respiration,  will,  by  their  caustic  properties,  affect  the  animals,  irri- 
tating the  pituitary  membranes,  nose  and  eyes.  If  from  the  equaliza- 
tion referred  to  above,  special  contrivances  for  the  circulation  and 
purification  of  air  should  not  be  ranked  among  the  indispensable  wants 
of  a  stable,  yet  they  would  favor  the  preservation  of  health,  the  com- 
forts and  development  of  power  of  the  occupants. 

There  has  long  been  a  desire,  therefore,  and  several  efforts  have  been 
made,  to  provide  stables  with  effective  ventilation.  Most  of  these 
methods  evince,  at  least,  good  intention,  but  too  openly  betray  a  want 
of  knowledge  of  the  respective  laws  of  Nature,  I  will  now  briefly 
notice  some  of  the  most  familiar  methods  of  ventilation. 

Thus,  openings  made  in  the  floor,  if  corresponding  openings  be  not 
made  above,  or  at  the  opposite  wall,  will  have  no  effect,  or  if  any,  the 
di-aft  will  generally  injure  the  animals. 

Drafts  immediately  l3elow  the  ceiling  are  not  altogether  objectionable, 
as  they  allovv^  the  air  to  pass  out  from  the  upper  strata ;  if  they  are  not 
too  wide,  the  atmosphere  carried  out  will  not  be  supplied  through  the 
same  opening,  so  that  no  cold  current  will  descend  upon  the  animals 
standing  near,  the  air  being  supplied  through  the  numerous  cracks  and 
pores  of  the  ]3uilding,  thus  not  causing  too  great  a  draft.  If  the 
openings  are  somewhat  wide,  they  should  not  be  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  horses.  A  simple  opening  like  this  will,  however,  then  cause 
only  a  brisk  circulation  of  air,  if  the  difference  between  the  heat  of 
the  stable  and  that  outside  is  a  very  considerable  one ;  if  the  tempera- 
ture both  out  and  in  is  equal,  an  imperfect  purification  of  air  will  be 
produced.  In  these  cases  the  restoration  of  air,  could,  without  injury 
to  the  animals,  be  easily  effected,  by  occasionally  opening  windows  and 
doors. 

Coleman's  method  of  ventilation,  so  much  spoken  of  in  England, 
consists  in  the  tray-shaped  standfloor,  having  a  grated  hole  cariying 
out  the  urine  by  a  gutter  beneath.  In  front  and  above  the  head  of  the 
horse  is  a  draft  channel,  leading  upward,  so  that,  by  the  cooperation 
of  the  gutter  and  chimney  channel,  a  change  of  air  is  continually 
maintained,  conveying  the  vapor  through  the  chimney.  This  arrange- 
ment has  only  come  into  limited  use,  because  the  constant  draft  against 
the  belly  of  the  horse  frequently  produced  colics  and  colds.  Similar 
to  this  case  seems  to  be  the  y^ntilatipjj  recommended  by  Henry  Stephens, 


ARRANGEMENT    OF    HORSE    STABLES.  281 

m  his  book  on  rural  and  domestic  economy.  According  to  his  method, 
there  should  be  an  opening  in  the  front  wall  of  every  stand,  above  the 
head  of  the  horse,  so  as  to  admit  the  necessary  quantity  of  air  directly 
to  the  nose  of  the  horse.  He  says  this  method  requiries  several  open- 
ings, which  need  not  be  large.  These  should  be  covered  with  perforated 
zinc,  and,  if  the  current  of  air  should  be  even  then  too  strong,  it  is 
advisable  to  interrupt  it  by  a  board,  so  fastened  to  the  wall  as  first  to 
drive  the  air  upward  before  descending  on  the  animals.  Drafts  at 
other  places  of  the  stable  are  deenved  impracticable  by  Stephens, 
because  the  air  thus  admitted  would,  before  reaching  the  nose,  neces- 
sarily pass  over  the  body  of  the  horse,  or  fall  upon  his  limbs. 

It  seems  that  the  object  contemplated  could  not  be  accomplished  by 
this  method,  for  the  narrow  and  high  openings  will  carry  out  the 
upper  strata  of  heated  air  without  admitting  fresh  air;  if  the  latter 
should  ever  happen,  such  a  current  of  fresh^  and,  under  certain  circum- 
stances, of  very  cold  air,  rushing  directly  upon  the  head  and  forepart 
of  the  horse,  could  have  but  an  injurious  effect.  A  change  of  air 
should  always  be  procured  in  those  regions  of  a  stable  where  the  horses 
do  not  come  into  immediate  contact,  but  where  they  do,  equalization 
of  temperature,  and  the  mixture  of  air  may  be  confidently  left  to 
Nature. 

Those  methods  of  ventilation  are  invariably  best,  which  can  always, 
and  even  when  the  horses  are  in  the  stable,  be  kept  in  operation  with- 
out injury  to  the  animals.  Such  are  the  air  chimneys  built  joerpen- 
dicularly  into  the  ceiling,  just  above  the  passage-way,  terminating 
above  the  roof. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  heated  strata  of  air,  being  specifically 
lighter,  have  always  an  upward  tendency,  assuming,  in  case  they  are 
not  cooled  off,  a  certain  flight  or  draft,  which  is  brisker  in  proportion 
to  the  height  of  the  heated  column  of  air  thus  put  in  motion.  Simple 
openings  above  (without  chimneys)  will  therefore  bring  about  only 
imperfect  motion  and  purification.  The  air  which  slowly  moves  up 
through  the  openings  is  cooled  too  rapidly  by  the  temperature  out- 
side, so  that  it  is  soon  interrupted  in  its  ascent,  permitting  the  cold 
air  to  rush  in  through  the  same  passage.  Those  parts  of  air  at  a 
greater  distance  from  the  openings  adhere,  as  it  were,  to  the  ceiling, 
become  stagnant,  and  are  not  renovated.  Quite  different  is  the  effect 
of  the  vapor  chimneys  referred  to,  setting  at  first  the  upper  layers  of 
air,  and  consequently  all  the  rest  in  motion,  because  the  draft  gener- 
ated by  the  long  tube  is  just  as  strong  as  that  produced  by  high  chim- 
neys. Vapor  chimneys  are  sometimes  used,  but  in  their  arrangement 
frequent  mistakes  are  committed ;  in  most  cases  they  are  too  wide,  if 
four  boards  are  joined  to  form,  a  conduit,  as  is  commonly  done,  the 
current,  on  account  of  the  width,  being  about  one  square  foot,  becomes 
too  slow,  for  the  ascending  air  is  cooled  before  reaching  the  upper 
end  of  the  channel ;  the  watery  vapors  contained  in  the  column  will 
therefore  concentrate  and  descend  as  rain  into  the  stable.  Therefore 
it  becomes  necessary  to  suspend  a  basin  from  the  ceiling  to  catch  the 
dropping  water,  which  is  apt  to  overflow  upon  the  floor  and  on  the 
animals. 

But  if  the  conduit  is  made  narrower,  perhaps  half  the  width  of  the 


282  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

boards  and  about  one  fourtli  of  a  square  foot,  the  inclosed  column  of 
warm  air  v/ill  rise  upward  with  more  energy,  forcing  up  the  condensed 
watery  vapors,  which  are  in  the  act  of  falling  back  and  preventing  at 
the  same  time  a  current  of  cold  air  from  rushing  in  through  the  same 
way.  With  regard  to  these  ventilators,  an  essential  advantage,  usually 
lost  sight  of,  may  be  gained  to  increase  their  effect  by  surrounding 
the  conduit  throughout  its  whole  length  with  non-conductors  of  heat, 
so  that  the  warm  air  in  its  rising  shall  not  be  cooled  too  rapidly. 
The  advantages  of  such  an  arrangement  are  shown  by  the  fact  that 
air  channels  leading  through  full  haylofts  and  out  at  the  roof  do 
not  produce  any  dropping,  not  even  in  seasons  of  great  cold.  If  by 
the  consumption  of  the  hay,  which  preserves  the  heat,  the  conduit  is 
cooled,  dropping  will  commence  at  the  lower  termination ;  therefore, 
if  it  leads  through  an  empty  space,  it  should  be  surrounded  by  straw, 
or  be  made  of  double  boards,  and  further  protected  against  humidity 
by-  painting  the  inside  with  tar.  The  terminus  is  protected  from  rain, 
snow,  &c.,  by  the  application  of  a  little  roof,  either  of  wood  or  sheet- 
iron,  or  by  blinds.  At  the  point  where  the  conduit  passes  the  ceiling, 
a  valve  or  turning-dish  should  be  placed  so  as  to  close  the  channel  at 
will  and  regulate  the  current. 

To  promote  ventilation  in  a  still  more  rational  way,  openings  which 
can  be  closed  should,  in  my  opinion,  be  made  on  the  floor,  at  places 
where  no  animals  stand,  in  order  to  supply  fresh  air  in  lieu  of  the 
warm  air  carried  off;  yet  the  doors  and  the  cracks  in  the  building  will 
frequently  do  this,  even  in  a  greater  degree  than  may  be  required. 

At  the  outer  terminus  of  the  channels  there  is  always  a  jorecipitation 
of  humidity,  tending  to  destroy  the  wall  and  the  adjoining  wood. 
Therefore,  to  lead  away  the  discharged  air  to  some  distance  from  the 
building,  by  means  of  boards  or  projecting  conductors,  would  be  ad- 
visable. This  is  especially  important  if  the  openings  are  just  below 
the  roof,  the  wood-work  of  which  is  liable  to  destruction  by  the  action 
of  the  vapors. 

Cribs. — These  serve  the  purpose  of  laying  short  fodder  before  the 
horses  ;  for  instance,  oats,  groats,  beans,  and  choiDpings.  Sometimes, 
also,  they  are  used  for  receiving  the  drinking  water.  The  height  of 
the  cribs,  in  most  stables,  is  from  three  and  a  half  to  four  feet  from  the 
floor,  but  it  is  more  reasonable  to  adapt  the  height  to  the  size  of  the 
horse,  and  most  suitable  to  let  the  edge  of  the  crib  correspond  in  its 
height  with  the  elbow  of  the  horse.  A  lower  position,  it  is  true, 
would  be  more  natural  to  the  animals  in  feeding,  but  they  would  too 
frequently  jump  with  their  fore  feet  into  the  cribs,  thus  injuring  the 
latter  and  themselves.  Too  high  a  position  of  the  edge  of  the  crib,  on 
the  contrary,  would  be  inconvenient  for  taking  food,  and  often  cause 
the  fodder  to  be  spread  about,  as  the  horses,  in  order  to  avoid  the 
upward  stretching  of  their  necks,  turn  themselves,  with  their  mouths 
filled,  from  the  crib,  thus  dropping  the  fodder  in  the  act  of  chewing. 
A  height  of  the  crib  equal  with  the  withers,  as  it  is  frequently  found 
in  stables  where  small  sized  horses  are  kept,  favors,  and  even  incites 
to  crihhing. 

The  width  of  the  crib  should  be  such  as  to  allow  even  the  largest 
horse  to  use  his  jaws  with  ease  to  the  greatest  extent ;  it  should  there- 


ARRANGEMENT   OP   HORSE   STABLES.  283 

fore  be  from  ten  to  twelve  inclies.  The  length  need  not  be  more, 
strictly  speaking,  than  the  dimensions  just  referred  to,  thus  giving  a 
circular  form  ;  but  cribs  are  generally  made  longer  than  would  seem 
necessary,  because  horses  frequently  stop  eating  and  turn  their  heads 
aside,  thereby  losing  fodder,  if  the  vessel  is  so  short  as  not  to  receive 
the  droppings  ;  it  should  also  be  a  recipient  of  the  fodder  falling  from 
the  rack.  In  this  respect,  cribs  occupying  the  whole  width  of  the 
stand  are  very  suitable. 

They  are  made  either  in  the  shape  of  gutters  or  of  troughs.  Their 
form  should  be  such  as  always  to  collect  the  fodder  again  by  itself  in 
the  middle,  and  confine  it  when  stirred ;  there  should  not  be  any  sharp 
angles,  edges,  or  corners  in  and  about  the  crib,  because  the  fodder 
could  not  be  reached  everywhere  with  ease,  and  the  horses  are  liable 
to  hurt  themselves  by  knocking,  thus  causing  bony  excrescences,  espe- 
cially on  the  lower  jaw  ;  finally,  the  front  exterior  of  the  crib  should 
always  be  well  rounded,  downward,  so  as  to  render  the  horses  unable 
to  remove  the  halter  by  means  of  the  sharp  edges. 

Figure  4,  plate  2  represents  one  of  the  most  suitable  cribs,  having 
the  advantage  of  the  edge  bent  back  and  inward,  preventing  the  throw- 
ing out  of  the  fodder,  being  easier  done  in  other  cribs  made  either  in 
the  shape  of  gutters  or  troughs.  This  crib  is  made  of  cast-iron, 
in  Wasseralfingen,  usually  weighs  seventy-five  pounds,  and  costs 
about  three  and  a  half  cents  a  pound.  The  only  objection  is,  that  the 
angle  formed  by  its  perpendicular  back  wall  and  the  rounded  bottom 
is  too  acute,  so  that  the  horses  can  only  procure  the  last  particles  of 
food  by  the  exertion  of  licking  them.  In  English  stables,  a  sjDecial 
drinking  trough  is  usually  joined  to  the  crib  and  rack. 

With  regard  to  cleaning,  cribs  made  of  cast-iron,  stone,  or  delf-ware, 
and  put  into  a  frame,  like  a  kettle  into  an  iron  hearth-plate,  are  very 
convenient. 

The  material  used  for  cribs  is  wood,  stone,  or  iron.  Wood  should 
be  decidedly  rejected,  as  it  causes  a  great  many  injuries.  Horses  are 
tempted,  by  its  use,  to  crib;  it  requires  many  repairs,  and  gases  of 
bad  odor  and  contagious  substances  will  strongly  adhere  to  it.  The 
use  of  oak  wood  renders  the  expense  not  much  less  than  that  of  stone, 
especially  if  it  is  considered  that  they  require  nails  and  sheet-iron  cov- 
erings, making  them  even  dangerous  for  the  eyes  of  the  horse. 

Cribs  running  through  several  stalls,  and  made  of  one  trunk,  are 
expensive  and  Avasteful  of  wood  ;  the  heart  of  the  wood  is  cut  out,  while 
the  external  and  soft  wood  remains ;  repairs  are  difiicult ;  and  if  the 
crib  is  of  boards  joined,  angles  and  joints  are  produced,  in  many  cases 
giving  the  first  inducement  to  cribbing.  All  cribs,  however,  running 
through,  should  be  provided  with  partitions  for  each  horse,  otherwise 
the  envy  of  fodder  will  often  excite  quarrels. 

Stone,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  can  be  best  recommended  as  best 
for  cribs.  The  only  objection  is  that  most  kinds  of  stone  are  liable  to  a 
considerable  extent  to  wear  out  all  objects  brought  frequently  in  con- 
nection with  them,  for  instance,  the  halter-chains,  teeth,  &c.,  besides, 
they  are  not  cheap. 

The  long  stone  troughs  are  usually  wainscoted  at  their  lower  edge 
down  to  the  floor,  partly  to  prevent  injuries  to  the  head  and  fore-feet 


284  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

from  the  lower  part  of  the  trough,  partly  to  gain  a  space  for  storing 
away  litter,  in  which  latter  case  the  wainscoting  should  he  provided 
with  drop-doors  capable  of  being  locked.  All  these  wainscotings  are 
decidedly  objectionable,  being  expensive  and  a  chosen  retreat  for  all 
vermin,  rats  and  mice.  To  avoid  the  injuries  indicated,  the  cribs 
should  be  well  rounded,  or  the  empty  space  filled  out  with  a  wall 
below.  To  keep  litter  in  these  places  shows  a  want  of  rational  arrange- 
ment. They  are  intended  to  hold  the  straw  during  the  day,  where  it 
may  dry,  again  to  be  used  as  litter  for  the  night ;  but  who  would  select 
so  narrow  and  confined  a  space  for  this  purpose?  The  dampness  and 
gaseous  evaporations  from  the  straw  is  for  the  most  part  such  as  to 
injure  the  eyes,  and  the  organs  of  respiration,  with  which  they  una- 
voidably come  in  contact. 

In  countries  were  stones  are  rare,  earthen  or  delf-ware  is  frequently 
used  for  making  cribs';  they  are  clean  and  neat,  but  very  fragile ;  those 
made  of  only  one  piece  are  a  matter  of  luxury ;  but  those  composed  of 
several  plates,  like  earthenware  stoves,  are  more  generally  used ;  similar 
to  the  latter  are  those  constructed  of  burnt  clay,  as  generally  used  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Germany. 

Iron,  on  account  of  its  hardness  and  durability,  is  especially  adapted 
for  cribs.  In  most  cases  they  are  made  of  cast-iron,  and  have  the  great 
advantage  of  preventing  the  horses  from  cribbing,  of  being  rapidly  and 
easily  put  up,  removed,  or  transferred,  in  most  buildings,  and  of  retain- 
ing the  greater  part  of  their  value,  even  in  case  of  their  being  broken, 
or  disused  as  cribs.  A  disadvantage  connected  with  them  is,  that  white 
horses,  or  such  as  have  white  marks  about  their  heads,  Avill  frequently 
receive  a  dirty  appearance  from  the  rust  of  the  cribs,  giving,  in  point 
of  cleanliness,  a  good  deal  of  trouble  to  the  hostler.  To  prevent  oxydi- 
zation  several  means  are  employed,  the  best  still  appearing  to  be  that 
of  enameling,  or  galvanizing,  but  the  expense  is  considerable. 

Another  means  of  preventing  this  vessel  from  oxydizing  consists  in 
giving  it  a  coat  of  oil,  which,  it  is  true,  will  not  last  long,  if  the  crib 
is  in  use.  If  the  latter  is  the  case,  a  very  corrosive  or  injurious  rust 
will  never  be  formed,  this  appearing  only  in  the  shape  of  a  bronze  color, 
as  happens  in  the  case  of  rifle  barrels.  If,  however,  the  cribs  are  not 
to  be  used  for  some  time,  the  corroding  oxydization  should  be  prevented 
by  greasing  or  painting  with  oil. 

Cribs  of  stone  or  wood  are  fastened  either  by  walls  below,  by  fixing 
them  to  the  wall,  or  by  placing  them  on  wood  or  stone  pillars.  In 
running  stables,  cribs  and  racks  are  put  up  in  one  of  the  corners.  In 
stands  for  mares,  the  foals  are  supplied  with  special  cribs,  rendered 
inaccessible  to  their  mothers  either  by  a  pole  laid  across  in  the  corner, 
below  which  the  foals  may  still  pass,  or  by  cross-bars  at  the  top  of  the 
crib,  admitting  only  the  small  jaw  of  the  foal  to  take  the  fodder  from 
its  reservoir. 

In  studs  where  there  are  many  foals,  the  cribs  may  be  so  constructed 
as  to  be  suspended  from  ropes,  by  which  method  the  gnawing  of  the 
cribs  can  be  avoided,  because  they  are  not  steady,  and  may  be  drawn 
up  to  the  ceiling,  after  feeding,  so  as  not  to  trouble  the  foals  in  their 
quick  movements,  and  to  remove  every  inducement  to  crib. 

In  stables  intended  to  receive  cribbers,  oi  horses  inclined  to  crib,  the 


ARRANGEMENT   OP  HORSE   STABLES.  285 

latter  should  be  in  a  low  position,  about  one  foot  from  the  floor, 
because  it  would  then  be  impossible  for  the  horse  to  indulge  this  pro- 
pensity ;  and  if  he  is,  by  being  shortly  tied,  deprived  of  every  other 
opportunity,  for  instance,  the  dividing  pole,  for  cribbing,  then  this  bad 
habit  will  sometimes  in  a  brief  period  be  entirely  forgotten,  never, 
under  favorable  circumstances,  to  be  resumed. 

Care  should  be  taken,  in  making  and  fastening  the  cribs,  so  as  not 
to  leave  cracks  and  openings,  in  which  remains  of  fodder  or  single 
grains  would  lodge,  as  this  would  be  the  first  incitement  to  cribbing. 

Racks. — These  are  an  apparatus  of  grated  walls,  of  different  forms, 
for  the  purpose  of  offering  the  long  fodder  to  the  animals,  without  any 
of  it  being  lost  or  spoiled.  A  loss  of  fodder  will  be  caused  by  being 
often  trodden  upon  by  the  horses,  and  thereafter  refused,  besides,  the 
fodder  will  be  deteriorated  by  becoming  damp  in  consequence  of  being 
breathed  upon  by  the  horses.  The  rack  is  trellised,  to  allow  refuse, 
for  instance,  small  stones,  pieces  of  lime,  and  the  pericarps  of  colchicum 
autumnale  to  get  out  of  the  fodder  and  fall  through  the  trellis-work  ; 
besides  it  would  be  impossible  for  the  horses  to  reach  the  fodder  if  the 
racks  were  not  grated.  The  space  between  the  rundles  should  be  from 
two  to  three  inches. 

Backs  are  usually  made  over  the  cribs,  at  one  and  a  half  feet  above 
the  edge  of  the  crib.  The  object  of  this  high  position  is  to  accustom 
the  horse  to  a  fine  erection  of  his  fore  part,  a  matter  of  consideration, 
as  it  is  thought^  in  riding-horses,  and  possesses  the  additional  advan- 
tage that  the  particles  of  fodder  dropping  through  the  rundles  will 
fall  into  the  crib,  where  they  may  be  taken  up  again  by  the  horse. 
These  advantages,  however,  partly  imaginary,  partly  real,  as  they 
are,  are  met  by  many  disadvantages.  The  giving  of  food  in  such  high 
racks  is  troublesome,  and  can  hardly  be  done  by  small  persons ;  the 
horses,  also,  are  sometimes  injured  by  the  fork.  It  is  impossible  to 
prevent  the  head,  mane,  and  eyes  from  being  soiled  by  fragments  of 
hay  and  other  rubbish  dropping  from  the  rack,  and  giving  rise  to 
itching,  rubbing,  shoving  off  the  halter,  inflammation  of  the  eyes,  &c. 
The  racks  having  a  high  position,  more  fodder  will  be  dispensed  and 
wasted,  parts  of  which,  for  instance,  straw  of  peas  and  beans,  may 
even  be  liable  to  fall  into  the  ears  of  the  horse,  giving  a  great  deal  of 
trouble. 

These  latter  evils  might  be  prevented  by  placing  the  racks  some- 
what back  in  the  wall,  or  by  bringing  the  front  of  the  rack  at  least  on 
a  level  with  the  wall  itself,  as  is  often  seen  in  stables  where  the  fodder 
is  given  from  the  barn,  for  instance^,  on  the  farms  in  Holstein  and 
Hanover.  The  rundles  in  this  case  are  given  a  perpendicular  position, 
and  the  back  part  of  the  wall,  not  being  trellised,  forms  an  oblique 
plane,  so  as  to  enable  all  fodder  to  come  gradually  and  of  itself  to  the 
horse.  High  racks  will  always  be  accompanied  by  the  disadvantage 
of  forcing  the  animal,  when  eating,  to  give  his  head  a  tiresome  and 
unnatural  position,  even  dangerous  to  his  health.  By  this  forced  posi- 
tion of  the  neck  the  circulation  of  blood  is  disturbed,  causing  perpetual 
congestions  in  some  animals,  especially  those  so  predisposed.  From 
all  these  considerations,  I  feel  induced  to  advocate  the  position  of  racks 
used  in  English  stables,  where  they  are  of  equal  height  with  the  cribs, 


286  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

being  from  three  to  four  feet  from  the  ground.  It  may  be  objected 
that  this  position  woukl  favor  cribbing,  and  that  the  horses  would 
sooner  jump  into  the  rack,  spoiling  it  and  hurting  themselves  ;  but  if 
both  cribs  and  racks  are  made  of  iron,  and  not  altogether  too  low, 
these  objections  deserve  no  consideration. 

The  proportions  of  a  rack  should  correspond  to  the  method  of  feed- 
ing. Horses  used  for  agricultural  purposes  receiving  a  greater  bulk 
of  fodder,  especially  green  fodder  in  summer,  necessarily  require  a 
larger  rack,  than  those  kept  for  luxury  alone  and  receiving  the  smaller 
portion  of  their  food  in  the  shape  of  rack  fodder. 

The  form  of  the  rack  should  correspond  to  the  crib,  in  case  it  is 
placed  either  above  or  side  by  side  with  the  latter.  It  is  objectionable 
to  put  up  a  long  ladder-rack  above  a  narrow  tray-shaped  trough  of 
stone  or  cast-iron,  the  former  stretching  its  ends  over  the  trough,  so 
as  to  let  the  fodder  from  the  rack  fall  to  the  ground,  both  on  the  left 
and  right  side.  In  running  stables,  the  crib  and  rack  are  frequently 
put  up  on  different  walls,  or  in  different  corners,  in  which  case  there 
appears  no  necessity  for  the  form  and  size  of  the  rack  to  correspond 
with  that  of  the  crib. 

Figure  5,  plate  2,  illustrates  this  arrangement,  made  of  one  piece, 
by  Cottam  and  Hallen,  London,  or  by  Brandon,  Paris : 

It  costs,  when  of  cast-iron 69  francs. 

Enameled 59      '^ 

Galvanized... 100      '' 

Crib  and  rack  of  one  piece 60      " 

Enameled 79      " 

Galvanized 88      " 

The  racks  most  generally  in  use  are  those  in  the  shape  of  a  ladder, 
with  rundles  at  narrow  intervals,  either  running  through  a  number  of 
stands,  or  separate  for  each  stand.  Tlie  latter  arrangement  has  the 
advantage,  that,  if  a  rundle  is  accidentally  torn  off,  the  whole  row  of 
horses  will  not  be  exposed  to  excitement  and  danger.  The  position  of 
these  racks  should  be  at  an  angle  of  40°  to  45°  toward  the  wall. 

Some  have  the  rundles  made  movable,  to^ facilitate  the  pulling  out 
of  the  fodder,  and  to  diminish  their  tearing  and  spoiling.  7or  similar 
reasons,  the  racks  in  Holland  and  Belgium  are  provided  with  this 
arrangement :  one  of  the  rundles  can  be  shoved  up,  and  has  a  handle 
at  the  lower  end,  in  the  shape  of  a  crutch  handle,  by  means  of  which 
the  horse  is  enabled  to  move  up  the  rundle  by  putting  in  his  nose, 
and  to  take  out  the  fodder.  (See  figure  6,  plate  2.)  But  I  cannot 
ascribe  any  great  value  to  this  arrangement,  inasmuch  as  in  most 
racks  of  this  kind,  which  I  have  seen,  the  rundles  intended  to  be 
movable  became  so  tight  by  the  swelling  of  the  wood,  or  the  oxydizing 
of  the  iron,  that  the  object  contemplated  could  not  be  attained  at  all. 
Sometimes  the  racks  are  made  of  small  boards,  inserted  into  the  grooves 
of  the  upper  and  lower  ladder-beams,  and  in  which  the  necessary 
openings  are  made  by  a  saw.     (See  figure  7,  plate  2.) 

Backs  in  the  shape  of  round  baskets  are  of  late  frequently  made, 
having  the  appearance  of  the  fourth  part  of  a  large  globe.  They  are 
made  of  iron  only,  being  too  small  for  green  fodder,  as  at  present 


ARRANGEMENT    OF   HORSE   STABLES.  287 

manufactured,  but  deserve  to  be  recommended  for  stables  where  no 
green  fodder  is  used,  because  tliey  are  of  a  pleasing  form^  can  easily 
be  put  up,  and  facilitate  the  operation  of  drawing  out  the  fodder.  (See 
figure  8,  plate  2.) 

This  rack,  manufactured  at  the  founderies  of  Wirtemberg,  weighs 
from  forty  to  fifty  pounds,  and  costs  about  three  and  a  half  cents  a 
pound. 

The  material  for  racks  is  either  wood  or  iron.  In  ladder-racks,  the 
beams  are  made  of  oak  wood,  on  account  of  their  being  gnawed,  and 
the  rundles  of  ash,  on  account  of  its  great  tenacity.  Eacks  made 
either  of  wrought  or  cast-iron  are  recommended  for  their  durability, 
being,  this  considered,  not  much  more  expensive  than  wooden  ones, 
which  require  frequent  repairs.  Those  made  of  cast-iron  must  be  pro- 
vided with  much  stronger  rundles  than  those  of  wrought-iron ;  they 
will  last  almost  forever,  while  in  cast  iron  ones  the  rundles  are  easily 
broken  off  by  being  struck  with  the  hay-fork,  by  an  accidental  blow 
from  the  head  of  a  horse,  or  by  the  animal  being  fastened  to  a  rundle, 
&c.  The  damages  thus  done  can  often  hardly  be  repaired ;  it  is,  how- 
ever, always  best  to  insert  new  rundles  of  wrought  iron. 

Arrangement  for  fastening  the  horses. — In  this,  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  horses  may  not  step  inside  the  halter-chains,  or  straps, 
which  can  be  avoided  by  putting  weights  at  the  ends  of  the  straps. 
The  arrangement  as  indicated  in  figure  5  deserves  special  commenda- 
tion, the  weights  being  shoved  u|)  and  down  on  a  leading  pole,  serving 
at  the  same  time  as  a  foot  for  the  crib.  These  weights  usually  run 
behind  the  wainscoting,  below  the  cribs,  or  in  a  covered  channel, 
applied  in  one  of  the  corners  of  the  stand.  If  straps  are  used  for 
fastening,  rollers  of  iron,  brass,  or  hard  wood,  should  be  fixed  at  the 
point  of  the  wainscoting  where  the  straps  are  shoved  up  and  down  by 
the  weights,  for  the  purpose  of  sparing  the  leather.  If  the  horse  is 
to  be  tied  with  but  one  rope,  it  must  ho,  in  the  middle  of  the  stand, 
and  so  as  to  allow  him  to  lie  down  without  lengthening  the  strap  con- 
siderably, and  thus  giving  occasion  to  step  inside.  A  leading  pole  from 
the  edge  of  the  crib  should  be  put  up,  with  a  movable  ring,  to  which 
the  short  halter-strap  should  be  buckled. 


288  '  ^  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

SAXON  MEMNO  SHEEP. 


Letter  to  his  Excellency  Joseph  A.  Wright,  Minister  to  Berlin,  from 
Alexander  Speck  Yon  Sternburg,  of  Lutzschena,  Germany,  relative 
TO  Saxony  Merino  Sheep,  &c.,  &c.  &c. 

LtJTZCHENA,  near  Leipsig,  Saxony,  July  22,  1859. 

Dear  Sir  :  I  have  much,  pleasure  in  giving  you  an  account  of  the 
method  of  raising  sheep,  together  with  some  information  as  regards 
the  history  of  the  Saxon  merino,  and  other  matters  in  connection  with 
the  agricultural  pursuits  followed  on  this  estate_,  which  may  be  inter- 
esting to  your  friends. 

You  are  no  doubt  aware  that  Spain  is  the  country  to  which  the  world 
is  indebted  for  the  '^ Saxon  merino,"  the  most  perfect  and  noble  of  tlie 
different  races  of  sheep.  It  has  been  proved  that  the  Spanish  sheep, 
more  perhaps  than  any  other  domestic  animal,  is  liable  to  undergo  a 
great  change,  under  different  domestic  influences,  both  with  regard  to 
size  and  wool ;  for,  whilst  the  original  Spanish  merino  has  deteriorated 
in  some  countries  so  as  to  become  nearly  valueless,  the  reverse  has 
taken  place  under  the  influence  of  a  climate  congenial  to  it.  Thus, 
according  to  some  historians,  (Weckherlin,  &c.,)  the  Spanish  merino 
was  introduced  into  England  as  early  as  the  15th  century,  and  is  now 
represented  there  by  the  south-down,  or  English  short-wooled.  In 
1723  it  was  introduced  into  Sweden;  yet  how  different  now  is  their 
progeny.  In  England,  the  rich  and  ever-verdant  pasturage  and  humid 
climate  have  developed  and  increased  the  frame  and  the  flesh-producing 
qualities,  whilst  the  fleece  has  also  increased  in  size  and  weight,  though 
at  the  expense  of  firmness  and  curl  of  hair,  which  constitute  the  j)i'0- 
perties  of  fine  clothing  wool.  In  Sweden,  the  uncongenial  climate  has 
effected  the  reverse,  and  changed  the  Spanish  merino  into  a  small,  and 
in  all  respects  indifferent,  animal.  The  Spanish  merino  was  first  intro- 
duced into  Saxony  in  the  year  1T65,  when  a  flock  of  102  rams  and  128 
ewes,  increased,  in  1779,  by  55  rams  and  169  ewes  was  presented  by 
the  Crown  of  Spain  to  the  then  Elector  of  Saxony — a  circumstance 
from  which  is  derived  the  denomination  of  "Electoral  wool,"  1st.  2d, 
Electa,  in  sorting,  &c. — and  by  him  located  on  his  domains  of  Stolpen 
and  Lohmen.  These  flocks,  which  were  of  the  very  best  breed,  and, 
so  called,  royal  blood,  are  the  source  from  which  the  whole  family,  not 
only  of  the  Saxon  merino,  but  also  all  the  fine  clothing-wool  sheep  in 
Austria,  Silesia,  Kussia,  (Odessa,)  &c.,  and  the  countless  flocks  of 
Australia,  have  sprung,  to  the  entire  extinction,  in  some  of  these 
countries,  of  the  aboriginal  sheep.  As  it  happened,  the  climate  of 
Saxony  proved  to  be  extremely  well  adapted  to  these  animals,  for  the 
wool  produced  from  them  soon  became  renowned  for  its  fine  clothing 
properties,  so  as  speedily  to  eclipse  the  wools  of  Spain. 

Thus,  we  find  the  exports  from  the  respective  countries  of  merino 
wool  amounted  to  : 


SAXON   MERINO    SHEEP.  289 

From  Spain  and  Portugal.  From  Germany. 

In  1800 7,794,700  pounds.  421,350  pounds. 

At  prices  of  about 10.9.  per  pound.  7s.  per  pound. 

In  1814 9,234,990  pounds.  3,595,100  pounds. 

At  prices  of  about 75.  perpound.  9s.  BcZ.  per  pound. 

In  1827 4,349,600  pounds.  22,001,190  pounds. 

At  prices  of  about 4s.  per  pound.  13s.  per  pound. 

The  proportionate  quantities  of  Merino  wool  exported  from  these 
countries  were : 

From  Spain  and  Portugal.  From  Germany. 

In  1838 1,814,000  pounds.        27,500.000  pounds. 

The  great  profit  from  raising  Saxon  merino  wool  soon  attracted  the 
attention  of  landed  proprietors  in  Saxony,  indolent  even  as  they  were 
in  matters  of  agriculture  at  that  date,  and  the  cultivation  of  sheep 
rapidly  increased  in  Saxony,  and  extended  to  the  neighboring  countries 
of  Austria,  especially  to  Silesia,  which,  next  to  Saxony,  produces  the 
merino  sheep  in  greatest  perfection,  exceeding,  even  now,  in  fineness 
of  wool  and  exquisite  staple,  though  unequal  in  some  other  respects. 
At  the  first,  sheep-breeders  crossed  the  Spanish  merinos  obtained  from 
the  Electoral  flocks  with  the  common  country  sheep,  but  the  result  was 
a  failure,  and  experience  soon  proved  the  advantage  of  breeding  pure 
merinos  only,  to  the  exclusion  of  other  blood. 

The  time  has  now  long  since  passed  when  the  Saxon  merino  sheep, 
into  which  the  Spanish  merino  was  transformed,  became  a  type,  an 
animal  of  such  fixed  and  permanently  impressed  properties  as  to  form 
a  particular  kind  of  its  species,  and  an  independent  race  of  sheep. 

The  late  father  of  the  writer,  Maximilian  Speck,  Baron  von  Stern- 
burg,  was  among  those  whose  iuterests  have  been  most  closely  con- 
nected with  the  history  of  the  Saxon  merino  sheep. 

Since  the  very  commencement  of  the  export  trade  in  Saxon  merino 
wool,  previous  even  to  1800,  Maximilian  Speck,  of  Leipsic,  having 
risen  through  industry  and  self-education  from  the  very  humble  condi- 
tion of  a  small  village  inn-keeper's  son,  became  a  merchant  in  the 
article,  and,  through  his  establishments  at  London,  Leeds,  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  and  other  places,  supplied  the  increasing  demand  in  foreign 
markets.  About  the  year  1820  he  also  became  a  l3reeder  of  these  ani- 
mals, and  interested  himself  in  their  improvement.  Large  flocks  of 
them  were  kept  by  him,  principally  on  this  estate,  and  were  subse- 
quently also  introduced  by  him  on  his  two  estates  in  Bavaria,  though 
with  indifferent  success.  The  original  or  parent  flock  continues  to 
be  carefully  kept  up  on  this  estate,  to  this  day,  though,  of  course,  in 
diminished  numbers.  From  this  flock  were  drawn,  in  1824  and  1830, 
some  of  the  first  supplies  of  the  Australian  Agricultural  Society,  at  a 
tim.e  when  Australia,  as  a  wool-growing  country,  was  still  in  its 
infancy.  The  sheep  were  exported  from  this  place,  together  with 
shepherds,  to  the  Australian  Agricultural  Company's  possessions,  on 
the  river  Upper  Hunter,  in  New  South  Wales,  subsequently  visited 

19 A 


290  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

by  the  writer.  By  desire  of  the  Emperor  of  Russia,  Alexander  T, 
several  small  flocks,  from  the  parent  flock  here,  were  introduced  hy 
Maximilian  Speck,  in  person,  into  the  neighborhood  of  Taganrog  and 
Odessa,  (in  1825  and  1828^)  from  which  the  vast  flocks  of  merinos  in 
that  part  of  Russia  have  in  part  sprung.  Rams  from  this  flock  have, 
likewise,  at  different  times,  been  exported  hence  to  the  United  States, 
to  the  order  of  agents  at  New  York  ;  and  so  late  as  last  year,  the 
writer  had  the  pleasure  of  forwarding  a  small  flock  of  ten  rams  to 
Australia,  selected  here  in  person  hy  that  eminent  stock-holder,  Mr. 
W.  J.  Browne,  of  Port  Gamble^  Adelaide,  South  Australia,  and  of 
13  Princess  Terrace,  Hyde  Park,  London,  who  was  then  on  a  visit  to 
the  different  sheep-farming  establishments  in  G-ermany,  and  gratified 
the  writer  by  his  assurance  that,  for  pure  blood  and  constancy,  evi- 
denced by  uniformity  and  other  essential  breeding  qualities,  he  had 
not  found  this  flock  to  be  surpassed  anywhere. 

I  now  proceed  to  give  you  a  short  account  of  my  method  of  keeping 
these  sheep,  with  attendant  remarks.  Their  breeding  being  no  longer 
so  profitable  here  as  to  induce  it,  to  the  exclusion  of  other  stock,  the 
flock  has  been  reduced  for  some  years  past  to  about  1,200  head,  in  the 
proportion  of  about  600  ewes,-  80  to  100  rams,  250  to  300  lambs,  and 
the  rest  wethers  and  yearlings.  These  are  kept  in  one  large  stable, 
about  110  English  yards  long,  21  yards  wide,  and  9  to  10  yards  high, 
built  massively  of  brick,  with  pillars  supporting  a  roof  of  strong 
wooden  rafters,  the  whole  forming  a  large,  airy  saloon,  well  ventilated 
hy  windows  and  air-holes  near  the  top,  to  be  opened  or  closed  accord- 
ing to  the  weather  and  the  season.  The  rams,  ewes,  lambs,  &c.,  are 
all  separated,  divisions  being  contrived  by  sheep-hurdles,  which,  as 
well  as  the  whole  of  the  stable  furniture,  are  light  and  easily  movable. 
The  hurdles  are  supported  by  stakes,  which  are  driven  in  the  floor  at 
pleasure.  Subdivisions  of  any  size  can  thus  be  made  quickly  within 
the  stable.  The  fodder-racks  and  troughs  are  very  simple  and  prac- 
tical, and  could  not  be  improved  upon ;  but  it  would  lead  too  far  to 
enter  into  a  descrij)tion  of  them  here.  From  the  roof  are  suspended 
iron  wicker-work  baskets  containing  rock  salt,  necessary  to  keep  the 
animals  in  health,  and  which  they  can  lick  at  pleasure.  Above  the 
stable  is  contained  the  hay  and  straw  loft,  separated  by  wooden  floor- 
ing, covered  several  inches  thick  with  beaten  clay,  impervious  to  the 
exhalations  underneath.  From  this  loft  the  fodder  is  passed,  through 
trap-doors  and  slides,  to  the  stable  below.  The  litter  remains  in  the 
stable  from  4  to  6  months  at  a  time,  sometimes  attaining  a  height  of 
3  to  4  feet.  Every  day  a  little  clean  straw  is  laid  down,  which  becomes 
mixed  with  the  excrement  of  the  sheep,  and  is  compressed  by  them 
into  one  solid  mass,  forming  the  floor,  which  is  perfectly  dry,  healthy, 
and  sweet.  The  consolidated  manure  thus  formed  is  not  the  least  of 
the  profits  derived  from  the  sheep.  No  other  farm-yard  manure  is 
•equal  to  it,  and  for  turnip-crops,  and  especially  for  rape-seed,  it  is  the 
very  best  fertilizer,  as,  not  being  exposed  to  the  open  air,  and  being 
well  compressed,  it  retains  its  ammoniacal  properties.  The  sheep  are 
■stabled  all  the  winter,  generally  from  the  beginning  of  November 
until  the  middle  of  April,  according  to  the  season.  As  soon  in  spring 
-as  the  weather  permits  and  the  grass  begins  to  grow,  they  are  taken 


SAXON  MERINO  SHEEP.  291 

out  to  graze,  in  separate  flocks,  at  from  9,  a.  m.,  to  12,  m.,  and  again 
at  3,  p.  m.,  till  near  sundown.  For  field  and  stubble-grazing  they 
are  very  useful,  as  they  keep  the  land  clean,  freeing  it  from  weeds. 
This  advantage  is  so  essential  to  the  farmer  that  some  of  my  neigh- 
bors, not  keeping  sheep,  frequently  request  me  to  take  mine  upon 
their  stubble.  During  the  six  to  seven  months  they  are  stabled  for 
winter,  their  fodder  consists  of  nothing  but  straw,  the  best  of  hay, 
turnips,  and  "grains"  from  the  brewery.  Of  straw,  necessary  to  the 
ruminating  process,  pea  and  oat  straw  are  the  best ;  next,  barley  and 
wheat  straw.  Eye  straw  is  only  given  when  other  straw  is  exhausted. 
At  the  close  of  the  harvest,  a  calculation  of  the  probable  requisites  of 
fodder  for  the  live  stock,  including  the  sheep,  during  winter,  is  made, 
as  regards  the  sheep,  on  the  following  basis : 

One-thirtietli  "part  of  the  lueiglit  of  the  live  animal  in  good  hay  is 
considered  necessary,  per  day,  for  its  sustenance.  According  to  the 
quality  of  the  fodder,  and  its  abundance  or  scarcity,  this  may  be  in- 
creased to  yV  P^-i^tj  1*^*  Isss  than  -^^  part  ought  not  to  be  given. 
Taking  good  meadow  hay  as  the  fodder-standard,  a  ram  should  receive 
about  3^  p(»iaiids  per  day,  a  ewe  about  2f  pounds  per  day,  yearlings, 
&c.,  in  that  proportion — taking  the  average  of  a  full-grown  ram  at 
110  pounds,  of  a  ewe  at  82  pounds,  the  weight  of  each  varying,  accord- 
ing to  age,  size,  and  condition,  between  105  and  125  pounds,  as 
regards  the  full-grown  rams,  and  from  70  to  85  pounds,  as  regards 
the  ewes.  The  weight  of  a  wether  varies  between  80  pounds  in  lean 
condition  and  110  to  115  pounds  if  strong  and  fat  for  the  butcher. 
One  pound  of  good  meadow  hay  is  considered  equivalent  to  If  pounds 
of  oat,  pea,  wheat,  or  barley  straw,  4  pounds  of  turnips,  or  2  pounds 
of  grain  in  the  wet  state,  as  daily  delivered  from  the  brewery,  in 
winter.  When  the  time  of  stabling  for  winter  arrives,  the  sheep- 
master  has  his  supplies  of  straw,  hay,  and  turnips,  allotted  to  him 
on  the  basis  of  the  above  calculation,  and  he  is  bound  to  make  them 
serve  out  the  proper  time,  under-feeding  being  as  much  guarded 
against  as  over-feeding  and  waste. 

Straw  is  served  out  to  all  the  sheep,  but  the  lambs  receive,  in  addi- 
tion, hay  only,  the  breeding  ewes  hay  and  turnips,  grain  being  only 
given  to  the  sheep  set  aside  for  fattening,  and  to  the  rams  and  year- 
lings in  moderate  quantity.  Morning  and  evening  the  feeding  racks 
are  filled  with  straw,  which,  when  "nibbled"  out^  is  taken  away 
and  used  for  litter,  a  fresh  supply  being  put  in  its  place.  Cleanliness, 
sufiiciency,  and  due  economy  are  the  three  consideratious  never  to  be 
lost  to  view. 

Hereditary  disease  is  unknown  in  my  flock.  Every  lamb  not  appear- 
ing quite  strong  and  healthy  is  killed  when  young.  During  the 
whole  course  of  40  years,  epidemic  disease  has  never  made  its  appear- 
ance. The  mortality  from  incidental  disease  and  accident  does  not, 
upon  an  average,  amount  to  more  than  two  thirds  per  cent.  These 
consist,  almost  exclusively,  in  a  lamb  being  now  and  then  crushed  to 
death,  and  in  death  caused  by  rupture  from  distention,  which,  at  the 
time  of  clover  grazing,  has  to  be  much  guarded  against,  especially  in 
windy  weather. 

Each  sheep  is  distinguished  by  a  number,  indicated  by  a  small  inci- 


292 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT, 


sion  in  the  ear,  made  by  an  instrument,  as  soon  as  the  animal  is  a 
year  old.  Early  in  spring,  previous  to  the  clip,  and  again  in  autumn, 
tlie  ewes,  rams,  and  yearlings  are  carefully  sorted  by  myself  and  the 
sheepmaster,  jointly,  and  the  character  of  each  sheep  taken  down, 
thus: 

Covering  register. 


Ewe. 

Fineness. 

Size  and  stature. 

Fleece  and  staple. 

Age. 

Ram. 

No.  810 

Supra  or  L  Electa, 
as  the  case  may 
be. 

Middle  size,  well 
formed . 

Rather  long;  too  open 
on  back.     Falls  off 
about  the  haunches. 
Wiry  character. 

3  years. 

To  be  put 
to  No.  4 
orL 

If  found  too  old,  or  otherwise  objectionable,  the  number  is  crossed 
out,  (to  be  substituted  by  a  yearling,)  and  the  animal  thus  rejected  is 
marked  for  fattening,  to  be  sold  to  the  butcher. 

For  the  purpose  of  covering,  I  keep  five  standard  rams,  besides  two 
or  three  reserve  rams.  These  are  pent  up  in  stalls,  separately,  and 
thus  selected:  No.  1,  for  its  great  degree  of  fineness  and  bfeauty  of 
staple;  No.  2,  for  the  softness  and  mild  nature  of  the  wool;  No.  3, 
for  its  size ;  No.  4,  for  its  closeness  of  staple,  evenness,  and  weight 
and  size  of  fleece;  No.  5,  for  its  evenness  and  length  of  staple. 

The  reserve  rams  are  set  aside  for  similar  good  points,  but  none  are 
taken  for  covering,  the  wool  of  which  is  not  at  least  a  I.  Electa.  The 
lambs  are  sorted  and  classed  at  one  year  old.  For  sale,  for  breeding 
purposes,  the  one  year  old  ram  is  generally  chosen.  It  ought  not  to 
be  used  for  covering  until  from  one  and  a  half  to  one  and  three  fourths 
years  old,  and  is  in  its  prime  until  four  years  old,  but  can  be  used  until 
seven  to  eight  years  old.  At  two  and  a  half  to  three  years  old  it  is 
full  grown,  and  may  then  cover  from  sixty  to  seventy-five  ewes  a  sea- 
son, and  from  six  to  eight  ewes  each  day  during  the  season.  The 
season  for  covering  commences  about  the  1st  of  August  or  September, 
and  lasts  about  a  month.  Ewes  are  not  covered  until  two  and  a  half 
years  old.  At  covering-time,  a  trial  ram,  having  its  genitals  tied  over 
with  a  linen  apron,  is  constantly  admitted  to  the  ewes,  and  directs  the 
eye  of  the  sheep-master  to  such  as  are  in  season,  when  they  are  taken 
from  the  herd  and  put  to  the  standard  ram  previously  selected  for  them 
and  indicated  in  the  covering  register  kept  for  the  purpose.  The  study, 
of  course,  is  to  put  a  ewe  deficient  in  a  certain  point  or  points  to  a  ram 
distinguished  for  its  perfection  in  these  points,  and  thus  to  neutralize 
the  shortcomings  of  one  by  the  opposite  extremes  of  the  other.  Breed- 
ing "in  and  in"  may  be  carried  far  with  sheep,  without  bad  efiects, 
but  it  has  its  limits.  I  introduce  fresh  blood  to  the  extent  of  about 
five  per  cent,  every  year.  For  this  purpose,  I  choose  a  ram,  every 
four  or  five  years,  iTom  some  other  standard  Saxon  merino  flock,  most 
likely  to  harmonize  with  mine.  Mere  fineness  of  hair  has  long  since 
ceased  to  be  the  principal  object  aimed  at.  What  we  now  endeavor  to 
breed  is,  "a  sheep  of  the  greatest  possible  size  of  carcass  and  flesh 


'  SAXON  MERINO  SHEEP.  293 

qualities,  wliiclij  in  the  merino  slieep,  are  compatible  witli  fine  clothing 
wool  properties;  no  sheep  to  be  below  I.  (in  case  of  exception,  only  II. 
Electa,)  and  to  have  a  fleece  of  at  least  two  and  one  fourth  pounds  in 
weight.'' 

It  is  an  easy  matter  to  breed  for  excessive  fineness  only.  With  a 
flock  like  mine,  I  have  this  so  much  in  my  control  that  I  could,  if  so 
disposed,  very  greatly  increase  the  degree  of  fineness,  within  three  or 
four  years,  by  crossing  for  that  purpose  only.  The  size  of  the  carcass 
would  then  decrease,  "in  proportion,  to  a  certain  point,  and  the  weight 
of  the  fleece  eventually  dwindle  down  1^  to  1  pound,  as  is  the  case 
with  some  fine  Silesian  flocks.  On  the  other  hand,  the  carcass  of  the 
Saxon  merino  sheep  cannot  be  increased  beyond  a  certain  size,  unless 
at  the  expense  of  the  staple,  which,  when  the  proper  point  has  been 
exceeded,  invariably  becomes  open  on  the  ridge  of  the  back,  and  what 
is  called  tow}^;  the  fleece,  as  it  were,  refusing  to  accommodate  itself  to 
an  undue  size  of  carcass.  The  practical  experience  of  the  breeder 
alone,  joined  to  a  knowledge  of  his  flock_,  can  offer  a  secure  guide  in 
the  matter  of  judicious  crossing. 

The  staff"  of  servants  attached  to  my  flock  consists  only  of  one  sheep- 
master  and  two  assistant  shepherds,  besides  occasional  farm-hands,  as 
may  be  required.  During  the  grazing  season,  indeed,  our  excellent 
sheep  dogs  do  half  the  shepherds'  work,  their  instinct  and  training 
being  wonderful. 

As  regards  the  prices  I  obtain  for  my  sheep:  Ttie  wethers,  when 
fat,  bring  from  21s.  to  26s.  each ;  the  ewes,  fattened  for  the  butcher, 
from  16s.  to  21s.  each.  Breeding  ewes  are  rarely  sold^  except  for 
export.  Their  price  is  from  £2  to  £5,  according  to  age,  perfection, 
and  fancy.  Earns  for  breeding  purposes  vary  from  £2  10s.  and  £3  to 
£10  each.  Picked  yearling  rams,  for  exportation,  in  flocks  of  from 
six  to  ten,  or  upward,  £6  to  £8  average  price.  Single  rams  of  great 
excellence  I  have  occasionally  sold  as  high  as  £20,  and  even  £30,  but 
these  were  exceptional  cases.  Indeed,  fancy  has  a  great  deal  to  do 
with  the  prices  of  fine  stock.  Provided  a  flock  be  of  undoubted  purity 
of  blood,  long  standing,  general  excellence,  and  evenness  of  character^, 
the  probabilitj?-  is  that  any  good  ram  from  it  will,  if  crossed  with  ewes 
from  the  same  flock,  produce  sheep  equal  to  it ;  and  the  chances  are 
that  a  "fancy  ram"  from  the  same  flock  will  not  produce  anything 
superior  to  the  other,  either  from  ewes  of  the  same  flock,  or  if  crossed 
with  others.  Very  extravagant  prices  are  sometimes  paid  by  fanciers 
for  individual  rams  of  great  beauty,  especially  where  the  animal  is  for 
export ;  and  the  foreign  fancy  buyer  will  not  be  satisfied  of  the  good 
quality  of  his  purchase  unless  he  has  paid  a  high  price  for  it.  But, 
let  it  be  remembered,  single  rams  of  great  individual  beauty  are  gene- 
rally a  mere  htsus  naturae,  a  sport  of  nature,  and  often  spring  from 
flocks  having  less  constancy  of  breed  and  blood,  and  by  no  means  very 
reliable,  but  quite  the  contrary,  for  the  reproduction  of  their  own  per- 
fections.    They  are,  in  fact,  show  animals. 

The  prices  I  realize  for  my  wool  vary  from  2s.  Sd.  to  3s.  2c?.  Last 
year  I  sold  at  3s.  Id.  This  year,  the  market  being  depressed,  I  sold  at 
2s.  9c?.,  as  clipped  from  the  sheep,  locks  and  all.  The  weight  clipped 
this  year  amounted  to : 


294  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

From  the  ewes  on  tlie  average 2 jV  pounds  each. 

From  the  wethers  on  the  average 2|  " 

From  the  yearlings  on  the  average 2  j-^g-  ' ' 

From  the  full-grown  rams 4  to  6g-  " 

I  generally  sell  my  wool,  by  private  bargain,  to  France  or  Belgium, 
the  best  market  for  such  wools,  as  best  adapted  for  the  fine,  yet  strong 
and  sound  fancy  woolens  manufactured  there. 

I  conclude  by  giving  a  short  sketch  of  my  farming  estate  here.  It 
is  of  medium  size,  consisting  of  about  650  English  acres,  of  which 
about  90  acres  are  meadow  land,  60  acres  park  and  forest,  20  acres 
cultivated  with  hops,  20  acres  yards  and  gardens,  and  the  rest  under 
the  plow.  The  arable  land  is  chiefly  a  good  sandy  loam,  a  small  river 
running  through  the  estate.  It  is  divided  into  14  principal  parcels,  or 
allotments,  of  from  20  to  50  acres  each,  and  on  this  division  is  based 
a  system  of  succession  of  crops.  In  this  systematic  arrangement  for  a 
constant  change  of  crops  on  the  same  soil  or  field  consists  the  most 
important  improvement  of  modern  agricultural  science.  Thanks  to  it, 
the  productiveness  of  land  in  this  part  of  the  country,  generally,  may 
be  stated  to  have  been  augmented  by  at  least  20  per  cent,  as  compared 
with  the  old  slovenly  mode  of  farming  land,  still  in  vogue  with  many 
of  our  peasantry,  whom  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  prevail  upon  to  depart 
from  the  way  of  their  fathers.  Having  regard  to  the  nature  of  your  soil, 
and  to  your  experience  of  it,  you  have  so  to  arrange  your  crops  as  to 
bring  about,  systematically,  constant  suitable  changes  between  agricul- 
tural plants  of  different  vegetation,  the  rule  being  to  cause  opposites 
to  succeed  each  other,  and  not  to  bring  grain  twice  on  the  same  field 
successively.  Thus,  for  instance,  wheat  is  the  best  possible  successor, 
on  the  same  field,  to  rape-seed,  the  latter  drawing  different  chemical 
components  from  the  soil,  and  imparting  and  leaving  others  most  con- 
ducive to  a  good  growth  of  wheat.  Science  has  laid  down  certain  rules 
in  the  succession  of  crops  for  the  observance  of  the  farmer,  and  the  year, 
of  course,  known  to  you,  still  it  may  be  of  interest  to  quote  my  table 
of  succession,  "the  law  of  my  farm,"  which  is  never  allowed  to  be 
departed  from. 

i^or  1859. 

Field  No.  1.  Eape-seed,  (25  loads,  of  25  cwt.  each^  of  farm-yard 
manure,  per  acre.) 

Field  No.  2.  Wheat. 

Field  No.  3.  Potatoes. 

Field  No.  4.  Barley. 

Field  No.  5.  Eye,  (18  loads,  of  25  cwt.  each,  of  good  manure,  per 
acre.) 

Field  No.  6.  Awelrape-seed,  with  buckwheat  and  stubble,  turnips 
before  and  after. 

Field  No.  1.  Oats 

Field  No.  8.  Turnips,  (32  loads,  of  25  cwt.  each,  of  best  stable 
manure,  per  acre.) 

Field  No.    9.  Winter  or  summer  wheat. 


SAXON   MERINO    SHEEP.  295 

Field  No.  10.  Clover,  for  green  fodder  and  liay. 

Field  No.  11.  Eye. 

Field  No.  12.  Peas.^,  beans  ^,  highly  manured. 

Field  No.  13.  Oats  ^,  rye,  ^. 

Field  No.  14.  White  clover,  for  pasturage. 

In  1860,  the  crop,  which  in  1859  was  on  iield  No.  2,  will  be  on  field 
No.  1,  and  so  on,  in  constant  yearly  rotation.  I  have,  besides,  some 
land  set  apart  for  lentils,  mangold- wurzel,  Indian  corn,  caraway  seed, 
&c.,  and  for  lucern,  a  most  valuable  green  crop  in  this  climate.  A 
change  of  seed  is  frequently  made,  and  I  often  import,  with  a  small 
extra  cost  of  freight,  and  to  great  advantage,  seed  of  the  best  kind 
from  England. 

All  the  crops  are  housed  in  barns,  stacks  are  only  made  in  case  of 
great  need.  The  grain  is  threshed  by  two  threshing  machines,  one  on 
'^  Garrett's"  principle^  the  other  on  a  Swedish  model,  both  driven  by 
working  oxen.  The  sowing  is  done  partly  by  hand,  partly  by  the 
''Albanian"  (American)  sowing  machine. 

My  live  stock  consists,  at  present,  of  about  1,150  sheep,  about  62 
head  of  cattle,  (exclusive  of  12  working  oxen,)  chiefly  of  the  Bernese 
(Switzerland)  and  the  Allgau  (Tyrolese)  breed.  I  have  lately  imported 
some  English  short-horns_,  of  the  best  blood,  with  which  I  intend  to 
cross,  and  expect  a  good  result.  I  also  keep  about  80  pigs,  of  the 
common  country  kind,  as  well  as  Essex  and  Yorkshire  middle  breed. 
With  these  I  cross  the  country  or  indigenous  pig,  which  is  rather 
lean,  narrow,  and  bony,  but  the  flesh  of  which  is  finer  than  that  of 
the  English  breeds.  By  making  one  or  two  crosses,  I  produce  a  very 
excellent  pig  for  the  butcher,  (who  does  not  like  the  pure  English 
breeds,)  which  fattens  easily,  and  yet  is  not  deficient  in  fine  flesh.  I 
obtain  from  36s.  to  41,s.  per  cwt.,  living  weight,  for  my  pigs.  This 
pays  me  so  well,  that  I  am  about  to  alter  my  arrangements,  and  to 
make  room  for  double  my  present  stock  of  pigs. 

In  close  connection  with  the  farm,  I  have  two  technical  establish- 
ments on  the  spotj  namely :  a  brick  work,  the  clay  for  which  is  found 
on  the  place,  and  which  turns  out  1,250,000  bricks  per  annum,  and  a 
brewery,  producing  about  160,000  gallons  of  Bavarian  beer  per  annum, 
which  is  chiefly  consumed  in  the  neighboring  towns  and  villages.  I 
need  not  point  out  to  you  that  the  grains  and  malt-dust  from  my 
brewery  are  a  most  material  accessory  to  my  means  for  feeding  the 
stock,  and  that  the  refuse  enriches  the  manure  heap. 

To  work  the  whole  estate,  I  keep  thirteen  pairs  of  horses  and  six 
pairs  of  working  oxen,  their  labor  being  always  so  arranged  and  dis- 
posed of  as  to  concentrate  it  where  most  required  at  the  time.  Thus, 
at  present,  during  harvest,  nearly  all  are  employed  in  hauling  and 
threshing  grain  and  doing  other  harvest  work.  During  winter,  when 
the  earth  is  frost-bound,  all  are  busy  carting  clay,  on  easy  roads,  for 
the  brick-works,  and  so  on.  One  branch,  or  department,  must  always 
help  on  the  other,  as  best  it  may.  I  grind  my  own  flour,  bake  my  own 
bread,  and  kill  my  own  meat,  and  have  my  own  coopers,  blacksmiths, 
wheelwright,  and  carpenter,  on  the  place,  so  as  to  be  independent  of 
the  tradesman,  and  to  have  their  labor  at  hand  when  required.  When 
nothing  else  is  to  be  done,  the  coopers  make  casks  in  store,  the  black- 


296  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

smitlis  and  wlieelwriglit  work  at  new  carts  and  implements ;  neitlier 
time  nor  labor  is  lost. 

The  price  of  land  here,  owing  to  the  neighborhood  of  a  large  town, 
is  rather  dear — from  £40  to  £60  per  English  acre,  arable  land.  Tak- 
ing this  in  consideration,  and  the  value  of  live  and  dead  stock,  build- 
ings, and  floating  capital,  I  realize,  in  an  average  of  years^  a  net 
interest  of  five  and  a  half  per  cent,  on  the  capital  represented  by  this 
property,  after  allowing  ten  per  cent,  per  annum  for  deterioration  of 
dead  stock,  and  two  per  cent,  on  buildings.  This  is  no  great  interest, 
certainly,  but  a  safe  return,  and  combining  an  agreeable  occupation 
with  an  independent  and  comparatively  inexpensive  country  residence. 
The  whole  is  conducted,  under  my  supervision,  by  an  able  manager, 
with  a  staff  of  under-bailiffs  and  servants.  Minute  accounts  of  every- 
thing are  kept,  in  sets  of  books  arranged  for  the  purpose,  in  charge 
of  two  clerks.  I  may  add  that  there  is  also  an  agricultural  school  on 
the  estate,  licensed  by  government,  where  young  men  above  eighteen 
years  of  age  can  learn  something  theoretically  and  practically  about 
farming.  It  is  a  private  undertaking,  v/ith  which  I  am  in  nowise 
connected,  except  that  it  exists  at  my  sufferance,  the  pupils  j)rofiting 
by  what  they  may  learn  on  the  farm. 

I  shall  be  glad  if  you  find  anything  to  interest  you  in  my  letter.  If 
so,  may  it  serve  as  some  apology  for  its  length. 

Believe  me,  dear  sir,  yours  most  truly  and  respectfully, 

ALEXANDEE  SPECK  YON  STEKNBUEG. 

His  Excellency  Joseph  A.  Wright, 

American  Minister  at  Berlin. 


SPLEEN  IN  SHEEP,  AND  ITS  PEEYENTION. 

[Condensed  and  translated  from  the  German.] 

Different  opinions  prevail  as  to  the  causes,  preventives,  and  remedy 
of  this  destructive  evil.  Generally,  however,  little  or  nothing  has 
been  done  to  prevent  or  check  the  disease.  Many  resort  to  medica- 
ments of  infusion,  which  process  proves  of  no  avail;  others,  when  the 
disease  has  made  its  appearance  among  their  flocks,  deny  it,  or  pretend 
to  have  suppressed  it  in  its  very  outbreak.  But  all  these  mysteries 
cannot  be  attended  with  any  benefit. 

For  the  most  part,  the  well-fed  animals  are  affected  by  the  spleen  or 
milt-disease.  They  are  seen  dropping  their  heads,  breathing  labori- 
ously, and  moving  their  sides  with  great  force  and  rapidity.  They 
show  uneasiness  and  dullness,  others,  however,  are  excited,  and  appear 
to  be  lively.  The  latter,  as  a  general  rule,  are  first  stricken  down 
with  the  disease.  According  to  observations  made  by  Dr.  Wagenfeld, 
the  skin  is  of  a  red  appearance,  jDassing  somewhat  into  bluish,  and  the 
white  of  the  eye  presents  a  dark-blue  stroke,  passing  into  yellowish  or 
brownish  at  the  lower  edge,  the  blood-vessels  being  of  a  dark-red 
color,  and  inflated.  Yet^  with  many  animals,  there  are  no  particular 
symptoms  of  disease  to  be  observed  ;  they  stagger  while  grazing,  and 
fall  down  as  dead. 


PREVENTION   OF   SPLEEN   IN    SHEEP.  297 

It  is  only  by  duration  of  the  disease  that  the  symptoms  assume  a 
more  decided  character.  Melancholy,  want  of  certainty  in  their  steps, 
keeping  behind  the  flock,  abstaining  from  eating,  dullness  and  loss  of 
all  sensation,  are  followed  by  heat  and  dryness  about  the  mouth, 
tongue,  and  nose  ;  their  ears  are  cold,  the  pulse  hard,  and  their  looks 
fixed  and  staring.  After  a  longer  process,  the  pituitary  membrane, 
both  of  nose  and  mouth,  becomes  blood-red,  the  latter  exhibiting 
bloody  foam,  and  violent  gnashing  of  the  teeth.  The  excrements  are 
mixed  with  blood,  and  ulcers  make  their  appearance  about  the  neck 
and  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  animals  begin  trembling,  fall,  are 
seized  by  fits,  the  white  of  the  eye  becoming  red,  and  the  eye-ball  pro- 
jecting from  its  cavity.  If  the  progress  of  the  disease  is  going  on  still 
slower,  the  breathing  is  performed  in  long  and  irregular  intervals, 
blood  is  secreted  from  the  nose  and  other  orifices,  and  the  urine  is  of  a 
blood  color,  when  death  ensues,  amid  violent  convulsions. 

The  disease  is  usually  of  such  rapid  character  that  often  but  few 
minutes  intervene  from  its  supposed  commencement  until  its  termina- 
tion in  death.  -  A  small  number  of  animals  thus  attacked  will  live  as 
long  as  from  ten  to  thirty-six  hours. 

This  rapid  progress  of  the  disease  makes  it  extremely  difficult  to 
discern  it,  especially  as  the  animals  continue  eating  until  they  fall 
down.  Decomposition  speedily  commences,  developing  most  offensive 
odors. 

The  following  are  the  results  of  dissection :  The  stomach  is  distended 
with  ofiensive  gas  and  food  ;  the  small  intestines  present  an  inflam- 
matory appearance ;  the  liver  is  tender,  and  overflowing  with  corrupt 
bile;  the  milt  is  swollen,  soft,  ulcerous,  and  often  bursting;  the  brain 
is  filled  with  blood  ;  every  part  of  the  dead  body  emits  a  foul  smell, 
the  inside  of  the  skin  being  always  dark,  and  of  a  bluish-red  color, 
caused  by  the  blood  beneath. 

This  plague  is  dangerous  both  to  men  and  animals,  not  always, 
however,  evincing  the  same  power  of  contagion.  In  proportion  to  the 
slower  or  more  rapid  progress  of  the  disease  is  the  infiuence  of  its  con- 
tagious nature  ;  though  sometimes  there  is  nothing  of  this  kind  to  be 
apprehended,  when  the  animal  dies  very  quickly.,  which  is  the  reason 
why,  in  certain  cases,  only  a  few  sheep  are  lost  without  the  disease 
spreading  further.  In  a  slow  progress_,  however,  the  contagion 
reaches  the  highest  degree. 

Those  animals  which  die  after  a  slow  progress  of  the  disease  should 
be  buried  as  deeply  as  possible,  together  with  all  their  blood,  foam, 
and  the  filth  hanging  about  them  ;  of  those  which  die  after  a  rapid 
progress,  the  skin  may  be  taken,  but  the  inner  side  of  it  should  be  im- 
mediately strewn  with  salt,  or  with  lime-dust,  which  would  be  still 
better. 

This  disease  makes  its  appearance  most  frequently  in  the  summer 
months,,  and  oftener  in  warm  than  in  cold  countries. 

According  to  observations  made  by  Mr.  Reidemeister,  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, it  is  generated  by  great  heat  and  dryness;  by  dusty  pastures, 
and  the  dust  raised  by  the  wind,  which  the  animals  incessantly  draw 
in;  by  rough  treatment,  and  by  over-feeding  and  fattening.  Previous 
disorders  of  the  abdomen  may  also  be  looked  upon  as  among  its  causes, 


298  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

as  tlie  milt,  on  account  of  its  abundance  of  blood,  is  more  affected  tban 
other  organs.  The  principal  causes,  however,  are  found  to  exist  in 
the  watering  places,  inasmuch  as  the  sheep  are  in  the  habit  of  drinking 
from  stagnant  and  foul  ponds. 

In  a  disease  so  rapid  in  its  progress,  a  special  treatment  of  the  sev- 
eral affected  animals  may  be  out  of  the  question,  though  the  most 
valuable  may  be  subjected  to  such  care.  In  this,  we  must  first  look  at 
the  nature  of  the  disease.  If  there  are  symptoms  of  great  heat,  both 
about  the  mouth  and  horns,  as  well  as  a  difficulty  of  breathing,  we 
should  bleed  the  neck  of  the  animals  until  they  faint,  pour  cold  water 
on  them  for  from  eight  to  ten  minutes,  in  intervals  of  two  minutes 
each,  and  put  bandages  around  them,  of  the  breadth  of  six  fingers, 
soaked  with  turpentine  oil  and  strewn  with  the  dust  of  blister-flies. 
Internally,  they  should  receive,  in  half  a  glass  of  water,  from  two  to 
three  drachms  of  camphor,  finely  pulverized  and  dissolved  with  spirits ; 
to  this  should  be  added  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  drachms  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  or,  still  better,  some  tincture  of  iron  mixed  with  the  water. 
Of  this  mixture  the  animals  should  be  given  a  dose  every  hour.  If 
there  are  any  signs  of  recovery  after  the  lapse  of  twenty-four  hours, 
the  mixture  should  be  given  only  twice  or  thrice  a  day  until  they  are 
completely  restored.  The  boils  should  be  cut  and  cleaned  of  the 
matter  they  may  contain,  after  which  the  wound  is  to  be  washed  with 
a  mixture  of  water,  vinegar,  and  kitchen  salt.  We  must  be  careful 
in  cutting  them,  so  that  the  poisonous  matter  may  not  touch  either  the 
face  or  hands,  which,  as  a  protection,  should  previously  be  well  oiled, 
or  greased. 

The  following  rules  may  be  laid  down  to  prevent  the  disease  : 

The  sheep  should  not  be  kept  in  too  fat  a  condition. 

In  the  summer  months  they  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  burning 
heat  of  the  mid-day  sun. 

All  running  and  chasing  should  be  avoided ;  they  should  be  led, 
and  treated  in  a  mild  and  gentle  way. 

They  should  be  provided  with  new  pastures  every  week. 

They. should  not  be  allowed  to  graze  in  the  neighborhood  of  dusty 
roads,  frequented  by  carriages,  so  as  to  inhale  the  dust. 

They  should  not  be  allowed  to  rest  in  valleys  and  low  places,  but 
only  on  heights,  where  they  may  enjoy  the  comfortable  breeze,  undis- 
turbed by  insects. 

To  deprive  the  milt  disease  of  its  contagiousness,  the  lambs  should 
be  kept  warm  in  winter  ;  for  it  is  the  severe  cold,  stormy,  sharp,  and 
changeable  weather,  that  creates  the  germ,  and  which,  if  favored  by 
circumstances,  is  very  apt  to  assume  the  character  of  contagious  dis- 
order during  summer. 

Healthy  sheep  should  not  be  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  diseased 
ones. 

Give  them  always  pure  water  to  drink ;  the  greatest  advantage  would 
result  from  well-water  containing  iron. 

At  the  appearance  of  any  symptoms  of  disease,  the  sheep  should  be 
removed  from  their  pastures  as  far  as  possible. 

They  should  also  receive  proper  medicines  in  the  latter  part  of  May. 

For  this  purpose  a  mixture  should  be  used,  consisting  of  one  part  of 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  299 

wormwood,  (Artemisia  absinthium,)  one  half  of  juniper  berries,  (Juni- 
jperus  communis,)  one  part  of  gentian  wort,  {Gentiana,)  one  half  of  salt- 
peter, (nitrate  of  potassa,)  one  part  of  kitchen  salt,  and  one  part  of 
hitter  salt,  (Epsom  salt.)  These  ingredients,  finely  pulverized  and 
mixed  with  eight  or  ten  parts  of  hran,  must  he  given  to  the  sheep  to 
lick. 

A  cheaper  mixture  consists  of  one  part  of  wormwood,  {Artemisia 
absinthium,)  one  part  of  gentian  wort,  (Gentiana,)  one  half  part  of 
saltpeter,  (nitrate  of  potassa,)  one  part  kitchen  salt,  one  part  of  hitter 
salt,  (Epsom  salt,)  one  half  part  of  vitriol  of  iron,  and  one  part  of  tar. 
After  a  fine  pulverization  of  all  the  ingredients,  they  are  to  he  mixed 
with  fifteen  or  eighteen  parts  of  pure  loam,  and  well  worked.  Of  this 
mixture  loaves  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  are  formed,  and  dried 
in  a  moderate  warmth,  when  they  will  he  put  in  accessible  places  to  be 
licked  by  the  sheep. 

If  all  these  preventives  prove  inefiectual,  the  application  of  chloric 
water  is  highly  recommended.  For  one  hundred  head  of  sheep,  one 
part  of  chloride  of  lime  is  dissolved  in  water,  and  poured  into  the 
troughs.  The  animals  should  be  induced  to  drink  the  chloric  water 
by  a  dose  of  pure  salt,  given  to  them  to  be  licked  some  hours  before, 

Mr.  W.  Keidemeister  recommends  the  vitriol  of  iron  as  an  effectual 
preventive.  It  is  to  be  dissolved  in  the  water  intended  for  drinking. 
In  other  diseases  of  domestic  animals,  especially  the  atrophy  of  cattle, 
the  tumor  of  horses,  and  even  the  diseases  of  poultry,  it  has  been 
found  a  reliable  cure. 


ON  THE  PEINCIPAL  PLANTS  USED  AS  EOOD  BY  MAN. 


SKETCH  OP  THE   PLANTS    CHIEFLY  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN,  IN  DIF- 
FERENT PARTS  OF  THE  WORLD  AND  AT  VARIOUS  PERIODS. 


BY  DR.    P.    UNGER. 
[Translated  from  the  German  for  this  Report,] 


Nothing  has  had  so  powerful  an  influence  in  changing  the  nature 
of  the  savage  as  becoming  accustomed  to  a  bloodless  food  derived 
from  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  is  true,  that  plants  contain  the  mate- 
rials of  the  blood  and  flesh,  but  nutriment  derived  from  plants  is  very 
different  from  that  derived  from  animals.  Instead  of  a  deadly  struggle 
for  existence,  the  vegetable  world  freely  yields  up  its  best  gifts  without 
being  essentially  impoverished  itself.  The  kernel,  the  ripe  fruity  the 
tender,  ]mGy  sprout,  the  marrowy  substance  of  the  mushroom,  even  the 
farinaceous  tuber  and  root,  in  their  season  of  perfection  and  fitness  for 
the  use  of  man,  usually  only  precede  the  period  of  their  unavoidable 
decay  and  decomposition.     That  which  is  derived  from  the  vegetable 


300  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT, 

world  depends  upon  no  strife  witli  nature,  and  in  tlie  peaceful  searcli 
after  vegetable  nourishment,  man  becomes  himself  peaceable. 

It  is  quite  reasonable  to  suppose  that,  in  moving  around  vaguely  in 
the  forest  and  on  the  plains,  by  the  sea-shore,  and  on  the  bank  of 
rivers,  the  human  race  should  ere  long  have  discovered  some  esculent 
grain  or  nutritious  root  or  fruit,  even  without  taking  into  considera- 
tion what  it  might  have  learned  from  the  instincts  of  animals.  This 
much  is  certain:  that  with  less  rich  endowments  or  gifts^  the  correct 
application  of  these  materials  to  the  necessities  of  his  support,  must 
have  involved  many  labors  and  dangers,  and  the  rectification  of  many 
mistakes. 

From  the  various  researches  into  the  peculiarities  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  and  from  historical  investigations^  it  may  readily  be  shown 
that  no  portion  of  the  earth's  surface,  even  though  of  but  slight 
extent,  was  originally  entirely  without  nutritious  plants.  Neverthe- 
less, it  is  equally  certain  that  the  original  and  natural  distribution  of 
such  plants  was  very  unequal  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  whatever 
it  may  have  since  become  through  the  aid  of  man  and  from  other 
causes. 

The  vegetable  world  manifestly  increases  in  variety  with  a  milder 
climate,  a  warmer  sun,  and  a  less  marked  alternation  of  temperature. 
It  is,  consequently,  not  to  be  wondered  at,  that,  with  the  increasing 
amount  of  heat  in  passing  from  the  ice-encircled  pole  towards  the 
equator^  edible  plants  should  increase  in  number,  and  their  products 
gain  in  size  and  palatability.  The  cold  portions  of  the  northern  and 
southern  hemispheres  produce  few  native  nutritious  plants,  excepting 
such  as  algae,  lichens,  mushrooms,  and  some  edible  berries.  The  trop- 
ical regions,  on  the  other  hand,  furnish  a  superfluity  of  farinaceous 
roots,  and  of  sweet  and  juicy  fruits,  while  the  pierced  bark  of  a  tree 
(Galactodendron  utile,  H.  B.)  even  supplies  a  nutritious  milk.  The 
East  and  West  Indies,  Central  America,  the  coast  of  tropical  Africa, 
are^  in  this  respect,  equally  favored,  each  in  its  own  way. 

This  is  not  the  case,  however,  in  the  temperate  zone,  and  especially 
in  the  warmer  temperate  regions  of  the  earth.  While  the  southern 
hemisphere  can  claim  little  prominence  in  this  respect,  the  northern 
furnishes  a  large  and  varied  series  of  nutritious  plants,  all  important 
to  its  inhabitants.  It  is,  nevertheless,  remarkable  how  little  the 
Western  World  can  enter  into  competition  with  the  Eastern  in  this 
respect,  while  the  western  portions  of  the  latter  (South  Europe  and 
North  Africa),  as  also  the  eastern  (China  and  Japan),  are  of  much 
less  importance  when  compared  with  its  middle  region. 

All  the  investigations  which  we  have  been  enabled  to  make,  in  refer- 
ence to  the  native  country  of  our  most  important  cultivated  plants, 
point  unanimously  to  one  particular  district  as  most  favored  in  its 
position,  and  from  which  the  greatest  number  and  most  important  of 
plants  have  been  derived.  It  is  that  which  is  encircled  by  the  great 
inland  seas  of  the  earth,  namely,  by  the  Persian  and  Arabian  gulfs, 
the  Mediterranean,  the  Black,  and  the  Caspian  seas.  From  the  slopes  of 
the  Caucasus,  of  Taurus,  and  of  the  Albors,  not  only  do  our  most  gene- 
rally distributed  fruits  derive  their  origin,  but  the  cereals  also;  and  if 
we  are  not  able  to  detect  and  to  recognize  the  progenitors  of  these  plants 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  301 

in  tlieir  native  localities,  yet  history  shows  Armenia,  Persia,  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  Syria,  to  have  been  their  cradle.  Even  if  there  were  no 
other  mode  of  determining  the  locality  of  Paradise,  the  point  of  radia- 
tion of  all  European  civilization,  our  knowledge  of  the  origin  of  the 
most  nutritious  plants  would  enable  us  to  establish  its  position. 

It  is  a  fact,  by  no  means  to  be  kept  in  the  back-ground,  that  hardly 
one  of  the  plants,  the  products  of  which  are  used  for  purposes  of  nutri- 
tion, is  pleasant  or  palatable  in  its  original  condition.  Their  different 
methods  of  culture,  their  transportation  to  portionsof  the  earth  remote 
from  their  place  of  origin,  and  the  varied  operations  of  Nature  by  which 
changes  are  induced  in  size,  character,  texture,  and  chemical  constitu- 
tion, have,  little  by  little,  caused  them  to  differ  from  the  original  just 
in  proportion  as  the  hand  of  man  has  cared  for  them.  This  has  caused 
the  cereals  and  the  tuberous  plants  to  be  more  nutritious,  and  has 
rendered  the  vegetables  of  the  kitchen-garden  and  fruits  more  palatable. 
How  great  a  difference  exists  between  the  wild  original  plants,  and 
those  altered  by  the  agency  of  man,  is  shown  by  our  roots,  as  the 
turnip,  the  parsnip,  the  shallot,  &c.;  and  such  fruits  as  the  pineapple, 
banana,  grape,  strawberry,  &c. 

Even  when  long-continued  effort  is  not  sufficient  to  effect  a  desirable 
change  in  the  plant,  it  is  often  possible  for  man  to  make  use  of 
as  food.  Who  does  not  know  that  the  farinaceous  root  of  the 
Mandioca,  or  Cassava,  (Jatropha  maniJiot,  L.),  is  not  only  unpalatable 
but  actually  poisonous,  on  account  of  the  hydrocyanic  (prussic)  acid  in 
its  milky  juices.  The  native,  however,  has  for  a  long  time  obtained 
a  substance,  by  pressing  out  the  grated  root,  and  by  washing,  drying, 
and  toasting,  which  serves  him  for  his  daily  bread,  and  furnishes  at 
the  same  time  a  starch  (tapioca)  useful  for  various  purposes.  The  same 
is  the  case  with  various  other  tuberous  substances,  as,  for  instance,  the 
Takka,  the  Dracontium  polypliyllum,  &c.;  as  also  with  fruits  and  seeds, 
where  portions  must  be  removed  and  altered  in  order  to  render  the  rest 
lit  for  use. 

How  simple  a  treatment  of  many  of  the  farinaceous  plants  is  sufficient 
to  prepare  them  for  food,  is  shown,  for  example,  by  the  Tarro  root 
(Arum  esculentum,  L.),  the  Breiad  fruit  {Artocarpus  incisa,  L.),  the 
Sweet  potato  Convolvulus  batatas,  L.),  and  others,  which  require  only 
to  be  crushed  or  grated  to  furnish  daily  nourishment.  When  the  pulp  of 
such  plants  passes  into  fermentation,  or  is  subjected  to  the  influence  of 
fire,  its  nutritious  qualities  and  palatability  are  increased;  should 
spices  be  added  to  promote  digestibility,  or  if  combinations  of  different 
vegetable  substances  be  effected  wth  materials  of  an  animal  character, 
we  have  the  first  germ  of  the  art  of  cookery  before  us.  It  is  quite 
probable  that  the  greater  mass  of  mankind  has  not  gone  beyond  this 
primitive  condition  of  the  art  to  its  more  refined  modifications. 

The  farinaceous  plants  unquestionably  constitute  the  basis  of  all 
vegetable  nutriment.  Starch  and  different  protein  substances  are  the 
most  important  constituents  of  such  portions  as  are  used  for  the  purposes 
of  food.  Nevertheless,  an  accumulation  of  these  substances  is  not  to 
be  found  in  all  plants,  and  just  as  little  in  all  parts  of  one  and  the 
same  plant.  They  are  mostly  garnered  up  in  tubers,  in  roots,  in  the 
pith  of  stems,  in  fruits,,  and  in  seeds.     These,  therefore,  have  usually 


302  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

been  souglit  after  by  man  and  introduced  into  tlie  circle  of  his  house- 
hold economy,  whenever  this  became  fixed  on  a  firm  basis.  The 
attempt  to  remove  the  small  seed-like  fruit  from  the  various  graminous 
plants,  or  to  test  the  thick  fleshy  fruits  in  reference  to  their  possession 
of  nutritious  substances,  was  as  important  to  man  as  to  animals.  For 
this  reason  the  seeds  of  the  grasses,  and  many  fleshy  tuberous  roots, 
have  played  the  most  important  part  among  all  cultivated  plants,  and 
their  multiplication  by  cultivation  first  enabled  man  to  produce  them 
in  greater  number  in  a  given  space,  and  thereby  to  begin  his  own 
political  and  moral  development. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  how  almost  every  portion  of  the  earth 
has  originally  possessed  its  own  breadstuff,  which  has  thereby  charac- 
terized the  life  of  its  inhabitants.  While  Europe  derived  its  bread 
from  oats,  Northern  Asia  from  barley  and  wheat,  and  Southern  Asia 
from  millet  and  rice,  the  Indian  millet  in  Africa,  and  the  Indian  corn 
in  America  were  the  most  important  plants  of  cultivation.  Australia 
alone  was  originally  deficient  in  this  resjoect,  but  the  intercourse  of 
nations,  which  soon  by  degrees  distributed  all  the  Cerealia  over  the 
whole  inhabited  earth,  has  also  enriched  this  country,  which  seemed 
to  have  been  so  parsimoniously  treated  by  Nature. 

The  common  oat  {Avena  sativa,  L.),  the  true  native  land  of  which 
is  no  longer  known,  although  the  region  along  the  Danube  may  pass 
as  such,  may  be  legitimately  considered  as  the  European  bread  crop. 
The  Celts  and  the  Germans,  as  far  as  we  can  ascertain,  cultivated  it 
two  thousand  years  ago,  and  it  seems  to  have  been  distributed  from 
Europe  into  the  temperate  and  cold  regions  of  the  whole  world.  The 
names  Avena  Oves,  (Kussian),  Owes  (Bohemian),  Owies  (Polish),  Oats 
(English),  have  great  similarity  to  the  words  Hafer  and  Hauer,  while 
on  the  other  hand,  the  Tartarian  name  Sulu,  the  Hungarian  Zab,  &c. , 
point  to  a  different  origin  from  the  former.  Tlie  Illyrians,  besides  the 
names  mentioned,  had  still  others  for  it.  It  was  known  to  the  Egyp- 
tians, Hebrews,  Greeks,  and  Eomans.*  With  the  introduction  of 
more  nutritious  and  better  cerealia,  the  oat  became  more  and  more 
restricted  to  poor  soils  and  inhospitable  regions,  and  at  the  present 
day  it  principally  serves  as  food  only  for  domestic  animals  and  the 
poorer  class  of  people.  In  Scotland,  bread  is  baked  from  it  even  now, 
as  was  formerly  the  case  in  Germany.  The  Oriental  or  Tartarian 
oat  (Avena  orientalis,  Schreber)  was  first  brought  from  the  East  to 
Europe  at  the  end  of  the  preceding  century. 

Barley  {Hordeum  vulgare,  Linn.),  according  to  Olivier  (Voyage  en- 
Persie,  460),  in  his  time  grew  abundantly  wild  in  the  historically- 
important  regions  between  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  Willdenow  is 
inclined  to  place  its  native  country  towards  the  bank  of  the  Samara,  a 
tributary  of  the  Wolga.  We  are  enabled  to  give  the  native  land  of 
the  two-lined  or  common  barley  only,  (Hordeum  disticlium,  L.)  with 
some  certainty.  0.  A.  Meyer  found  it  growing  wild  between  Lencoran 
and  Baku  ;  C.  Koch,  on  the  steppes  of  Schirwan,  in  the  southeast  of  the 
Caucasus;  and  Th.  Kotschy,  in  South  Persia.  The  six-lined  or  winter 
barley  (Hordeum  hexasticJion)  has  been  known  the  longest  of  all.     The 

*  Plin.  Hist.  Nat.,  xviii,  p.  17. 


PLANTS   USED   AS   FOOD   BY  MAN.  303 

Egyptians,  Jews,  and  Indians  cultivated  it  in  the  earliest  times,  and 
grains  are  found  in  the  mummies  of  the  Egyptian  catacombs.  The 
rice  or  battledore  barley,  {Hordeum  zeocriton,  L,),  formerly  more 
abundant  than  now,  furnishes  an  excellent  meal,  and  in  this  respect  is 
distinguished  among  the  other  species.  The  common  barley  came  to 
Europe  by  way  of  Egypt,  where,  at  the  present  day,  the  two  and  the 
six-lined  are  still  cultivated.  Even  in  Greece,  all  the  three  kinds  of 
barley  were  formerly  cultivated,  {Kptdr^,  Theoph.,  Kpcdapc  of  modern 
Greece,)  while  at  the  present  day  only  the  common  and  the  six-lined 
barley  are  cultivated  and  used  as  fodder  for  horses.  The  Romans  were 
acquainted  with  the  two  and  the  six-lined  barley.  In  connection  with 
the  oat,  it  has  extended  its  dominion  in  Europe  to  beyond  the  polar 
circle,  and  near  to  it  in  Asia  and  America,  while  the  cultivation  of 
these  two  CereaUa  is  most  prevalent  in  the  Arctic  Circle,  in  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  continent,  as  well  as  in  the  greater  portion  of  the  sub- 
arctic zone  also. 

The  Celtic  word  Secal,  or  Segal,  as  also  the  German  Bog,  Bya,  and 
the  Sclavonic  Bezi,^'  used  to  indicate  one  of  the  most  important  CereaUa, 
namely,  the  rye,  (Secale  cereale),  point  to  its  origin  in  the  region  be- 
tween the  Alps  and  the  Black  Sea.  Neither  the  Indians  nor  the 
Egyptians  were  acquainted  with  the  rye.  The  Greeks  received  it 
{Bpci^a)  from  Thrace  and  Macedonia.  Pliny  mentions  its  cultivation 
at  the  foot  of  the  Alps.  Other  species  of  Secole  grow  in  southeastern 
Europe  and  western  Asia,  as  for  instance,  Secole  montanum  in  Sicily  ; 
Secale  villosum  on  the  Grecian  Archipelago;  Secole  fragile,  Bieb.,  in 
the  Caucasus ;  and  Secale  anatolicitm,  Boiss. ,  in  western  Armenia  and  Asia 
Minor.  The  different  varieties  which  have  been  produced  under  the 
influence  of  cultivation,  immediately  disappear  in  a  change  of  the 
same.  At  the  present  day  its  cultivation  in  Europe  and  Asia  takes 
place  between  50°  and  60°,  and  in  America  between  40°  and  50°  north 
latitude.  In  Gulbransdale,  (Laurgard),  at  62°  north  latitude,  I  found 
fields  of  rye  at  an  elevation  of  1,030  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the 
size  of  small  gardens,  and,  like  them,  fenced  in  with  boards. 

Wheat  {Triticum  vulgare,  Will.),  which  is  the  most  important  and 
widely  distributed  of  all  bread-stuffs,  according  to  the  Grecian  fable, 
was  originally  native  on  the  plains  of  Enna  and  in  Sicily,  but  it  is 
much  more  probable  that,  like  barley,  it  was  received  from  Central 
Asia,  wdiere  Olivier  seems  to  have  found  it  growing  wild  on  the  banks 
of  the  Euphrates.  In  any  event,  it  belongs  to  the  longest  cultivated 
cerealia.  Even  Theophrastes  was  acquainted  with  it ;  (rcopoci),  pro- 
bably the  grained  summer  variety,  from  wdiicli  the  winter  wheat  seems 
to  have  been  subsequently  develoj)ed.  In  a  similar  manner.  Scripture 
points  to  its  cultivation  in  Palestine.  Even  in  China  it  was  known 
3,000  years  before  Christ  as  a  cultivated  plant.  As  Isis  was  supposed 
to  have  introduced  wheat  into  Egypt,  and  Demeter  into  Greece,  so  the 
Emperor  Chin-nong  is  said  to  have  introduced  it  into  China.  The 
great  variety  of  the  ancient  names  used  for  indicating  this  plant  points 
to  the  wide  circle  of  distribution  which  it  originally  possessed.  At 
the  present  day,  wheat  is  cultivated  in  all  parts  of  the  earth,  having 

*  Not  z]jta,  which  means  grain  in  general. 


304  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

been  taken  to  America  by  tlie  Spaniards,  at  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century. 

Besides  the  common  wheat,  several  other  species  of  wheat  are  to  be 
considered  as  cultivated  plants,  although  they  have  attained  a  much 
more  restricted  distribution.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the 
Triticum  turgidum,  L.  which  was  cultivated  even  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  and  was  known  to  the  Eomans  in  the  time  of  Pliny.  As 
it  has  not  even  yet  reached  India,  its  native  land  is  to  be  looked  for 
rather  to  the  south  and  west  of  the  Mediterranean  than  in  Central 
Asia. 

The  many- eared  or  Egyptian  wheat  (Triticum  compositum,  L.),  is 
only  a  variety.  It  is  cultivated  chiefly  in  southern  Euro|)e  and  in 
England. 

Two  species  of  wheat,  Triticum  durum,  Desf.,  and  Triticum  poloni- 
citm,  L.,  or  Polish  wheat,  are  only  cultivated  to  advantage  in  the 
warmer  regions  of  Europe. 

The  Spelt  {Triticum  spelta,  L.),  at  present  cultivated  only  in  Europe 
here  and  there,  was  met  with  even  by  Alexander  the  Great  as  a  culti- 
vated plant  in  his  campaign  in  Pontus.  Its  origin  in  Mesopotamia 
and  Ham^adan,  in  Persia,  is  not  doubtful ;  especially  as  its  cultivation 
in  these  countries  cannot  be  carried  back  to  any  very  remote  antiquity. 
It  is  called  oXopa  in  Greece,  (Herodot.  II.,  36),  and  it  likewise 
seems  to  have  been  known  in  Egypt,  even  though  at  the  present  day 
it  is  not  found  there.  The  German  name  Spalt  points  to  its  early 
cultivation  in  Germany. 

We  come  finally  to  the  little  cultivated  one-grained  wheat,  (Triti- 
cum monococcum,  L.);  this  is  the  Kussemeth  of  the  Scriptures.  From 
it  the  Syrians  and  Arabians  made  their  bread.  Its  cultivation  has  not 
extended  either  to  India,  Egypt,  or  Greece.  Both  the'Crimea  and  the 
region  of  Eastern  Caucasus  have  been  indicated  as  the  native  country 
of  the  one-eared  wheat.  The  Emmercorn,  or  German  wheat,  (Triticum 
amyleum,  Serv.),  has  had  an  equally  ancient  cultivation  :  this  is  the 
Zsiu  oinoxTios  of  Dioscoridcs.  It  is  cultivated  more  frequently  ir?  the 
southern  than  in  the  middle  portions  of  Europe. 

Wheat  occupies  a  broader  belt  than  rye,  and  is  cultivated  as  the 
principal  crop  in  middle  and  southern  France,  England,  (where  it 
constitutes  the  chief  object  of  culture  among  the  cerealia),  a  part  of 
Germany,  Hungary,  the  lands  of  the  southern  Danube,  the  Crimea, 
and  in  the  lands  of  the  Caucasus,  as  well  as  Central  Asia,  wherever 
the  soil  is  cultivated  ;  along  its  northern  border  it  is  associated  in 
culture  with  rye,  in  the  southern  with  rice  and  maize,  (Indian  corn.) 
The  latter  is  chiefly  the  case  in  the  North  American  States,  and  in  the 
region  of  the  Mediterranean.  Wheat  is  even  cultivated  in  the  south- 
ern hemisphere,  at  the  Cape^  Buenos  Ayres,  and  Chile,  wherever  the 
climatological  conditions  will  allow  it. 

While  wheat  is  richest  in  gluten,  and  therefore  the  most  nutritious 
bread  crop,  rice,  (Oryza  sativa,  L.,)  although  serving  for  the  nutri- 
ment of  much  greater  numbers  of  men,  possesses,  nevertheless,  a  much 
less  capacity  of  producing  blood.  Indigenous  to  Further  India  and 
the  Isle  of  Sunda,  it  is  extended  over  the  whole  of  Southern  and  Eastern 
Asia,  as  well  as  over  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Asia  Minor ;  thence  it  has 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  305 

reached  on  the  one  side  to  North  Africa,  Egypt,  and  Nuhia,  and  on 
the  other  to  Grreece  and  Italy,  (A.  D.  1530.)  Eice  was  already  intro- 
duced into  China  3,000  years  before  Christ.  The  Greek  words  opu^ou 
(Theoph.),  OpoQa  (Diosc),  were  manifestly  derived  from  the  Sanscrit 
arunga  and  the  Cingalee  oortcivee,  (Urui.)  Even  in  the  time  of  Straho, 
rice  was  cultivated  in  Babylon,  Susiana,  and  Syria.  The  Arabians 
brought  it  to  Sicily.  It  is  only  very  recently  that  it  has  been  taken  to 
America.  In  the  African  as  well  as  in  the  American  tropical  regions 
it  is,  however,  less  exclusively  cultivated  than  in  Hindostan,  where 
the  people  live  almost  entirely  on  rice  alone. 

Eice  occurs  in  a  great  number  of  varieties,  such  as  mountain  rice, 
valley  rice,  summer  and  spring  rice,  &c.  The  different  kinds  are  dis- 
tinguished not  only  according  to  their  taste,  but  also  according  to  their 
smell. 

What  rice  is  to  the  Old  World,  maize,  mahiz  (Zea  mats,  L.),  or  In- 
dian corn  is  to  the  New.  It  was  cultivated  there  at  the  time  of  the 
discovery  by  EurojDeans.  It  is  probably  indigenous  to  Central  Amer- 
ica, and  brought  by  the  Toltecs  to  Mexico.  The  first  European  set- 
tlers in  Pennsylvania  (1584)  even  then  found  rich  fields  of  maize. 
The  Indians  on  the  Arkansas  eat  the  green  ears  as  their  every  day 
food.  The  Peruvians  bake  various  kinds  of  bread  from  its  meal.  At 
the  present  day,  maize  is  the  most  common  article  of  nutriment  of  the 
lower  and  middle  classes  in  Peru  and  Central  America,  and  the  com- 
mencement of  its  cultivation  in  these  countries  is  enwrapt  in  the  same 
degree  of  fable  as  the  culture  of  our  cerealia.  The  Mexican  Demeter, 
Cinteutl,  (from  Cintli,  maize,)  like  the  Grrecian  Demeter,  was  honored 
with  the  firstlings  of  the  fruit  dedicated  to  her.  The  many  varieties 
which  are  known  of  the  maize,  as  well  as  the  circumstance  that  at  the 
present  day  we  are  unable  to  point  with  certainty  to  the  original 
species,  indicate  clearly  a  very  extended  period  of  cultivation  for  this 
plant. 

Maize  was  unknown  to  the  Europeans  before  the  discovery  of  Amer- 
ica, and  has  been  extensively  distributed-in  other  parts  of  the  world, 
especially  in  Europe  since  the  seventeenth  century.  That  the  wheat 
of  Theophrastus,  a  grain  the  size  of  an  olive  kernel,  cannot  be  maize, , 
I  consider  to  be  well  established,  just  as  certain  as  it  is  that  his  i^e^a  is 
not  maize,  but  spelt.  In  Germany,  it  is  called  Turkish  wheat;  in 
Greece,  arabositi.  Neither  in  Egypt  nor  in  India  and  China  did  its 
culture  precede  the  discovery  of  America.  The  cultivation  of  maize  in 
America  does  not  extend  beyond  the  southern  tropic,  although  it  passes 
the  Tropic  of  Cancer  to  the  north  almost  to  50°  north  latitude.  On 
the  western  coast  of  Africa  its  cultivation  is  confined  to  the  tropics, 
while  more  to  the  north  it  is  at  home  in  all  the  lands  bordering  the 
Mediterranean. 

The  common  millet  {Panicum  miliaceum,  L.),  derived  from  the 
East  Indies  and  other  warmer  regions  of  Asia,  has  not  had  the  same 
favorable  reception  as  rice,  although  yielding  little  to  it  in  its  distri- 
bution.  It  was  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Eomans  at  the  time  of  Julius 
Ccesar,  and  is  the  xeyj^por  of  Strabo,  who  states  that  it  thrives  excel- 
lently in  Gaul,  and  is  the  best  protection  against  famine.  The  Scla- 
vonians  are  very  fond  of  a  dish  of  millet,  (Kasha  prosna.)  It  was 
20 A 


306  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

probably  tbis  grain  and  not  tbe  Indian  millet  tbat  the  Emperor  Cbin- 
nong  introduced  into  China  more  than  3,000  years  ago. 

Another  species  of  millet  (Fanioum  frumentaceum,  Eoxb.),  is  fre- 
quently cultivated  for  food  in  the  East  Indies.  The  ear  millet,  or  the 
Fennich  (Setaria  italica,  P.  B.),  which  at  the  present  day  is  cultivated 
in  Southern  Europe,  and  even  here  and  there  in  Central,  is  of  East  In- 
dian origin,  since  even  the  ancient  Greeks  knew  it  as  eXupioc:,  and  the 
Romans  as  Panicum. 

The  Hiimnelthau,  or  the  manna  grits  (Figitaria  sanguinalis,  Scop.), 
is  of  less  importance.  The  small  hulled  fruit  furnishes  a  wholesome 
and  palatable  nutriment.  Indigenous  to  Europe,  it  is  cultivated  here 
and  there  on  poor,  sandy  soils. 

The  common  Indian  millet  (SorgJmm  vulgare,  Pers.),  which  was 
introduced  with  rice  by  the  Arabians  into  Egypt,  is  to  be  considered 
as  a  characteristic  plant  of  Africa,  not  because  it  was  originally 
indigenous  there,  but  because  it  is  principally  cultivated  in  this  coun- 
try, (east  and  west  coast,  northern  half  to  Timbuctoo ;  in  Abyssinia, 
from  the  level  of  the  sea  to  the  height  of  8,000  feet.)  Although  its 
native  country  cannot  be  positively  ascertained,  it  can  scarcely  be  any 
other  land  than  India.  Even  in  the  time  of  Pliny*  it  was  known  in 
Europe,  and  in  the  thirteenth  century  had  extended  to  Italy^,  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  reached  France,  under  the 
name  of  Saracen  millet.  At  the  present  day,  it  is  distributed  through- 
out the  whole  of  Southern  Europe,  and  is  raised  to  advantage  in  Hun- 
gary, Dalmatia,  Italy,  and  Portugal.  The  different  varieties  of  the 
Indian  millet,  however,  are  not  well-defined  at  the  present  day.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  Sorghum  hicolor,  Willd. ,  and  the  Sorghum  usorum, 
N.,  are  entitled  to  a  specific  rank. 

To  these  important  cerealia  maybe  added  some  other  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  grasses^  as  well  as  to  other  families.  Here  belongs  the  Tef, 
(Eragrostis  abyssinica,  Link),  Eleusine  tocusso,  Fres.,  and  Eleusine 
coracana,  Gart.,  Fennicillaria  spicata,  Willd.;  also,  Araarantus  fru- 
mentaceus,  Buchanf.,  Folygonum  fagopyrum  and  tartaricum,  and  the 
Chenopodium  qicinoa.  These,  however,  with  the  exception  of  the  last 
two  genera,  are  confined  to  particular  regions  and  are  nowhere  used 
exclusively  as  an  article  of  food. 

The  Ti^  {Eragrostis  abyssinica,  Link)  is  a  mountain  plant  of  Abys- 
sinia, cultivated  everywhere  there,  at  a  height  of  from  2,500  to  8,000 
feet,  where  gentle  heat  and  rain  favor  its  development  (in  July  and 
August.)  It  furnishes  the  favorite  bread  of  the  Abyssinians,  in  the 
form  of  thin,  highly-leavened,  and  spongy  cake.  Four  varieties  are 
cultivated  of  this  palatable  grain. 

The  Fagussa  {Eleusine  tocusso,  F.)  furnishes  a  poorer  bread  in 
Abyssinia,  and  although  cultivated  at  a  height  above  the  sea  of  4,000 
to  7,000  feet,  thrives  particularly  well  in  hot  and  warm  regions. 
There  are  three  varieties,  with  black,  reddish-brown,  and  white  seeds. 
Its  native  country  is  the  East  Indies. 

The  Eleusine  coracana,  Gart.,  furnishes  a  grain  similar  to  the  millet 

*  Pliny,  xviii,  page  7.  |  Pliny,  xviii,  7. 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  307 

in  abundance  of  flour,  altliougli  inferior  to  tlie  preceding  species  in 
quality.  It  is  cultivated  on  a  large  scale  in  the  East  as  well  as  the 
West  Indies. 

Eleusine  stricta,  Eoxb.,  is,  perlia]os,  only  a  variety  of  the  first. 

The  Brush-grass  {Pennicillaria  spicata,Y^ .),  with  its  numerous  va- 
rieties, is  derived  from  the  East  Indies  and  distributed  over  Egypt  and 
the  neighboring  regions.  The  seeds,  which  are  rich  in  flour  and  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  the  millet,  constitute  ih.Q  principal  article  of  food  in 
several  countries.  Various  tribes  of  negroes  subsist  almost  entirely 
upon  it  on  their  travels. 

Buckwheat  {Polygonum  fagopyrum,  Link)  was  first  brought  to  Eu- 
rope at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  having  been  unknown 
both  to  the  Greeks  and  Komans.  Erom  the  northwestern  region  of 
the  Chinese  empire,  whence  came  the  great  devastating  hordes  of  man- 
kind, its  cultivation  has  extended  in  some  unknown  way  to  the  coast 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  thence  it  has  been  still  further  distributed 
by  the  Saracens,  whence  its  name /S'arasm,  grano  Saraceno,  hie  Sarasin. 
The  Polish,  Bohemian,  and  Levant  names,  Tatarka,  Tattar,  very 
clearly  point  to  its  original  native  land  and  its  first  distributers,  as 
also  do  the  Eussian,  Lithuanian,  and  Polish  terms,  Gretscha,  Go-yka, 
Grikhi,  &c.  to  the  intervention  of  the  oriental  G-reeks.  The  names 
buckwheat,  (beechwheat,)  fagina,  and  the  other  different  names  of  this 
plant,  are  connected  either  with  the  mode  of  its  introduction,  or  are 
based  upon  the  form  of  the  fruit. 

While  the  buckwheat  has  a  very  extended  culture  in  the  whole  of 
Middle  and  Northern  Europe,  as  well  as  in  Northern  Asia,  in  Northern 
India  and  Ceylon  it  is  confined  to  narrow  limits,  and  is  there  of  very 
recent  introduction. 

The  Polygonum  tartaricum,  L.  is  of  the  same  origin  as  the  buck- 
wheat, though  it  is  much  less  widely  distributed,  and  was  introduced 
at  a  much  later  period  into  Europe.  The  same  may  be  said  also  of 
the  Polygonum  emarginatum,  Eoth.,  chiefly  cultivated  in  China  and 
Nepaul,  the  native  country  of  which  is  along  the  borders  of  China  and 
Northern  India.  The  Quinoa  {Quinoa  clienopodium,  Willd.),  consti- 
tuted the  most  important  article  of  food  of  the  inhabitants  of  New 
Granada,  Peru,  and  Chile,  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America, 
and  at  the  j)resent  day  is  still  extensively  cultivated  on  account  of  its 
rich  yield.  A  variety,  with  light  and  more  mealy  seeds,  has  arisen  in 
cultivation  from  the  original  species  with  dark  seeds,  and  is  now  raised 
more  than  the  former.  It  is  not  known  at  how  early  a  period 
it  was  cultivated,  although  it  is  remarkable  that  it  has  been  dis- 
seminated but  little  from  the  plateau  of  the  Chuquito.  The  white 
Quinoa  is  cultivated  in  Europe  more  on  account  of  its  leaves  which 
answer  instead  of  spinage,  than  for  the  seeds,  which  are  used  chiefly  as 
food  for  poultry. 

The  Amarantus  frumentaceus,  Buchan.,  Eoxb.,  in  the  East  Indies, 
furnishes  an  equivalent  to  the  Quinoa.  The  seeds  of  this  plant  supply 
an  important  article  of  food  to  the  native  races.  It  is  frequently  cul- 
tivated on  the  mountain  slopes  of  Mysore  and  Coimbatore. 

We  may  here  mention  some  grasses  and  other  plants  which  are  here 
and  there  used  as  furnishing  flour  in  a  general  deficiency  of  other  food. 


308  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

Among  these  are  Glyceria  fruitans,  some  species  of  Bromus,  tlie 
rhizome,  and  root  of  the  Triticum  repens,  the  seeds  of  Calla  palustris, 
Banunculus  Jicaria,  Arum  onaculatum,  Brionia  alba,  B.  dioica,  and 
Butomus  umhellatus,  which,  in  Norway,  often  serves  as  material  for 
bread,  and  the  seeds  of  the  Croix  lacrima  which  are  used  as  food  in 
Tongatahu  and  Eiiwa. 

Certain  roots  and  tuberous  root-like  shoots  are  rich  in  starch  though 
not  abounding  in  albuminous  substances.  To  a  limited  extent  they 
serve  to  replace  the  above-named  cerealia,  if  not  to  supplant  them,  and 
may,  therefore,  when  cultivated,  serve  whole  nations  for  food.  The  potato 
(Solanum  htherosa,  L.),  the  sweet  potato,  the  mandioca,  the  yam 
(Bioscorea  alata) ,  theTakka  {Tacca  pinnati/ida,  Forst.),  and  the  Tarro 
(Arum  esculentum) .  While  the  first  three  belong  to  America  and  have 
been  propagated  thence  to  other  parts  of  the  world,  the  last  three  are 
the  true  bread  plants  of  New  Zealand  and  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific 
ocean,  and  may  have  served  the  inhabitants  as  the  first  means  of  nutri- 
ment just  as  the  root  stalk  of  the  Papyrus  and  Nymplic^a  lotus  did  the 
old  Egyptians. 

The  potato  {Solanum  tuberosum,  L.)  is  not  only  one  of  the  most 
important  of  farinaceous  plants  for  America,  but  has  become  such  for 
Europe  and  the  other  parts  of  the  world. 

It  is  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  potato,  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of 
America,  was  already  cultivated  in  the  greatest  |)ortion  of  the  Andes 
of  South  America,  and  even  from  Chile  to  New  Granada,  although  at 
that  time  it  was  not  known  in  Mexico,  and  only  shortly  afterwards 
in  North  America. 

The  potato  is  a  sea-shore  plant,  peculiar  to  a  hilly  and  rocky  soil, 
and  now  grows  wild  in  Chile  and  the  neighboring  islands  (Chiloe  and 
Chonos,  about  45°  south  latitude)  to  Peru,  (Lima).  In  this  wild  state 
it  rarely  extends  more  than  a  few  miles  inland,  and  is  widely  different 
from  the  present  cultivated  potato.  Its  flower  is  always  white,  its 
tubers  at  the  best  attain  a  length  of  two  inches,  while  its  taste  is 
insipid,  but  not  bitter.  Besides  the  original  plant  of  the  cultivated 
potato,  which  even  in  its  wild  state  has  passed  into  several  varieties, 
(according  to  Hooker,  jr.,  into  five  varieties),  there  are  found  in  the 
East  and  West  Indies  still  other  kinds  of  Solanum  with  the  tips  of  the 
shoots  thickened  into  tubers,  as  Solanum  commersonii,  Poir.,  Solanum 
maglia,  Dun.,  and  Solanum  immite,  Dun.  In  the  Argentine  republic, 
especially  in  the  mountains  of  Famatina,  a  potato  grows  wild,  which 
at  the  time  present  is  cultivated  at  Chilecito. 

Even  in  Mexico,  where  the  Solanum  tuberosum  was  certainly  intro- 
duced at  a  late  period  only  from  South  America,  there  are  some  species 
of  Solanum,  such  as  Solanum  demissum,  Lindl.,  Solanum  cardiopliyllum, 
Lindl. ,  and  Solanum  verrucosum,  Schlecht. ,  the  latter  of  which  produces 
very  palatable  but  small  tubers. 

The  potato  was  first  brought  to  England  from  Carolina  in  the  year 
1586,  and  found  its  way  over  the  rest  of  Europe  in  the  seventeeth  cen- 
tury ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  nineteenth  century  that  it  obtained  its 
fullest  reputation.  At  the  present  time,  in  innumerable  varieties,  it 
sheds  its  blessing  over  all  the  lands  of  Europe  to  the  furthest  north. 
I  have  seen  a  truly  romantic  potato  field,  the  last  one  to  the  north, 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  309 

situated  upon  an  enormous  mass  of  rock  wliicli  lay   near  the  road 
between  Dalevaagan  and  Dalseidet,  (near  Bergen,  in  Norway.) 

The  mandioca  plant  (Jatropha  manihot,  L.)  possesses  an  extremely 
farinaceous  root,  (one  variety,  as  already  mentioned,  with  a  sharp  poi- 
sonous juice,  the  other  without  it,)  and  may  he  ranked  among  the  most 
important  of  nutricious  plants  in  tropical  America.  Pohl  has  shown, 
however,  that  the  two  may  be  considered  as  distinct  species,  and  has 
called  the  first  Manihot  utilissima,  and  the  other  Manihot  aipi.  Both 
species  were  cultivated  by  the  inhabitants  of  Brazil,  Guyana,  and  the 
warmer  portions  of  Mexico,  when  the  first  Europeans  landed,  and  even 
at  that  time  they  had  passed  into  a  great  number  of  varieties.  Brazil, 
in  which  alone  forty-six  different  species  of  manihot  are  found,  is 
undoubtedly  to  be  considered  as  the  native  country  of  both  the  above- 
named  kinds,  although  they  have  not  yet  been  found  growing  wild 
there.  Pohl  has  even  expressed  the  opinion  that  Manihot  pusilla  is  the 
original  stock  of  Manihot  utilissima,  which  is,  however,  doubtful. 

The  mandioc  was  naturalized  in  the  Antilles  as  early  as  the  sixteenth 
century,  although  its  journey  around  the  world,  by  way  of  the  Isle  of 
Bourbon  and  the  East  Indies,  took  place  at  a  comparatively  late  period. 
It  reached  the  west  coast  of  Africa  earlier,  and  the  erroneous  opinion  has 
even  been  entertained  that  it  was  transplanted  from  Africa  to  America. 

Of  as  great,  if  not  greater,  importance  than  the  mandioca  is  the 
Sweet  potato,  (Convolvulus  batatas,  L.,  Batatas  edulis,  Choisy).  It  is 
one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  cultivated  plants  of  South  and  Cen- 
tral America,  and  it,  as  an  article  of  food,  passes  back  to  the  earliest 
historic  period.  In  Brazil  it  is  called  Jetica,  in  Mexico  Gamote,  words, 
the  roots  of  which,  belong  to  the  original  tongue  of  the  country.  The 
name  Batatas  is  a  corruption  of  potato.  Even  upon  the  Antilles  this 
useful  plant  was  found  cultivated  in  numerous  varieties  as  early  as  the 
year  1526.  Columbus  brought  it  with  other  novelties  to  Europe,  and 
presented  it  to  Queen  Isabella  ;  the  consequence  was  that  this  plant, 
which  is  suited  to  the  climate  of  Spain,  was  immediately  cultivated 
there.  C.  Clusius  mentions  that  as  early  as  the  year  1601  he  had 
eaten  it  in  Spain. 

The  sweet  potato  was  first  brought  by  the  SjDaniards  to  Manilla  and 
the  Moluccas,  and  thence  by  the  Portuguese  distributed  over  the 
entire  Indian  Archipelago.  Its  names  in  these  countries  are  never  of 
Malayan,  but  altogether  of  Castilian  origin.  This  plant  soon  reached 
China,  Cochin-China,  and  India,  although  when  and  how  is  not 
known  at  the  present  time.  There  is  certainly  a  Chinese,  as  well 
as  a  Sanscrit  name  for  this  plant,  although  this  seems  to  be  of  more 
modern  origin.  The  sweet  potato  has  been  even  believed  by  some  to 
be  of  Asiatic  origin,  or  that  the  American  and  Asiatic  plants  are  to 
be  considered  as  diiferent  species.  Neither  of  these  suppositions  is 
probable  on  historical  grounds,  and  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the 
fifteen  species  of  this  genus  hitherto  known  are  peculiar  to  America, 
four  of  which  only  have  also  found  their  way  to  other  parts  of  the 
world.  The  sweet  potato  has  not  been  found  growing  wild  by  any 
one,  although  the  tropical  portion  of  America  is  to  be  considered  as 
its  native  country  with  most  show  of  probability. 

The  Ipomcea  mammosa,  Choisy,  a  native  of  Amboyna,  another  con- 


310  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

volvulaceous  plant,  with  edible  root,  is  cultivated  in  Cocliin-Cliina, 
and  may  be  the  same  plant  which  is  raised  as  a  variety  under  the 
name  of  Umara  {Convolvulus  clirysorhizus  (Soland.  ?),  in  Otaheite,  of  the 
Sandwich  Isles,  the  Eastern  Isles,  and  Northern  New  Zealand. 

The  Arum  root  {Arum  colocasia  L.),  on  account  of  its  farinaceous 
tuberous  roots,  is  one  of  the  most  important  plants  of  the  tropics.  It 
is  very  probably  an  Indian  plant,  which  is  cultivated  in  the  whole  of 
Central  Asia,  in  very  numerous  varieties,  under  the  Sanscrit  name 
Kuclioo  {Kutscliu).  Here  and  there  it  is  found  running  wild,  though 
nowhere  growing  truly  native.  It  was  carried  westward  in  the  very 
earliest  times_,  and  with  Nelumbium  speciosum,  cultivated  in  Lower 
Egypt,  particularly  towards  the  Delta  of  the  Nile,  where  it  is  now 
grown  under  the  name  Colcas,  Kulkas ;  while  the  Nelurabium  has  long 
ago  again  disappeared.  The  Greeks  meant  the  Nelumbium  by  their 
xoloxaaca,  supposing  the  root  sprouts  to  be  used  as  food.  They  were 
manifestly  wrong  in  this,  however,  since  the  root  is  of  very  little 
use  on  account  of  its  'fibrous  texture.  The  Spaniards  received  the 
Aron  root  from  the  Egyptians,  which  they  cultivated  in  the  southern 
portions  of  their  country,  although  it  become  quite  at  home  there. 

We  are  at  present  unable  to  say,  with  certainty,  how  far  the 
AroideaB,  cultivated  in  Ceylon,  the  Sunda  Islands,  and  the  Moluccas, 
belong  to  this  or  to  other  species.  It  is  also  more  or  less  doubtful 
whether  the  Tarro  or  Tallo  {Arum  esculentum,  Forst.),  does  not  in  all 
probability  represent  the  same  species;  a  supposition  which,  besides 
the  similarity  of  the  characteristics  of  the  two  plants,  is  corroborated 
by  the  fact  that  the  Arum  colocasia,  in  Java,  is  known  by  the  name 
of  Tallus,  which  is  probably  identical  with  that  of  Tallo,  used  on  the 
South  Sea  Islands.  It  is  not  even  improbable  that  these  islanders  may 
have  become  acquainted  with  this  plant  on  their  voyages  to  the  west_, 
and  brought  it  back  with  them. 

The  Igname,  or  Yam  {Dioscorea  alata,  L.),  is  a  plant  cultivated  in 
the  tropics  of  the  whole  earth  on  account  of  the  nutritious  qualities  of 
its  root,  although  far  inferior  in  excellence  of  taste  to  the  sweet  potato. 
This  root  is  very  much  prized,  and  it  often  attains  an  enormous  size, 
and  a  weight  of. from  thirty  to  forty  pounds.  The  Indian  archipelago 
and  the  southern  portion  of  the  Indian  continent,  is  the  starting  point 
from  which  this,  the  most  cultivated  species  of  Disocorea,  has  spread. 
Thence  it  was  first  carried  to  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  next  to  the 
west  coast,  and  from  thence  to  America,  where  the  names  Yam,  Igname, 
are  derived  from  the  negroes.  In  the  negro  dialect  of  Guinea,  the 
word  ''yam"  means  to  eat. 

The  want  of  a  Sanscrit  name  for  this  plant  in  Northern  India  clearly 
shows  that  it  is  not  indigenous  there.  The  other  species  of  Dioscorea, 
cultivated  more  or  less  on  the  islands  of  the  Indian  archipelago  and 
the  continent,  are  Dioscorea  pentaphylla,  L.,  D,  hulhifera,  L.,  D. 
aculeata,  L.,  and  D.  deltoides,  Wall^  {D.  saliva,  L.).  All  of  these 
have  their  native  home  in  the  Indian  Archipelago  and  in  India  itself, 
and  are  nowhere  met  growing  wild. 

The  tubers  of  the  Tacca  {Tacca  pinnatifida,  L.),  furnish  a  mealy 
nutriment  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Society  Islands  and  the  Moluccas, 
where  the  plant  is  met  with  both  wild  and  in  a  state  of  cultivation. 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  311 

In  the  latter  case,  the  tuherous  root  loses  something  of  its  original 
acridity  and  bitterness.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  sharp  tubers 
of  Dracontium  polyphyllum,  L.,  which  is  also  used  upon  the  Friendly- 
Islands  for  want  of  other  kinds  of  food. 

The  tuberous  root  of  the  Tupinambur  or  Jerusalem  artichoke  {Helian- 
ilius  hiberosus,  Jj.),  is  of  less  importance,  America  is  its  native  country, 
although  it  is  still  doubtful  from  what  point  it  is  derived.  The  name 
under  which  it  was  first  cultivated  in  Europe,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  (Aster  pericvianus  tuherosus),  furnishes  a  clue  to 
its  probable  birth-place,  which  is  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  three 
other  species  of  Heliantlius  are  peculiar  to  the  chain  of  the  Andes. 
The  Tupinambur  is  chiefly  cultivated  in  the  United  States  of  North 
America,  and  is  very  little  used  in  Europe. 

The  tubers  of  the  Oca  or  Oxalis  tuherosa,  MoL,  furnish  a  scanty 
substitute  for  more  generous  means  of  nutriment.  The  oca  is  culti- 
vated in  the  Andes,  from  Chile  to  Mexico,  and  reaches  a  height  of 
8,000  feet.  Its  tubers  vary  from  the  size  of  peas  to  that  of  nuts,  and 
of  no  very  pleasant  taste.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  Oxalis  cras- 
sicauUs,  Zucc.  {0.  crenata,  Jacq.),  which  is  indigenous  to  Mexico, 
Peru,  and  Colombia,  as  also  with  the  Oxalis  tetraphylla,  Cavan.,  and 
0.  esctdenta,  Hort.  Berol. 

It  is  very  probable  that  the  Oxalis  enneaphylla,  Cav. ,  indigenous  to 
the  Malouine  and  Falkland  Islands,  as  well  as  Oxalis  violacea,  L.,  of 
Carolina,  are  not  much  better  articles  of  food.  In  the  same  category 
may  be  included  the  tuberous  root  of  the  Tropceolum  tuberosum,  Don. 

The  Ulluco  or  Melloco  {Ullucus  tiibei^osus,  Loz.),  a  juicy  plant  with 
creeping  stem,  the  sprouts  of  which  swell  at  the  tips  into  tubers  from 
the  size  of  a  hazel  nut  to  that  of  a  pigeon's  egg,  like  the  sweet  potato, 
is  also  a  native  of  the  Andes  of  Bolivia,  Peru,  and  New  G-ranada. 
These  tubers  are  of  an  insipid  taste,  although  improved  by  freezing. 
They  are  still  cultivated  at  a  height  of  11,000  to  13,000  feet  in  Popayan 
and  Paste,  (Peru,)  under  the  name  of  Oca  quina.  During  the  period 
of  the  j)otato  disease  in  Europe,  an  attempt  was  made  to  replace  this 
tuber  by  the  oca,  but  without  satisfactory  results. 

There  is  a  tuberous  root  of  Apios  tuherosa,  Monch,  (Glycine  apios, 
L.),  found  in  northern  America,  (Canada,  Virginia,)  which  is  some- 
what similar  to  the  Jerusalem  artichoke.  These  taste  like  the  arti- 
choke, and  like  them  are  eaten  as  food  and  their  seeds  applied  to  the 
same  purpose.  The  mealy  root  of  Lupinus  littoralis,  Douglas,  is  used 
in  a  similar  manner  on  the  northwest  coast. 

A  third  leguminous  j)lant,  the  potato-bean,  (Stizolobium  tuherosum, 
Spgl.,  Doliclios  tuherosus,  Lam.),  found  on  the  Antilles,  is  remarkable 
for  tubers  the  size  of  a  child's  head.  A  fourth  kind,  the  turnip-bean, 
(Pachyrliyzus  angulatus,  Kich.,  Doliclios  hulhosus,  L.),  found  in  the 
Philippines-  and  Moluccas,  has  a  root  tasting  like  the  turnip.  The 
seeds  of  the  former  also  serve  as  food ;  the  latter  is  known  in  the 
whole  of  tropical  Asia. 

I  may  here  mention  bulbs  of  two  species  of  crocus.  That  of  the 
Crocus  vernus,  L.,  or  spring  crocus,  is  of  little  importance,  as  it  is 
only  eaten  by  children ;  but  the  much  larger  bulb  of  the  Crocus  edulis, 


312  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Boiss.,  is  brought  to  market  in  Damascus  at  tlie  time  when  the  bulb  is 
about  sprouting,  and  is  there  very  much  prized  as  a  vegetable.  (Th. 
Kotschy.) 

We  may  here  mention  also  the  tubers  of  the  Arrow-head  (Sagitta- 
ria  sagittifolia,  L.),  and  the  creeping  root  of  Nelumhium  speciosum, 
W.,  which  in  China,  and  the  latter  in  Japan  and  tropical  Asia,  are 
frequently  used  as  food.  The  stalks  of  Nelumhium,  according  to  C. 
Von  Htigel,  are  not  dissimilar  in  taste  to  our  broad  beet,  with  a  some- 
what sharp  after-taste. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  mealy  rhizoma  of  NympJiaea  lotus  ^  L. , 
(the  Egyptian  lotus,)  and  -piohaMj  also  thsit  of  Nymphaeacoerulea,  L., 
served  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt  for  nutriment  in  the  oldest  times  as  well 
as  in  the  present  day.  The  same  is  the  case  also  in  the  East  Indies  with 
the  Nymphaea  edulis,  D.  C,  and  in  China  with  Euryale  ferox,  Salisb. 

A  few  plants  are  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  jelly,  or  by  a  starch- 
like condition  of  their  cellular  substance,  among  which  are  various 
species  of  Algae,  or  sea-weeds,  and  Lichens.  From  both  these  great 
groups  of  plants  mankind,  driven  by  necessity,  has  been  able  to  derive 
nutritious  substances  from  materials  sometimes  more  or  less  unpalatable. 

Among  the  Algae  most  common  and  frequently  used  as  food,  are 
Ulva  lactuca,  Lin,;  Iridaea  edulis,  Bory,  {Halymenia  edidis,  Aghd.); 
Laurentia pinnatifida,  Lamour.,  (Pepper  didce  of  the  Scotch);  Rhodo- 
menia p)almata,  Grev.  (Halymenia palmata,  Ag.);  Bliodomenia  ciliata, 
Grev.  (Sphoerococcics  ciliatus,  Agh.);  Laminaria  saccharina.  Lam., 
the  Sugar  tang;  Laminaria digitata,  Lam.,  &c.;  all  used  on  the  coasts 
of  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  Northern  Europe ;  partly  raw  and  partly 
prepared.  Here,  also,  belong  the  Alaria  esculenta,  Grev.,  and  the 
Forphyra purpiLrea,  Agdh.,  which,  under  the  name  oi  Laver,  appears 
on  the  tables  of  the  English  as  a  choice  dish.  The  starch  tang  or  Ceylon 
Moss  (Plocaria  lichenoides,  J.  Ag.,  Sphaerococcus  lichenoides,  Ag.),  is 
also  used  as  food,  either  in  its  natural  condition  or  as  a  constituent  of 
the  Indian  bird's  nests. 

Among  the  Lichens,  the  Manna  stalk  (Parmelia  esculenta,  Ledeb., 
Lecanora  escidenta,  Spr.),  occupies  the  first  place;  it  grows  chiefly  upon 
the  Tartarian  and  Kirgese  steppes  of  Tartary  in  great  numbers,  upon 
dead,  loamy  soil,  and  unfrequented  rocky  cliffs,  loosely  attached  and 
consequently  easily  separated.  When  it  is  collected  in  hollows^  or 
perhaps  carried  a  considerable  distance  by  high  winds,  it  produces  the 
remarkable  phenomenon  of  showers  of  manna  rain ;  all  which  has  been 
observed  at  different  points  quite  recently,  and  at  various  times,  in 
Asia  Minor  and  in  Persia. 

This  lichen,  which  occurs  usually  in  pieces  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut, 
is  distinguished  by  having  about  23  percent,  of  jelly,  some  inulin,  and 
a  large  proportion  (about  66  per  cent.)  of  chlorate  of  lime.  Ground  up 
and  baked  as  bread,  it  more  or  less  satisfies  the  appetite.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  the  manna  of  the  Israelites  was,  not  as  Ehrenburg 
believed,  the  expressed  and  hardened  juice  of  the  Tamarish  (Tamarix 
gallica,  L.  Var.,  mannifera,  Ehrb.),  but  the  manna  lichen  itself,  of 
whose  existence  in  the  regions  of  Sinai  we,  however,  have  no  direct 
information. 

A  second  lichen,  used  both  in  medicine  and  for  purposes  of  nutri- 
ment, is  the  Iceland  Moss  (Cetraria  islandica,  Ach.),  which  is  distri- 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  313 

buted  over  the  wliole  nortli  of  Europe  and  America.  By  separating 
its  bitter  constituents  it  furnishes  a  very  good  article  of  nourishment 
in  those  inhospitable  countries,  and  is  sometimes  converted  into  bread. 

To  the  various  plants  already  mentioned  we  may  add  the  seeds, 
fruit,  and  other  parts  of  several  plants,  which  although  not  so  generally 
distributed,  are  yet,  nevertheless,  not  only  equal  to  them  in  nutritious 
qualities  and  pleasant  taste,  but  may  here  and  there  excel  them,  such 
as  the  Sago-palm,  the  Mauritius  palm,  the  Chestnut,  and  similar 
mealy  seeds  of  several  other  kinds,  as  the  Oak,  the  Bread  fruit,  &c. 
There  are  also  the  various  pod  fruits,  beans,  peas,  lentels,  &c.,  as  also 
the  various  eatable  fungi  or  mushroom. 

The  Sago-palm  (Sagus  rumphii,  Willd.),  often  forms  great  forests 
upon  the  islands  of  the  Indian  ocean  and  Moluccas,  and  is  there  easily 
propagated  by  its  suckers.  The  white  inner  part  of  the  stem,  thickly 
permeated  by  bundles  of  fibers,  abounds  in  a  marrowy  substance,  which, 
when  baked  into  bread,  furnishes  a  dailj"  food  to  the  inhabitants  of 
most  of  the  southern  and  southeastern  parts  of  Asia.  This,  in  the  form 
of  flour  and  of  granules,  is  widely  distributed  in  commerce  as  sago. 
One  trunk  of  the  age  of  15  years,  will  furnish  sometimes  600  pounds 
of  sago.  A  similar  use  is  made  in  the  same  country  of  the  mealy  sago- 
2oalm,  {Sagus  farinif era.  Lam.)  Here,  also,  we  may  mention  the  Mau- 
ritius palm  (Mauritia  fiexuosa,  L.,  jr.),  which  on  account  of  its  pithy 
stem,  which  contains  a  sago-like  meal  before  flowering,  is  also  called  the 
sago-palm — Sago-palm  of  South  America.  It  grows  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Orinoko  to  the  Amazon^  through  the  whole  of  Guiana,  in  Surinam, 
and  throughout  northern  Brazil,  and  even  in  Central  America.  Its  red^ 
scaly  fruit  tastes  like  ripe  apples ;  and  the  mealy  pith  serves  the  Indians 
of  these  countries  as  a  chief  article  of  food.  Even  Caryota  urens,  L., 
Corypha  wnbraculifera  L.,  and  rotuoidifolia,  L.,  Phoenix  farinif era, 
Eoxb.,  Borassus  fiabelliforinis,  L.,  Arenga  saccliarifera,  Lab.,  Elate 
sylvestris,  L.,  Sagus,  rapliia,  Poir.,  Sagus  laevis,  Keinw.,  Dracaena 
terminalis,  Jacq.,  Cycas  circinalis,  L.,  G.  inermis,  Lour.,  and  C.  revo- 
luta,  Thun.^  as  also  Diodon  edule,  Lindl.,  furnish  more  or  less  sago. 
We  may  also  mention  Puya  howplandiana,  Schult.,  the  Achupalla  of 
the  hilly  mountains  of  Peru  and  Popayan,  in  whose  stems  is  found  a 
very  nutritious  pith. 

The  seeds  of  the  chestnut  (Castanea  vesca,  Gart.),  when  roasted  or 
baked^  are  used  in  various  ways  for  the  preparation  of  flour  and  bread, 
and  are  of  much  importance  to  Southern  Europe.  From  its  native 
regions,  (Asia  Minor,  Armenia,  and  Persia,)  where  at  an  early  period 
it  served  for  the  nutriment  of  the  inhabitants,*  it  was  carried  to  the 
island  of  Euboa,  and  thence  very  easily  to  Greece,  the  Grecian  islands. 
Lower  and  Upper  Italy,  the  Hesperian  peninsula,  and  even  over  the 
Alps,  and  everywhere  has  obtained  no  slight  importance  as  furnishing 
an  article  of  food.  This  stately  tree  forms  even  now  entire  forests  on 
the  mountains  of  Piedmont,  Lombardy,  and  Tuscany,  as  well  as  of 

*  Xenophon  states,  that  the  children  of  the  Persian  nobility  wei-e  fattened  upon  chestnuts. 
It  is  nevertheless  probable  that  the  chestnut  is  indigenous  to  the  Himalayas,  where  several 
species  exist. 


314  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Greece.     In  tlie  valleys  of  tlie  Waldenses,  in  the  Cevennes,  and  in  a 
great  portion  of  Spain,  it  furnishes  nutriment  for  the  common  jjeople. 

The  Chestnut  is  the  Jupiter's  oak  (^^(5c  ^dXavocf),  or  the  Euboean  nut, 
and  with  the  edible  oak  or  other  eatable  species  of  oak,  probably  con- 
stituted the  first  food  of  the  original  inhabitants  of  G-reece.  Cato  calls 
it  the  Grecian  nut.  Virgil  speaks  of  it  as  the  Kastanian  nut.  At  a 
later  period,  on  account  of  its  size  and  excellence  in  Sardinia,  it  was 
called  the  Sardinian  nut.  The  largest  variety  at  the  present  day  is 
called  marron  in  Italy. 

Charlemagne  commended  the  propagation  of  the  Castanea  to  his 
subjects.  This  tree  was  first  brought  to  England  in  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  This  variety  of  chestnut  occurring  in  North 
America  (Castanea  vesca,  var.  americana,  Michx.)  is  eaten  raw,  boiled, 
or  roasted,  although  not  depended  upon  as  an  article  of  food.  The 
Castanea pumila,  Michx.,  the  chinquapin,  of  the  more  southern  States, 
is  also  eaten  there.  China  has  a  substitute  for  our  chesnut  in  the 
Castanea  chinensis,  Spgl.,  and  Java  in  the  Castanea  argentea,  Blum., 
and  Castanea  tungurrutj  Blume. 

Several  species  of  the  genus  oak  (Qitercics)  distributed  over  the  whole 
earth  possess  edible  fruit,  which,  although  rendered  somewhat  bitter 
and  astringent  by  the  addition  of  bitter  extracts  and  tannic  acid,  may 
yet,  when  reduced  to  meal  and  roasted^  be  considered  as  not  disagreeable. 
The  fruits  of  several  kinds  of  oak,  however,  are  actually  sweet,  and 
taste  like  chestnuts.  Among  these  are  Quercus  esculus,  L.,  Quercus 
tallota,  Desf.,  Quercus persica,  Jaub.  and  Spach. 

That  the  first  inhabitants  of  entire  Greece,  not  merely  of  Arcadia, 
must  have  derived  their  subsistence  from  acorns,  before  Demeter  or 
Ceres  arrived  upon  the  field  of  Eleusis  with  her  sheaves,  is  intelligi- 
ble in  itself,  as  well  as  that  it  may  have  been  principally  the  most 
widely  distributed  Quercus  hallota  and  Quercus  acgilops  that  furnish- 
■ed  them  their  nutriment.  The  ^Tffbq,  Quercus  aegilops,  L.,  (not  Q. 
esculus,  L.),  was  therefore  principally  held  in  honor,  and  we  constantly 
find  it  adorning  the  grave  of  Ilios,  the  founder  of  Ilion,  as  well  as  the 
renowned  oracle  of  Dodona.  The  beautiful  custom  of  the  "citizen's 
crown"  is  probably  connected  with  the  original  use  of  the  oak  as  a  food 
plant.  The  Quercus  rohur,  W.,  and  Quercus  pedicnculata,  W.,  cer- 
tainly played  the  same  part  in  ancient  Germany,  and,  therefore^  not 
without  reason,  was  considered  as  sacred  by  the  inhabitants. 

According  to  Link  there  are  in  the  vicinity  of  Lisbon  whole  forests 
of  Quercus  hallota,  Desf.,  (actually  indigenous  to  northern  Africa,) 
which  constitute  the  wealth  of  the  country  and  nourish  a  number  of 
men.  The  acorns  are  principally  used  for  feeding  swine,  though  they 
are  also  eaten  by  the  poorer  people. 

Besides  Quercus  edulis  and  Quercus  hallota,  Quercus pyrami,  Kotschy, 
and  Quercus  persica,  Jaub.  and  Spach,,  are  also  eaten  in  Southern 
Europe.  According  to  Th.  Kotschy,  the  former  is  brought  to  market 
in  the  Bazar  of  Adana,  and  the  latter  serves  as  a  material  for  bread  in 
Southern  Persia,  (Laristan). 

The  Quercus  castanea.  Wild.  {Q.  prinos  acuminata,  Michx.),  pecu- 
liar to  the  Alleghany  mountains  of  the  United  States,  furnishes  also 
a  pleasant-tasted  fruit  to  the  western  hemisphere. 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  315 

The  tropical  regions  of  tlie  wliole  earth  possess  several  fruits  and 
seeds  similar  in  taste  to  the  chestnut.  Among  the  most  important 
of  these  may  he  mentioned  Bomhax  malaharicum,  D.  C.  This  enormous 
tree  belongs  to  the  East  Indies,  has  sweet  and  pleasant-tasted  seeds, 
which  are  used  both  raw  and  roasted.  The  mealy  seeds  of  Carolinea 
princeps,  L.  fil.,  indigenous  to  Guiana,  when  roasted,  likewise  taste 
like  chestnuts.  The  young  leaves  and  flowers,  also,  are  used  as  a 
vegetable.  The  same  is  the  case  with  Carolinea  insignis,  Swartz,  of 
the  Antilles. 

The  seeds  of  3IeUcocca  hijuga,  L.,  or  Honey  berry — the  fruit  of 
which  we  will  mention  hereafter — are  roasted ,  and  also  taste  like  chest- 
nuts. The  sweet,  chestnut-like  seeds  of  Cupania  tomentosa,  Swartz, 
are  also  used  in  the  West  Indies.  The  seeds  of  Bliglitia  sapida, 
Konig,  of  Guinea,  have  also  a  fine  flavor  when  cooked  and  roasted 
with  the  fleshy  arillus.  This  tree  is  now  cultivated  on  the  Antilles, 
as  is  also  the  case  with  Laurus  chloroxylon,  Sw.,  in  Brazil,  and 
Sloanea  dentata,  L.,  in  South  America.  The  pot-tree  {Lecytliis  ollaria, 
L.),  of  tropical  America,  remarkable  for  its  fruit  the  size  of  a  child's 
head,  is  much  prized  on  account  of  its  chestnut-like  seeds.  There  are 
still  other  species  oi  Lecytliis  furnishing  similar  seeds.  We  may  men- 
tion, in  conclusion,  Castanospermum  australe,  Forst,,  the  seeds  of  which, 
the  size  of  a  chestnut^  when  separated  from  the  hull,  are  used  at  Port 
Jackson  like  the  chestnut. 

The  Bread  fruit  tree  (Artocarpus  incisa,  Linn.,  fil.),  has  been  dis- 
tributed from  the  Moluccas,  by  way  of  Celebes  and  New  Guinea, 
throughout  all  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  to  Otaheite,  but  is 
nowhere  to  be  met  with  growing  wild.  It  is  also  naturalized  in  the 
Isle  of  France  and  tropical  America.  In  its  fruit,  which  is  fit  for 
use  without  additional  preparation,  it  furnishes  one  of  the  most 
generous  means  of  nutriment  which  the  earth  possesses.  The  rich 
abundance  of  the  fruit  which  a  single  tree  supplies  throughout  the 
entire  year,  makes  it  an  inexhaustible  source  of  life,  the  maintenance 
of  which  is  the  care  of  every  family.  Its  many  varieties,  among 
which  are  several  without  seeds,  show  that  its  cultivation  goes  back 
to  the  most  remote  antiquity. 

The  Artocarpus  integrifolia,  Linn.,  fil.,  closely  allied  to  the  Bread 
fruit  tree,  is  more  peculiar  to  the  western  islands  of  the  Indian  archi- 
pelago. On  account  of  Its  excellent  fruit  it  is  a  special  object  of  culti- 
vation on  the  two  Indian  peninsulas,  in  Cochin  China,  and  Southern 
China.  It  has  only  been  recently  introduced  into  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  as  well  as  upon  the  Island  of  Mauritius,  the  Antilles, 
and  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  It  is  scarcely  to  be  doubted  that  it  occurs 
here  and  there  growing  wild,  and  that  perhaps  Ceylon  and  the  Penin- 
sula of  Further  India  may  be  looked  on  as  its  original  native  land. 

How  far  removed  from  those  happy  lands,  where  each  Bread  fruit 
tree  constantly  represents  a  ripening  field  of  grain,  are  those  regions 
of  the  earth  where  the  hungering  man  is  obliged  to  resort  to  the 
scanty  nutriment  of  the  root-stalk  of  the  ferns,  or,  as  in  Iceland,  to 
the  root-stalk  of  the  sand-reed  (Arundo  arenaria,  L.),  and  of  the 
Adders  wort  {Polygonum  historta,  L.). 

The  pod  fruits,  on  account  of  the  mealy  character  of  their  seeds, 


316  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

belong  to  the  series  of  farinaceous  substances.  The  great  abundance 
of  an  albuminous  material,  legumin,  which  is  found  in  them,  in 
addition  to  the  starch,  places  the  pod  fruits  upon  the  same  level  with 
the  most  nutritious  cerealia,  such  as  the  wheat,  &c. 

Of  all  the  pod  fruits,  it  is  probable  that  the  bean  {Viciafaba,  Linn., 
Faba  vulgaris,  Monch.),  indigenous  to  the  southwestern  banks  of  the 
Caspian  sea,  has  been  longest  known  and  most  widely  distributed. 
Even  by  the  Greeks  and  Komans  it  was  considered  as  sacred,  and  it 
was  cultivated  by  the  Jews.  A  temple  dedicated  to  the  God  of  Beans, 
Kyanetes,  stood  upon  the  sacred  road  to  Eleusis,  he  having  first  culti- 
vated beans.  The  Kyanepsia,  or  Bean  feast,  which  the  Athenians 
celebrated  in  honor  of  Apollo,  was  characterized  by  the  use  of  beans. 
The  bean  was  an  impure  fruit  to  the  Egyptians,  who  did  not  venture 
to  touch  it.  Pythagoros  even  forbid  his  scholars  to  eat  beans.  The 
black  speck  on  the  white  wings  of  the  flowers  was  formerly  looked 
upon  as  the  written  character  of  death ;  for  which  reason  the  bean  in 
ancient  times  passed  as  the  symbol  of  death.  The  name  xua/Mq;  came 
from  xussu,  as  well  as  the  Latin  word  Faba,  from  (po.vecv  (Landerer). 

The  bean  is  not  found  in  the  catacombs  of  Egypt,  perhaps  for  the 
the  above-mentioned  reason.  What  the  Greeks  called  'Hhe  Egyptian 
bean"  is  not  this  bean,  but  the  seed  of  the  Nelumbium  speciosum. 
The  bean  belongs  among  the  five  different  kinds  of  seeds  which  the 
Emperor  Chin-nong  introduced  into  China  in  the  year  2822  B.  C.  In 
Abyssinia  bread  is  baked  from  the  bean.  Many  varieties  have  already 
arisen  in  its  culture. 

Of  the  Lupines  which  grow  wild  throughout  the  whole  Mediteranean 
region,  Lupinus  hirsutus,  L.,  alone  was  cultivated  by  the  Greeks  under 
the  name  of  d-eppioc:,  and  serves  now  in  that  country  as  food  for  cattle 
and  the  poorer  classes  of  people,  as  it  did  the  Cynics.  The  Mainots 
make  use  of  it  for  food  at  the  present  day,  and  bake  bread  from  it,  for 
which  reason  they  are  called  Lupinophagi.  The  Hindostan  name, 
Turmas,  and  the  Arabian,  Termis,  clearly  indicate  that  this  plant  has 
been  propagated  from  Greece  to  India  and  Arabia.  At  the  present 
day  it  grows  wild  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Mediterranean  region, 
from  Portugal  and  Algiers  to  the  Greek  islands  and  Constantinople. 

The  same  is  the  case  with  Lupinus  albus,  L.,  the  wolf  bean,  and  Lu- 
pinus termis,  Forsk. ,  (Mediterranean  plants) ;  the  first  distributed 
throughout  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Thrace,  to  Southern  Eussia  ;  the  latter 
found  in  Sardinia,  Corsica,  Sicily,  &c.  Both  are,  at  the  present  day, 
used  almost  exclusively  as  food  for  cattle.  The  latter,  however,  when 
cooked  in  salt  water,  and  shelled,  are  eaten  in  Egypt.  Both  are  cul- 
tivated in  Italy,  and  the  wolf's  bean  has  been  introduced  into  the 
Ehine  country  since  the  sixteenth  century.  The  New  World  (in  I^u- 
pinus perennis,  L.,)  has  also  its  wolf's  bean,  and  its  bitter  seeds  are 
eaten  from  Canada  to  Florida. 

The  lentil  (Ervum  lens,  L.,  ^a/05  Diosc,  and  ^a/^  of  modern  Greece) 
was  known  to  the  Greeks,  Jews,  and  Egyptians,  but  has  been  only 
recently  introduced  into  Bengal.  This  circumstance,  and  the  fact 
that  India  has  not  cultivated  this  plant  at  an  earlier  period,  indicate  a 
more  westerly  native  country,  which  may  be  fixed  in  Northern  Cau- 
casus and  South  Eussia,  for  the  reason  that  the  lentil,  besides  being 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  317 

cultivated,  grows  wild,  and  is  also  occasionally  to  l)e  met  with,  run 
wild,  throughout  the  whole  of  Europe. 

The  lentil  of  the  present  day  serves  the  Bedouin  for  bread-fruit,  and 
a  variety  (Ervum  lens  var.  abyssinica,  Hochst.)  has  originated  upon 
the  high  plains  of  Abyssinia  (5,000  to  8,000  feet.)  Besides  this  one, 
several  other  varieties  have  been  formed  in  the  course  of  time. 

The  pea  (Pisicm  sativum,  L.,  Titaov,  Theoph.),  was  in  estimation  as 
a  culture  plant  even  among  the  Greeks  and  Komans  ;  in  fact,  its  cul- 
tivation even  in  India  goes  back  to  a  remote  period,  as  is  shown  by  its 
Sanscrit  name,  and  the  many  more  modern  Indian  names.  The  pea 
is  found  growing  wild,  at  the  present  day,  upon  the  hills  of  the  Isth- 
mus of  the  Crimea,  and  its  native  country  was  probably  originally 
along  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea.  It  was  mentioned  in  the  '^Capitu- 
lare  de  VilUs,"  {Pisum  mcmriscum,)  and,  at  the  present  day,  it  has 
extended  in  various  varieties  to  Hammerfest  and  Lapland.  A  similar 
distribution  is  to  be  assigned  to  the  Pisum  arvense,  L,  This  species, 
at  the  present  day,  is  cultivated  more  frequently  than  the  preceding  in 
Egypt,  and  has  not  remained  unknown  in  India.  Besides  these,  two 
species  of  pea  may  be  mentioned — the  Egyptian  pea  (Pisum  Jomardi, 
Schrank)  and  the  Abyssinian  pea  (Pisum  abyssinicum,  Alex.  Braun) — 
belonging  chiefly  to  Africa,  as  also  Pisum  maritimum,  L.,  and  Pisum 
ochrus,  L.;  the  former  growing  wild  on  the  coasts  of  Erance,  England, 
and  Denmark,  as  far  as  Kamtschatka ;  the  latter  occurring  in  Italy, 
Portugal,  Spain,  and  Crete,  but  used  as  an  article  of  food  only  in  times 
of  famine. 

The  Chick-pea,  (Gicer  arietinum,  L._,  ipej^cvdoc:,  Theoph.),  is  an  im- 
portant kind  of  pea  to  the  East.  The  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Egyptians 
cultivated  it  in  ancient  times,  and  it  was  also  used  as  an  object  of 
devotion,  at  an  early  period,  even  in  India,  as  is  shown  by  the  Sanscrit 
names.  The  common  class  of  Greeks  even  now  make  use  of  it,  both 
raw  and  roasted,  during  the  winter  months,  and  employ  it  as  a  substi- 
tute for  coffee.  It  is  also  cultivated  frequently,  at  the  present  day,  in 
Egypt,  as  far  as  Abyssinia,  and,  according  to  Th.  Kotschy,  is  one  of 
the  most  generally  distributed  of  cultivated  plants  on  the  heights  of 
Lebanon  as  well  as  in  Spain. 

This  plant  is  represented  as  almost  growing  wild  in  the  Caucasian 
countries,  in  Greece,  &c.,  and  is  also  found  run  wild  here  and  there  in 
the  fields  of  Middle  Europe. 

The  Elat-pea  (Latpyrus  sativa,  L.),  is  used  more  as  a  fodder-plant  in 
the  green  condition,  than  for  purposes  of  food. 

Both  the  bean  and  the  pea,  as  well  as  the  chick-pea,  were  introduced 
into  the  model  farm  of  Charlemagne ;  at  present,  they  are  distributed 
over  almost  the  entire  earth. 

The  Kidney  bean  was  not  unknown  to  the  ancients ;  but  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  refer  the  different  kinds  to  those  of  the  present  day.  The 
Greeks  cultivated  Phaseolus  vulgaris,  L.  (oo//;foc),  as  well  as  Pha- 
seolus  nanus  {(paaioXoc:) ;  and  as  these  are  only  sparingly  met  with 
in  eastern  Asia,  and  as  there  is  no  Sanscrit  name  for  them,  it  is  proba- 
ble that  they  were  derived  from  Western,  rather  than  from  Eastern 
Asia. 

At  least  a  dozen  different  kinds  of  bean  are  cultivated  in  India,  of 


318  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

wliicli  several  liave  their  home  in  Southern  China,  in  Cochin  China, 
&c.  There  is  no  species  of  bean  found  growing  wild  at  the  present 
day  in  India. 

Of  the  East  Indian  species  of  Pliaseolus  which  are  an  object  of  cul- 
tivation, we  may  mention  first  Pliaseolus  mungo,  L.,  the  bean  of  which, 
with  rice,  constitutes  the  principal  article  of  nourishment  in  the  East 
Indies  and  in  China.  It  is  also  cultivated  in  Egypt  and  Italy  at  the 
present  day.  A  second  species,  Pliaseolus  radiatus,  L.,  and  Pliaseolus 
lunatus,  L.,  likewise  very  palatable,  as  also  Ph.  tunlcinensis,'Lo-aT.,  of 
Cochin  China;  Ph.  max,  Eoxb.;  Ph.  calcaratus,  Eoxb.  of  Mysor;  Ph. 
aureus.,  Eoxb.  of  Bengal;  Ph.  torosus,  Eoxb.  of  Nepal;  and  Ph.  aco- 
nit'ifolius.     The  last  is  mostly  used  for  feeding  domestic  animals. 

Certain  American  species  correspond  to  the  Asiatic  just  mentioned  ; 
such  as  Pliaseolus  coccineus,  Lam.  (Ph.  multifiorus,  Willd.),  Pliaseolus 
derasus,  Schrank,  from  South  America,  and  Pliaseolus  farinosus,  L. 
and  Pliaseolus  lathyroides,  L.  from  the  West  Indies.  The  former  at  the 
]3resent  day  is  even  cultivated  in  Europe. 

The  genera  Dolichos  and  Lahlah  may  be  mentioned  next  to  Pliaseolus, 
the  former  belonging  chiefly  to  the  New,  the  latter  to  the  Old  World. 

The  cultivated  species  of  these  are  Dolichos  sesquipedalis,  L.,  from 
tropical  America,  Dolichos  glycinoides,  Kunth,  of  Peru  and  Chile_, 
Dolichos  melanophihalmus,  D.  C.,  the  native  land  of  which  is  unknown, 
and  is  now  cultivated  in  Europe.  Dolichos  sphaerospermus ,  D.  C, 
comes  from  Jamaica.     Dolichos  unguiculatus,  Jacq.,  from  Barbadoes. 

The  species  of  the  Old  World  are  Dolichos  sinensis,  L.,  indigenous 
to  the  East  Indies,  China,  and  Cochin  China.  Dolichos  catiang,  L., 
of  the  East  Indies,  and  actually  cultivated  in  Portugal  and  Italy. 
Dolichos  niloticus,  Delil.  (D.  Sinensis,  Forsk.),  and  Dolichos  luhia, 
L.,  of  Egypt.  Of  the  genus  Lablab  we  may  mention  Lahlah  vulgaris, 
Sav.  {Dolichos  lahlah,  L.),  introduced  from  Egypt  to  the  East  Indies, 
Lahlah  nanldnensis,  Sav.,  Lahlah  leucocarpus,  Sav.,  Lahlah microcarpus, 
D.  C,  Lahlah  perennis,  D.  C.  Of  all  these,  both  the  ripe  seeds  and 
the  unripe  fruit  are  used.  Soja  hispida,  Monch.  {Sojajaponica,  Sav.), 
or  Soy,  from  Japan,  is  cultivated  in  Southern  Asia  and  Europe. 

What  the  previously  mentioned  legumens  are  to  the  colder  portions  of 
the  earth  the  Ground  nut  {Arachis  hypogaea,  L.)  is  to  the  warmer  zone. 
This  plant  was  known  neither  to  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  Arabians 
nor  to  the  Greeks.  The  latter  certainly  did  not  understand  this  plant 
under  the  name  of  apa.jo(z,  which  was  probably  a  species  of  Vicia.  It 
has  been  cultivated  a  long  time  on  the  west  and  east  coast  of  Africa, 
and  only  quite  recently  introduced  into  the  Mediterranean  regions. 
A  Hindostan  name  alone  exists  for  it  in  Asia.  In  modern  times  only, 
it  has  been  cultivated  generally  in  China  and  Cochin  China,  which 
countries  it  has  reached  in  some  unknown  way.  On  the  other  hand, 
six  species  of  Arachis  certainly  belong  to  the  Flora  of  Brazil,  and  the 
older  authors  also  mention  the  cultivation  of  Arachis  hypogaea  under 
the  name  of  Manduhi,  Ancliic,  and  Mani,  on  which  account  there  is 
little  reason  to  doubt  its  American  origin.  The  thick  tuberous  seeds 
are  frequently  eaten  raw,  but  are  very  palatable  when  roasted.  The 
oil  from  it  is  excellent,  and  is  much  esteemed  in  India. 

As  I  find  no  more  convenient  place  for  introducing  those  plants,  which 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  319 

on  account  of  their  nitrogenous  constituents  are  particularly  nutritious, 
although  somewhat  difficult  of  digestion,  I  bring  them  in  at  the  end 
of  the  leguminous  ones.  I  refer  to  the  fungi,  several  of  which^ 
by  proper  preparation,  surpass  all  other  vegetable  substance  in  palata- 
bility.  Here,  above  all  others,  we  may  mention  the  Truffle,  (Tuber 
cibarium,  Pers.),  a  much  praised  subterranean  fungus,  varying  from 
the  size  of  a  nut  to  that  of  the  fist,  and  occurring  cliiefly  in  chestnut 
forests  of  Southern  Europe,  it  was  known  even  to  the  ancients  {uduov, 
Diosc.)  To  these  may  be  added  other  species  of  truffle,  such  as  Tuber 
album,  Bull.,  and  Tuber  griseum,  Pers.,  in  Upper  Italy,  Tuber  mos- 
chatitm,  Bull.,  in  France,  Tuber  niveimi,  Desf.,  in  Barbary,  and  one  oc- 
curring in  the  Arabian  deserts^  of  which  Olivier  makes  mention.  Of  less 
importance  are  certain  morel  fungi,  such  as  Clavaria  coralloides,  Bull., 
CI.  botrytis,  Pers.,  CI.  stricta,  Pers.,  CI.  cinerea,  Bull.,  CI.  rubella, 
Schaff.,  CI.  ametliystea,  Bull.,  &c.;  also  Helvetia  esculenta,  Pers.,  H. 
monachella,  Frs.,  H.  crispa,  Frs.,  H.  ramosa,  Schaff.,  H.  elastica. 
Bull.,  H.  in/ula,  Schaff.,  H.  mitra,  L.,  Morchella  esculenta,  Pers.,  M. 
conica,  Pers.,  M.  bohemica,  Kromb,  and  M.  deliciossa,  Frs.,  Hydnum 
rejjandum,  L.,  and  some  other  species  occurring  abundantly  in  the 
European  forests  furnish  only  an  unpalatable  nutriment. 

The  genera  Boletus  and  Agaricus  are  rich  in  esculent  species.  The 
most  important  of  these  are:  the  Herrenph  (Boletus  eduUs,  Bull.),  the 
Kaiserling  (Agaricus  ccesarius,  Schaff.),  the  common  mushroom  (Ag. 
campestris,  L.),  the  mousseron  (Ag.  mouceron,  Bull.,  Ag.  albellus, 
Schaff.),  the  honey  dove  (Ag.  russida,  Schaff.),  the  Beizger  (Ag.  deli- 
ciosus,  L.);  as,  also,  Agaricus  palomet.  There  (Ag.  virens,  Scop.),  and 
the  Agaricus  aurantiacus,  known  to  the  Eomans  under  the  name  Bo- 
letus, and  always  occurring  in  the  chestnut  forests  of  Southern  Europe. 
It  is  this  species  which  Nero  called  "cibus  desruin,"  food  of  the  gods. 

Of  less  importance,  although  frequently  used  as  food,  are  Agaricus 
procerus,  Scop.,  Ag.  alutaceus,  Pers.,  Ag.  sapidus.  Voir.,  Ag.  esculentus, 
Pers.,  Ag.  aureus,  Pers.,  Ag.  virescens,  Vevs.,  Ag.  amethysteus.  Bull., 
Ag.  anisatus,  Pers.,  Ag.  tigrinus.  Bull.,  Ag.  infundibidiforr)iis,  Bull., 
Ag.  nebidaris,  Batsch.,^^/.  aro'mcdicus,'Ro(i\\.QB,Ag.  tortilis.  Bull.,  Ag. 
violaceus,  L.,  Ag.  hcematochelis ,  Bull.,  Ag.  ostreatus,  Pers.,  Ag.  sub- 
dulcis,  Pers.,  Ag.  lactifiuus  aureus,  Pers.,  Ag.  virgineus,  Jacq.,  Ag. 
eburneus,  Bull.,  Ag.  auricula.  Dub.,  Ag.  eryngii,  D,  C,  Ag.  ovinus, 
Bull.,  Ag.  aquifoUi,  Pers.,  Ag.  ilicinus,  D.  C.,  Ag.  virgineus,  Batsch., 
Ag.  frumentaceus ,  Bull.,  Ag.  castaneus.  Bull.,  Ag.  cortinellus,  D.  C, 
Ag.  caudicinus,  Pers.,  Ag.  sambucinus.  Cord.,  Ag.  attenuatus,  D.  C, 
Ag.  rubescens,  Corda,  Ag.  solitarius.  Bull.,  Ag.  ovoideus,  D.  C,  Ag. 
leiocepjlialus ,  D.  C,  Ag.  vaginatus,  Bull.,  Ag.  incarnatus,  Pers.;  as, 
also,  Boleiits  ce7xus,  Bull.,  preferred  by  many  to  the  mushroom,  B. 
scaber,  Bull.,  B.  aurantiacus,  Bull,  B.  liepaticus ,1) .  C,  B.  carinthia- 
cus,  Jacq.,  and  Bolyporus  ovinus,  Schaff.  We  may  mention,  in  con- 
clusion, the  egg-sponge,  or  Pfiffering  (Cantliarellus  cibariits,  Frs.) 
Besides  these  fungi  belonging  particularly  to  Europe,  there  are  other 
regions  of  the  world  which  are  not  without  palatable  representatives 
of  this  branch  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Among  these,  I  may  men- 
tion a  fev/,  such  as  Boletus  moschocarycmus ,  Kumph,  Herb.  Amb.,  6,  9, 
19;  B.  saguarius,  Eumph,  and   Polygaster   sampadarius ,  Frs.;  the 


320  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

former  eaten  as  a  delicacy  on  tlie  Banda  Islands_,  and  the  latter  in 
Amboyna. 

In  the  southern  States  of  North  America,  upon  soil  recently  cleared 
of  timber,  is  found  the  Indian  potato,  or  Indian  bread  (Tuckahoe),  the 
gigSiTiticLy  coper  don  (Pachyma)  solidum,  Grronov. ,  which  attains  a  weight 
of  from  15  to  30  pounds,  and  was  formerly  eaten  by  the  Indians.  It 
sometimes  furnishes  the  entire  food  of  runaway  negroes. 

All  these  fungi,  with  the  exception  of  a  few,  belong  to  Europe. 
Only  a  few,  as  for  example  the  true  mushroon,  or  champignon,  the 
truffle,  &c.,  are  cultivated,  and  thus  developed  into  varieties.  The 
edible  fungi  may  be  kept,  wdien  dried,  for  a  long  period  of  time. 

There  is  an  extensive  group  of  nutritious  plants,  the  seeds,  fruit, 
and  even  tubers  of  which  are  characterized  by  a  great  abundance  of 
fatty  oil.  The  oil  in  these  is  generally  mixed  with  starch,  gum,  sugar, 
and  albuminous  substances,  and  forms  a  kind  of  emulsion. 

The  almond,  the  walnut,  the  hazel-nut,  the  oil-palm,  the  Brazilian 
nut,  and  the  nut  of  Acromia  sclerocarpa  and  Attalea  compta,  the  pistici, 
the  olive,  the  water-nut,  the  seeds  of  Nelumbium,  &c.,  as  also  the  earth 
almond,  and  several  other  species,  belong  to  this  category. 

The  almond  tree  {Aniygdalus  communis,  L.,  afjuybal-ri,  Theoph.),  with 
a  thick  and  hard,  or  thin  and  soft,  shell  to  its  kernel,  like  many  other 
species  of  the  genus,  is  indigenous  to  Western  Asia  and  North  Africa  ; 
although,  at  the  present  day,  it  is  hardly  met  with  there  in  a  wild 
condition.  It  was  known  at  a  very  early  period  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Mediterranean  regions  of  Syria  and  Palestine.  The  Jews  make 
mention  of  it ;  and  it  was  carried  by  the  Phoenicians  to  the  Hesperian 
peninsula  (towards  Lusitania  and  the  Baetican  province).  It  was 
sacred  to  Cybele,  in  Greece,  where,  even  at  that  time,  there  were  two 
kinds  there,  with  sweet  and  with  bitter  nuts.  Phyllis  hangs  herself 
on  an  almond  tree,  and  is  transfigured  into  it.  Cato  called  it  nux 
GrcBca,  from  which  it  by  no  means  follows  that  at  that  time  it  was  not 
propagated  in  Italy.  Charlemagne  caused  amandalarios  to  be  planted 
on  his  estate.  At  the  present  time  it  is  distributed  over  the  whole  of 
Southern  Europe,  throughout  Persia,  Arabia^  China,  and  Java.  In 
addition  to  the  common  almond,  the  seeds  of  Amydalis  orientalis,  Oliv., 
Amygdcdis  scoparia,  Jaub.,  Amygdalis  arahica,  Oliv.,  and  Amygdalis 
agrestis,  Boiss.,  are  eaten  at  the  present  day  in  Eastern  and  Southern 
Persia,  and  constitute  an  article  of  trade  in  the  bazaar. 

The  walnut  {Juglans  regia,  L.),  characterized  by  its  oily  and  yet 
pleasant-tasted  kernel,  is  referred  to  by  Theophrastus  under  the  name  of 
xdpuop,  and  various  popular  customs  in  ancient  Grreece  have  reference  to 
this  nut.  The  name  nepar/A  relates  to  the  region  whence  it  was  derived^ 
and  it  is  quite  possible  that  Alexander  the  Great  may  have  brought  it 
from  Persia,  where  it  was  earliest  cultivated. 

The  Eomans  received  their  Jovis  glans  (Juglans)  as  early  as  the 
time  of  the  kings.  The  walnut^  although  distributed  from  Lebanon 
throughout  all  the  mountain  region  eastward  to  Shiras,  occurs  gene- 
rally as  a  single  tree,  and  never  forms  plantations.  It  likewise  occurs 
single  in  southern  and  middle  Europe,  ascending  in  our  Alpine  valleys 
to  a  height  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  feet.  Ledebour  states  that 
the  walnut  grows  wild  in  Southern  Caucasus ;  others  refer  it  to  the 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  321 

mountain  valleys  of  Talyscli,  where  it  occurs  wild,  and  the  same  is- 
stated  of  Persia  and  Cashmere.  The  walnut  tree  by  cultivation 
passes  into  various  varieties,  and  is  occasionally  cultivated  more  on 
account  of  its  excellent  timber  than  on  account  of  its  fruit. 

There  are  various  edible  species  of  walnuts  and  of  allied  hickory- 
nuts  in  North  America,  especially  Juglans  nigra,  L.  (Black  walnut), 
Juglans  cinerea,  L.  (Butternut),  Juglans  fraxinifolia,  Lam.,  and 
Carya  oUvceformis,  Nutt.,  (Pecan  nut),  with  other  kinds  of  Carya,  the 
seeds  of  which  are  used  partly  raw  for  the  table,  and  partly  in  the 
preparation  of  oil.  This  is  the  case  also  with  the  Juglans  haccata,  L.^ 
indigenous  to  Jamaica,  excepting  that  its  seeds  are  more  fitted,  for 
furnishing  meal,  on  account  of  their  richness  in  starch. 

The  oily  seeds  of  the  Cacao,  or  chocolate,  {Theobroma  cacao,  L,), 
possess  an  agreeable  aromatic  taste,  and  are  chiefly  used  for  the  pre- 
paration of  various  drinks.  The  cacao  grows  wild  in  the  river  districts 
of  the  Amazon  and  Orinoco,  whence  it  has  been  distributed  to  other 
parts  of  Middle  America,  (Mexico  and  the  Antilles),  where  its  cultiva- 
tion forms  a  very  important  branch  of  trade  in  the  warm  and  moist 
regions.  Other  species,  such  as  Theohroma  hicolor,  H.  B.,  Th.  speciosa, 
Willd.,  Th.  sylvestrls,  Mart.,  and  Th.  guyanensis,-  Willd.,  replace  the 
cacao  in  the  West  Indies  and  South  America,  and  like  the  latter  are 
introduced  into  commerce. 

There  are  various  species  of  Hazel  nut  (Corylus),  the  oily  nuts  of 
which  are  used  as  food.  The  principal  of  these  are  the  common  hazel 
nut,  Noisette,  or  filbert  {Corylus  avellana,  L.),  which  is  distributed 
over  the  whole  of  Europe  and  Northern  Asia :  the  Lombardy  or  Lam- 
bert's  nut  {Corylus  tubulosa,  Willd.),  of  Southern  Europe,  and  the 
Turkish  Hazel  nut  {Corylus  colurna,  L.)  The  latter  is  a  stately  tree, 
forming  whole  forests  in  its  native  land,  (Pontus),  from  which  it  was 
carried,  from  the  Island  of  Thasus,  to  Macedonia  and  Thrace,  and  has 
been  distributed  to  Pannonia  and  throughout  the  whole  of  Italy.  It 
was  brought  to  G-ermany  in  the  sixteenth  century  by  Valerius  Cordus, 
who  received  it  from  the  Hungarian  embassador  in  Constantinople. 
The  citizens  of  Avellum,  in  Campania,  could  not  have  cultivated  the 
common  hazel  nut,  but  the  Turkish  species. 

The  common  hazel  nut  has  already  developed  six  varieties  by  cultiva- 
tion. Corylus  glomerata,  Nois. ,  is  only  a  variety  of  Corylus  colurna,  L. , 
with  large  early  fruit. 

Corylus  rostrata,  Ait.,  and  Corijlus  americana,  Michx.,  wdiich  grow 
wild  in  North  America,  from  Canada  to  Florida,  furnish  an  excellent 
fruit,  commonly  knoAvn  as  hazfil  nuts. 

Some  other  plants,  the  seeds  and  fruits  of  which  are  quite  similar 
to  those  we  have  just  mentioned,  are  Guevina  avellana,  Molina,  {Qua- 
dria  heterophylla,  Pav.),  the  Chilian  hazel  nut;  Cavanillesia  platani- 
folia,  Kunth,  in  Colombia;  Pourretioj  tuherculata.  Mart.,  in  Brazil; 
Anacardium  occidentale,  L.,  (the  Cashew  nut) ;  Omphalea  triandria, 
Aubl.,  and  Omphalea  diandira,  Aubl.,  in  the  West  Indies.  Also 
Siphonia  elastica,  Pers.,  Aleurites  moluccana,  Willd.,  Cervantesia  to- 
mentosa,  Euiz  and  Pav.,  in  Peru;  Hamiltonia  oleifera,  Willd.,  (Oil 
nut),  in  North  America;  Pangium  edide,  Eeinw.,  in  the  Indian  archi- 
pelago; Hamamelis  virginica,  L.,  the  Witch  hazel,  and  Ilamamelis 
21 A 


■322  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

macrophylla,  Pursh.;  Hainamelis parvifoUa, 'Nuttall,  of  North  America; 
Canarium  commune,  L.,  in  Java;  Myrobalanus  hellerica,  Gartn.,  in 
the  East  Indies  ;  also  the  forest  almond  of  St.  Domingo,  Hippocratea 
eomosa,  Swartz,  and  the  fruit  of  the  Quercus  virens,  Ait.,  or  American 
live  oak,  from  which  the  wild  tribes  prepare  an  oil,  in  North  America. 

The  seeds  of  Cicoia  guyanensis,  Aubl.,  F armarium  montanum  and 
P.  campestre,  Aubl.,  from  Guinea,  and  Parinarium  senegalense,  Poir., 
from  middle  Africa,  Licania  incana,  Aubl.,  and  Bomhax  ceiba,  L., 
from  South  America,  have  much  resemblance  in  taste  to  almonds. 

The  Brazilian  nuts,  or  Juvias,  come  from  a  magnificent  tree  (^67^- 
tliolletia  excelsa,  Humb.  and  Bonpl.)  which  has  an  extended  distribu- 
tion in  the  forests  of  Guyana  and  Brazil,  jDarticularly  between  the  river 
district  of  the  Orinoco  and  Kio  Negro.  The  angular  brown  seeds  of 
this  tree,  the  size  of  a  walnut,  have  an  oily  kernel,  and  taste  like 
almonds.  They  soon  become  rancid  and  must  be  eaten  fresh.  Many 
tribes  of  Indians  live  for  a  long  time  upon  these  seeds,  which  they 
collect  and  harvest  with  great  rejoicing. 

The  seeds  of  Caryocar  amygdaliferum,  Cav. ,  and  C.  hutyrosum,  Willd. , 
called  Pequi  and  Souari  in  their  native  region,  furnish  nutriment  sim- 
ilar to  almonds,  on  account  of  their  oily  nature.  The  former  is  a. 
high  tree  in  Ecuador  and  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota  ;  the  latter  in  Guyana. 
We  may  also  mention  Caryocar  glahrum,  Pers.,  and  Caryocar  tomeiv- 
tosum,  W.,  in  Guyana,  and  Caryocar  nuciferwn  on  the  Essequibo. 

Among  the  palms  furnishing  oil  may  be  mentioned  particularly  the 
oil  palm  {Elais  guineensis,  L.),  belonging  to  Congo,  and  the  entire 
tropical  region  of  Africa,  and  distributed  thence  to  Brazil.  From  the 
hulls  of  the  fruit  of  this  tree  most  of  the  palm  oil  of  commerce  is 
■expressed.  There  are  also  the  Acromia  sclerocarpa,  Mart. ,  and  Attalea 
compta,  Mart.,  the  Alfonsia  oleifera,  H.  B.,  in  South  America^  also  the 
king  of  palms^  the  cocos  palm,  or  cocoa-nut  tree,  (Cocos  nucifera,  L., 
and  Cocos  butyracea,  Linn,  jr.)  This  beautiful  tree,  which  at  the  present 
time  is  distributed  over  all  the  coasts  and  islands  of  the  tropics,  namely, 
the  islands  of  the  South  sea,  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  East  and  West 
Indies,  Brazil,  Africa,  &c.,  and  which  seems  to  have  mainly  propagated 
itself,  has  nevertheless  proceeded  from  a  very  limited  locality.  The 
large  size  of  the  fruit,  the  ease  with  which  it  is  transported  by  means 
of  oceanic  currents,  and  the  influence  of  salt  water  as  a  condition  of 
germination^  are  sufficient  to  render  a  great  distribution  possible.  The 
original  native  land  of  this  useful  tree  seems  to  be  the  Cocos  islands 
west  of  Panama  and  the  coast  of  Central  America ;  from  which  region 
its  distribution  has  taken  place  from  a  far  remote  period  by  means  of 
the  equatorial  current  to  the  small  islands  of  Duncan  and  Galega,  and 
thence  to  the  different  groups  of  islands  of  the  Pacific  ocean. 

When  the  embryo  is  unformed  the  fruit  furnishes  sweet  palm  milk ; 
a  further  development  supplies  a  white,  sweet,  and  aromatic  kernel, 
which  tastes  much  better  than  almonds.  And  it  finally  becomes  still 
firmer,  and  then  possesses  a  pleasant,  sweet  oil. 

The  oily  joistacio  nut  {Pistacia  vera,  Lin.),  and  the  Terebinth pistacio 
(Pistacia  terebinthus,  L.),  are  of  less  moment  and  more  limited  distri- 
bution. The  former  is  obtained  from  a  tree  originally  indigenous  to 
Persia,  Bactria,  and  Syria^  but  cultivated  in  the  Mediterranean  regions. 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FdOD  BY  MAN  323 

The  latter  comes  from  a  very  large  and  stout  tree  of  tlie  Mediterranean 
flora.  Boissier  lias  distinguished  the  former,  which  occurs  in  Palestine 
and  Syria  as  a  distinct  species,  {Pistacia  palaestina.)  The  genuine 
pistacio  furnishes  a  pleasant  food,  which  was  liked  by  the  ancient 
Parses,  for  which  reason  this  beautiful  tree  is  frequently  cultivated, 
while  the  fruit  of  the  terebinth  {repi^cvdoc:,  Theoph.)  is  scarcely 
edible  on  account  of  its  resinous  taste.  The  tree  of  the  Palestine 
terebinth,  which  often  attains  a  circumference  of  10  to  12  feet,  is  of 
importance  in  other  respects,  since  it  stands  in  the  most  intimate  rela- 
tionship to  the  theocracy  of  the  Jews.  The  terebinths  of  Mamre,  of 
Oi^hra,  Jabez,  and  Sichem^  have  a  historical  renown. 

Here  may  be  mentioned  the  seeds  of  some  coniferous  trees,  as  those 
of  Taxus  nucifera,  and  Salisburia  adantifolia,  Sm.,  in  Japan,  and  the 
stone  pine  {Pinus  pinea,  L.),  the  Siberia  pine  {Pinus  cemhra,  L.),  the 
cone  of  the  pine  of  Norfolk  island  (Arcmcaria  excelsa,  R.  Brown),  and 
the  American  Araucaria  (Araucaria  imbricata,  Pav.)  The  latter  is  a 
tree  which  furnishes  to  the  Indians  of  Patagonia  a  great  portion  of 
their  nutriment.  It  grows  from  the  twenty-seventh  to  the  forty-eighth 
degree  south  latitude — never  in  the  low  lands.  It  furnishes  to  the 
nomadic  races  (Araucarians)  the  necessary  vegetable  nutriment,  who 
depend  upon  it  the  more  exclusively  in  proportion  to  their  distance 
from  the  whites,  and  the  greater  or  less  difficulty  of  obtaining  the 
ordinary  cerealia  by  means  of  trade.  The  nut  is  shaped  like  aij^ 
almond,  but  twice  as  large.  A  single  cone  will  have  from  200  to  3-iter 
nuts,  and  will  furnish  a  days'  food  to  an  Indian  with  the  addition  of 
little  meat.  The  oily  seed  is  nevertheless  not  very  digestible,  anajj 
cannot  be  kept  any  length  of  time,  as  it  soon  becomes  of  a  stony  hard-  <, 
ness.  The  natives,  however,  prepare  from  it  a  dish,  which  keeps  a 
long  time.*  The  Catappa  tree  (Terminalia  catappa,  L.),  furnishes  a 
pleasant-tasted,  edible  kernel.  This  grows  on  many  islands  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  especially  on  the  Moluccas.  The  fruit  is  similar 
to  the  walnut,  and  has  from  one  to  two  almond-like  kernels.  It  is 
now  cultivated  in  the  Antilles.  Similar  fruits  are  furnished  by  the 
Terminalia  moluccana,  Lam.,  Terminalia  glahrata,  Forst.,  in  the 
Society  and  Friendly  Islands,  Terminalia  mauriciana,  Lam.,  on  the 
Mascarenhas  and  Terminalia  latifolia,  Swartz,  in  South  America. 
Besides  these,  the  kernels  of  the  fruit  of  Incarpus  edulis,  Fort.,  Ster- 
culia  balanghas,  L,,  and  St.  fa^tida,  L.,  are  eaten  by  the  islanders 
of  the  South  Seas  generally. 

The  unripe  seeds  of  various  palms  furnish  oily  kernels,  as  Cocus 
arenaria,  Gomez. 

The  Olive  tree  {Olea  europcea,  L.)  is  incontestibly  the  most  important 
oil-producing  plant.  Homerf  mentions  green  olives  in  the  garden  of 
Alcinous  and  Laertes,  which  were  brought  by  Cecrops,  the  founder  of 
Athens,  to  Greece.  Minerva  planted  it  with  her  OAvn  hand  upon  the 
consecrated  locality  of  her  citadel,  by  thrusting  her  spear  into  the 
ground.  JSTo  temple  or  sacred  place  dedicated  to  her  is  without  its 
olive  tree.  As  light  is  kept  up  by  means  of  oil,  so  this  has  become 
an  indication  of  the  divine  peace  and  of  earthly  blessings.     Jehovah 

*Poppig,  Reise,  i,  p.  401.         f  Odyss.  vii,  112. 


324  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

himself  announced  his  reconciliation  with  earth  by  means  of  an  olive 
branch .  The  olive  belongs  to  the  fruits  which  were  promised  to  the 
Jews  in  Canaan.  This  tree  was  first  brought  to  Italy  in  the  year  571 
before  Christ,  and  at  the  time  of  Pliny  had  been  carried  over  the  Alps 
to  Gaul  and  Spain.  At  the  time  of  Cato,  the  Romans  were  acquainted 
with  only  nine  kinds  of  olives,  which,  however,  at  the  time  of  Plinv, 
had  increased  by  cultivation  to  twelve,  and,  at  the  present  moment, 
even  to  twenty.  The  cultivated  olive  tree  {i)Mio.  yjiiepa,  Diosc),  was 
distinguished  from  the  wild  olive  (iypca  d2aia,  Diosc.)  Willkom*  is 
of  opinion  that  the  olive  tree  is  indigenous  in  various  parts  of  the 
Mediterranean  region,  Spain,  and  also  in  the  southern  portions  of  the 
Peninsula.  He  states  that  the  olive  forest  of  forty  square  miles  at  the 
foot  of  the  Sierra  Morena,  to  the  south,  between  Andujar  and  Cordova, 
may  have  been  entirely  planted  by  hand.  He  is  also  of  opinion  that 
the  olive  forest,  three  leagues  in  length,  situated  further  south,  be- 
tween Seville  and  Utrera^  to  the  left  of  the  Guadalquivir',  consists  of 
olive  trees  run  wild,  having  small  globular  fruit  possessing  but  little 
oil.  He  thinks  that  this  forest  could  only  have  sprung  up  in  conse- 
quence of  the  driving  away  of  the  Moors,  or  from  the  neglect  of  former 
olive  plantations,  as  has  been  the  case  in  other  instances.  He  thinks 
himself,  however,  safe  in  stating  that  the  hedges  and  forests  of  olives 
in  the  southern  part  of  Spain  may  have  arisen  from  indigenous  plants. 
.a.T^e  wild  olive  tree  forms  forests  and  groves,  not  only  in  the  plains 
of  Seville,  where  it  has  certainly  arisen  from  the  running  wild  of 
originally  cultivated  olive  trees,  but  in  the  mountains  also,  as  in  the 
Serrania  da  Eonda,  &c.  It  is  most  frequently  met  with  in  wild  sand- 
stone mountains,  rising  to  a  height  of  4,000  feet  along  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar,  between  AlgesirajS  and  Alcala  de  los  Gazules,  where,  from 
2,000  feet  and  upwards,  it  forms  a  principal  constituent  of  the  inde- 
scribably magnificent  foliage  which  covers  that  mountain. 

"This  office  is  also  shared  by  Quercus  suber,  L.,  or  Cork  oak,  and 
Quercus  lusitanica,  Lam.,  var.  baetica,  Webb.  On  account  of  the  ex- 
traordinary wildness  of  these  mountainSj  it  is  entirely  out  of  the 
question  that  any  cultivation  could  ever  have  taken  place  there. 
Whence,  also,  could  the  massive  wild  olive  trees  come  which  occur  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  mountains,  for  in  the  lower  part  the  forest  con- 
sists simply  of  cork  oaks?  This  fact  seems  to  me  to  speak  very  loudly 
in  favor  of  the  supposition  that  the  olive  tree  has  been  indigenous  to 
Spain  from  the  beginning." 

Hence  it  follows  that  we  must  consider  the  entire  coast  of  the  Med- 
iterranean, North  Africa  to  the  Canary  Islands,  Palestine,  Syria,  Asia 
Minor,  and  Greece,  as  the  native  land  of  the  olive.  On  the  other 
hand^  however,  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  name  of  this  plant 
has  been  referred  among  all  nations  to  the  Grecian  name  i^Mca,  and  the 
Hebrew  zait  or  sait,  which  renders  it  probable  that  the  olive  tree  was 
probably  distributed  by  these  two  nations  of  antiquity  from  one  point, 
in  two  lines,  which  met  again  in  the  Iberian  peninsula. 

At  the  present  time  the  olive  is  distributed  not  only  over  all  the 
lands  of  the  Mediterranean,  still  forming  an  important  source  of  the 
•riches  of  many  of  them,  as  it  was  at  one  time  the  chief  possession  of 

*  Linnssa,  1854,  page  702. 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  325 

Attica  and  Palestine,  but  it  has  also  even  transcended  these  limits. 
The  olive  oil,  next  to  the  cerealia,  is  the  most  indispensable  necessary 
of  life  to  the  Italian. 

The  water  nuts,  or  fruit  of  the  water  plants,  {Trapa,)  which  occur  in 

lakes  in  Europe  and  Asia,  are  distinguished  for  an  abundance  of  starch 

and  fatty  oil ;  although  not  very  pleasant  tasted,  they  are  still  gathered 

■  in  large  quantities,  and  used  as  an  article  of  food,  raw  or  roasted,  and 

even  ground  into  meal. 

There  are  only  two  species  of  Tt'ajoa  y^hich  here  require  special  men- 
tion, namely:  the  one  indigenous  to  India,  especially  to  Cashmere,  the 
Singhara  or  Trapa  hispinosa,  Koxb.,  and  the  one  occurring  in  enormous 
quantity  in  the  lakes  of  China,  Trapa  hicoymis,  Lin.;  the  first  is  fished 
■out  of  Wuller  lake  during  the  winter  months,  and  the  inhabitants 
then  obtain  a  harvest  of  such  abundance  that  they  live  on  it  for  the 
entire  year.  It  is  also  eaten  in  Lahore.  The  second  species,  Trapa 
hicornis,  L.,  called  Ling  in  China^  is  extensively  disseminated  in  the 
southern  regions  of  the  Celestial  empire,  and  furnishes  a  staple  article 
of  nutriment  to  the  poorer  classes  of  the  people.  This*  is  fished  out  in 
a  similar  way.  It  has  run  into  several  varieties.  Trapa  cocJiincM- 
nensis,  Lour. ,  and  Trapa  quadrispinosa,  Eoxb. ,  are  of  less  value.  Even 
the  European  Trapa  natans,  L.,  is  everywhere  made  use  of,  and  Pliny 
states  that  the  Thracians  baked  bread  from  it. 

The  seeds  of  Nelumbmm  speciosum.,  Willd.,  are  used  for  food  in 
India  as  well  as  those  oi Nelumhium  luteum,  Willd.,  (the  yellow- water 
lily),  and  Nelumhium  codophyllum,  Rafin.,  in  North  America. 

The  earth  almond,  or  chufa,  (Cyperus  esculentus,  L.,)  which  is  found 
in  Southern  Europe  (South  Spain  and  France)  and  North  Africa,  is 
also  deserving  of  mention.  Its  tubers  of  a  sweet  and  pleasant  taste 
contain  a  mild  fatty  oil,  similar  in  taste  to  nut  oil,  and,  like  the  potato, 
have  twelve  per  cent,  of  starch,  for  which  reason  they  can  not  only  be  used 
as  food,  but  also  in  the  preparation  of  oil.  It  was  employed  at  the 
end  of  the  preceding  century  as  a  substitute  for  coffee  in  the  whole  of 
Germany.  The  separation  of  oil  from  the  earth  almond  is  too  labo- 
rious and  expensive  an  undertaking,  and,  in  more  recent  times,  has 
been  supplanted  by  many  of  the  so-called  oil  plants,  such  as  the  Kohlraps 
or  Colza  {Brassica  campestris  oleifera,  DC,  Colza,  Lam.*),  (Bras- 
sica  rapa  oleifera,  DC,  La  navette,  Lam.),  the  China  oil  radish 
{BapJioMus  sativus  cliinensis  oleiferus,  H.),  the  flaxf  {Linum  usitatissi- 
onum,  L.),  the  poppy  (Papaver  somniferum,  L.),  the  sunflower  (Heli- 
anthus  annuus,X  L.),  the  oil  Madia  (3Iadia  saliva ,  Mollin[|),  the  Sesame 
{Sesamum  orientale,  L.§),  the  Leindotter  {Camelina  saliva,  Cranz.  *!), 
the  Nuk  {Guizolia  oleifera,  DC),  the  hemp**  {Cannabis  saliva,  L., 
and  Hibiscus  canabinus,  L.) 

*  Growing  wild  from  the  Baltic  Sea  to  the  Caucasus.  Its  culture  started  from  Belgium, 
and  is  more  extensively  prosecuted  in  Holstein 

t  Wild  in  Mingrelia. 

X  Indigenous  to  Mexico  and  Peru. 

IJ  Brought  from  South  America,  where  it  was  cultivated  a  long  time. 

§  A  common  oil  plant  in  Persia,  which  was  used  in  the  time  of  Xcnophon  by  the  soldiers 
to  anoint  their  limbs  to  preserve  themselves  from  being  frost-bitten.  At  the  present  day  it 
is  cultivated  in  Abyssinia  as  an  oil  plant. 

"J  Indigenous  to  Centi-al  Europe,  and  found  on  the  Caucasus  and  in  Siberia;  it  first  be- 
came a  cultivated  plant  in  the  mediccval  ages  in  Germany  and  Russia. 

**  Allied  to  Helianthus,  and  cultivated  in  Abyssinia. 


326  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

There  is  a  fitness  in  treating  of  the  plants  yielding  sugar  after  those 
containing  starch,  on  account  of  the  fact  that  a  majority  of  them  contain 
a  mixture  of  starch  and  sugar.  The  principal  representative  of  the 
saccharine  plants  is  the  sugar-cane,  of  -which  there  are  three  species  and 
several  varieties,  all  indigenous  to  tropical  Asia,  whence  they  have 
heen  distributed  over  the  tropical  regions  of  the  whole  world.  At  the 
present  time  the  plant  is  not  found  growing  wild  in  any  locality.  The 
common  sugar-cane  {Saccliarum  q/ftcinarum,  L.)  is  indigenous  to  India, 
(Bengal,)  and  has  been  cultivated  there  from,  time  immemorial.  This 
is  shown  by  the  Sanscrit  name  Sarkura,  from  which  are  derived  the 
Arabic  name  SuJckar,  the  Grecian  aax'^^ap,  and  the  modern  European 
names  Zucker,  Sucre,  Sugar,  &c.  The  second  species  Saccliarum 
cMne7ise,  Koxb.,  is  undoubtedly  a  plant  peculiar  to  China,  and  has 
been  cultivated  there  independently,  and  perhaps  still  earlier  than  the 
Indian  sugar-cane.  Theophrastes  called  sugar  a  sweet  salt  which  is 
produced  from  a  tubular  plant.  It  v/as  still  very  rare  in  the  time  of 
Dioscorides  and  Galen. 

In  the  ninth  century  the  Arabians  obtained  sugar  from  the  sugar- 
cane, which  at  that  time  was  cultivated  in  Susiana,  as  shown  by  the 
mill-stones  used  in  crushing  the  cane  which  are  found  at  the  present 
day  upon  the  hills  of  Aliwaz,  on  the  Kuren  river.  Sugar  was  brought 
from  Alexandria  to  Venice  in  the  year  996.  Ten  thousand  pounds  of 
sugar  were  used  at  the  weddingof  the  Caliph  Mostadi  Bemvillah,  (1087.) 
The  sugar-cane  is  actually  a  food  plant,  since  it  is  chewed  and  sucked, 
and  perhaps  eaten ;  this  is  still  the  case  in  Egypt,  in  many  parts  of 
Asia,  on  the  Phillipine  and  South  Sea  Islands.  During  the  frequent 
droughts  it  serves  as  a  means  of  assuaging  thirst  among  the  inhabitants 
of  eastern  islands. 

The  sugar-cane  flourishes  best  at  a  temperature  of  from  24°  to  25° 
centigrade  (73°  to  75°  Fahrenheit),  though  it  may  be  raised  at  a  tem- 
perature from  19°  to  20°  (66°  to  68°  Fahrenheit).  In  China  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  Sugar-cane  extends  to  the  thirtieth  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude, in  North  America  to  the  thirty-second  degree.  The  Jews  were 
unacquainted  with  sugar,  as  was  also  the  case  with  the  ancient  Baby- 
lonians. The  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane  was  first  extended  to  South 
Persia  and  Arabia,  and  thence  to  Egypt,  Sicily,  and  South  Spain.  It 
reached  the  Mediterranean  in  1420,  and  at  a  later  period  the  Canary 
Islands.  Columbus  carried  it  on  his  first  voyage  (1490)  from  the 
Canary  Islands  to  San  Domingo.  Captain  Bligh  took  a  variety  from 
the  South  Seas  (Oanna  d'Otaheite)  to  Antigua  and  Jamaica.  At  the 
present  day  the  chief  supply  of  cane  sugar  comes  from  the  West  Indies, 
Mexico,  Brazil,  Peru,  and  Louisiana. 

The  sap  of  some  trees  possess  a  sufficient  amount  of  saccharine 
matter  to  furnish  sugar.  The  principal  of  these  are  Acer  saccliarinum, 
Ij.,  Acer  nigrum,  Michx.,  Acer  ruhrum,  Wangh.,  and  Acer  clasycarpum, 
L.,  of  North  America.  The  sugar  maple  (Acer  saccliarinum,  L.), 
a  stately  tree,  growing  between  the  fortieth  and  forty-third  degrees  of 
north  latitude,  will  furnish  at  least  two  quarts  of  sap  in  twenty-four 
hours  in  the  month  of  March  when  the  flow  is  most  rapid.  The  yield 
of  crystallized  sugar,  however,  does  not  usually  exceed  two  to  four 
pounds  for  a  single  tree. 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  32T 

There  are  certain  roots  cliaracterized  by  a  predominance  of  saccliar- 
ine  juice,  sucli  as  those  of  the  Beet,  the  Sugar  beet,  the  Carrofc,  the 
Celery,  &c. ,  as  well  as  the  fruits  of  various  forest  and  vegetable  growths ; 
among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  Date  palm,  the  Pisang,  the  Pine- 
apple, the  Fig,  the  St.  John's  bread,  the  Indian  fig,  &c. 

The  original  stock  of  the  common  beet  (Beta  vulgaris  y,  rapacea, 
Koch),  as  well  as  that  of  the  Ked  beet  (Beta  vulgaris  y,  rapacea  d 
rubra,  Koch),  occurs  wild  at  the  present  time  on  the  sea-shore  of  the 
Mediterranean  (Greece),  and  grows  wild  in  some  of  the  islands  of  the 
Atlantic  ocean  (Canary  Islands).  This  is  the  common  mangold  (Beta 
vulgaris  a  maritima,  Koch),  of  which  there  are  two  sub-species,  with 
numerous  varieties,  formed  by  cultivation,  the  Garden  mangold  (Beta 
vulgaris  j^,  cicla,  Koch),  and  the  Beet  mangold  (Beta  vulgaris  y, 
rapacea,  Koch.)  It  was  cultivated  for  food  by  the  Greeks  as  it  is  at 
the  present  day  by  the  Persians  and  natives  of  India.  Aristophanes 
reproaches  Euripides  with  the  fact  that  his  mother  was  a  vegetable 
dealer  and  sold  mangold.  The  Romans  were  acquainted  with  two 
varieties.  Charlemagne  ordered  the  cultivation  of  the  Beet  (Betas)  on 
his  estate,  and  from  this  it  was  distributed  throughout  Europe  and 
has  extended  to  North  America.  It  is  easy  to  understand  that  the 
number  of  varieties  of  this  plant  should  increase  very  greatly,  since 
the  species  shows  a  great  inclination  to  varieties  even  to  permanent 
ones.     The  leaves  of  the  Beet  furnish  an  excellent  spinach-like  dish. 

The  turnip,  which  is  cultivated  as  a  favorite  article  of  food,  both 
for  man  and  beast,  on  account  of  its  large,  fleshy  root,  and  sweet, 
pleasant  taste,  is  derived  from  a  plant  (Brassica  campestris,  L.)  grow- 
ing wild  at  the  present  day  in  Russia  and  Siberia,  as  well  as  on  the 
Scandinavian  peninsula.  From  this,  in  course  of  cultivation,  a  race 
has  been  produced  as  Brassica  campestris,  L.,  and  a  second  as  Bras- 
sica rapa,  L.,  our  white  turnip,  with  many  varieties.  The  cultivation 
of  this  plant,  indigenous  in  the  region  between  the  Baltic  sea  and  the 
Caucasus,  was  probably  first  attempted  by  the  Celts  and  Germans 
when  they  were  driven  to  make  use  of  nutritious  roots.  This  was  less 
the  case  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

In  all  widely  distributed  plants  there  is  an  especial  difiiculty  in 
ascertaining  the  primitive  species,  especially  when  no  longer  found  in 
a  wild  state ;  this  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  rettig  and  the 
radish — two  plants  which  belong  among  the  most  widely  distributed 
cultivated  plants  of  Europe  and  Asia.  It  seems  to  be  well  established, 
from  recent  investigation,  that  the  two  plants  belong  to  two  distinct 
genera.  The  original  stock  of  the  winter  rettig  is  (Raplianistrum  mart- 
timum.  Gay),  a  plant  which  grows  wild  from  the  Caspian  sea  to  Gibralter 
and  the  coast  of  England,  and  from  which  the  pa(pa.vtq  djpia  of  the- 
ancient  Greeks,  as  well  as  the  Ai'moracea  of  the  Romans,  does  not 
seem  to  difi"er. 

The  common  radish  (Raphanus  sativus,  L.)  comes  from  a  more  remote 
locality.  It  is  probable  that  China  may  be  considered  as  the  native 
land  of  this  plant,  where,  as  in  the  neighboring  Japan,  it  runs  into 
several  varieties,  among  them  an  oil  plant. 

Here  also  may  be  mentioned  the  horse-radish  (Coclilearia  rustica, 
Lam.,  Cochlearia  ar7noracea,J-i.) ,  the  -B-eshj  root  of  which  is  used  both  for- 


328  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

food  and  in  the  materia  inedica.  The  name  Armor acea  is  derived  from 
the  Pontic  word  Armon,  by  which  the  Komans  designated  our  rettig, 
and  which  has  been  recently  applied  by  the  moderns  to  an  entirely 
different  plant.  The  plant  originated  in  Southern  Kussia,  and  the 
neighboring  countries .  Its  spontaneous  growth  extended  from  Finland 
to  Astr'acan  and  the  steppes  of  Cumana,  and  even  to  Turkey  in  Europe. 
The  name  Chren,  which  the  Sclavonian  races  used  to  denote  this  plant, 
accords  with  the  German  Kren,  and  the  French  Cran  and  Oranson, 
and  indicates  a  by  no  means  early  introduction  of  the  plant  into  these 
countries — a  view  which  is  substantiated  by  the  absence  of  original 
names  of  the  plant  in  the  north,  west,  and  south  of  Europe. 

The  carrot  {Daucus  carotta,  L.)  is  of  much  more  recent  introduction 
as  a  plant  of  cultivation.  It  grows  wild  at  the  present  day  in  the 
whole  of  Europe^  North  Asia,  and  North  America,  and  the  cultivated 
race  returns  to  the  wild  original  in  a  very  few  seasons.  It  appears  that 
the  G-reeks  and  Komans  cultivated  this  plant  in  their  gardens,  although 
not  to  any  great  extent.  It  will  require  further  proof  to  show  that  the 
2ta(pd7voc:  dyf)co(:  is  the  violet  variety  of  the  carrot. 

As  early  as  the  seventeenth  century  the  white  and  yellow  varieties 
alone  were  known ;  at  the  present  day  roots  are  gathered  of  every  size 
and  color. 

There  is  the  same  relationship  between  the  cultivated  and  the  wild 
plant  in  the  parsnip,  (Pastinaca  sativa,  L.),  a  meadow  plant  common 
in  the  v/hole  of  Europe.  The  cultivation  of  the  long,  sweet,  aromatic 
root,  in  northwestern  France,  has  already  continued  for  many  centu- 
ries, during  which  time  several  new  varieties  have  been  developed,  as, 
for  example,  that  with  the  top-shaped  root.  A  kind  of  beer  is  brewed 
from  it,  in  Ireland,  and  even  wine  has  been  manufactured  from  it. 

The  Scorzonera  Jiispanica,  L.,  furnishes  a  very  pleasant  vegetable. 
This  plant  grows  wild,  at  the  present  day,  in  Central  and  Southern 
Europe,  and  in  the  East ;  and  the  slimy,  sweetish  roots  gain  consid- 
erably in  palatability  by  cultivation.  The  Scorzonera  glasiifolia, 
Willd.  and  Scorzonera  jpicroides,  L.,  are  somewhat  similar  in  their 
properties,  as  are  also  the  roots  of  Scorzonera  Laiorentii,  Hook,  jr.,  in 
New  Holland.  The  latter  is  a  choice  dish  of  the  natives,  and  might 
replace  the  Scorzonera  Jiispanica,  if  enlarged  by  cultivation.  Africa 
has  also  a  sweet,  nutritious  root,  in  the  Bauliinia  esculenta,  Burch.,  of 
the  Cape.  The  Arracaclia  esculenta,  Bancroft,  furnishes  a  similar  nu- 
tritious root,  cultivated  in  New  Granada  and  tipper  Peru  on  a  large 
scale.  The  native  land  of  this  plant  is  no  longer  known,  nor  can  we 
tell  liow  far  it  has  been  changed  by  cultivation. 

We  may  also  introduce  here  the  sugar  root,  or  skirret,  and  the  cel- 
ery. The  former  (Suim  sisarunri,  L,),  obtained  from  the  East,  has 
been  cultivated  in  Europe  for  more  than  one  thousand  years.  The 
Emperor  Tiberius  is  said  to  have  demanded  this  sweet  and  somewhat 
aromatic  root  as  a  tribute  from  the  Germans  living  on  the  Rhine. 

The  celery  (Apium  graveolens,  L.),  is  a  sea-shore  plant,  occurring 
on  saline  soil  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  Greece,  and  in 
Turkey  in  its  original  form  and  of  a  bitter  taste.  It  seems  to  have 
come  very  early  into  use,  for  Theophrastus  mentions  it  as  Ii).cvov.  At 
the  present  day,  the  cultivated  plant  is  widely  distributed  in  Greece. 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  329 

It  is.  liarclly  wortli  wliile  to  mention  the  root  of  Campanula  rapunctdus , 
L.,  formerly  cultivated  as  a  vegetable,  a  plant  growing  wild  in  West- 
ern and  Southern  Europe.  The  flesh  of  this  tender  and  palatable  root 
is  often  eaten  in  the  spring. 

We  may  mention  here  a  few  other  plants,  such  as  the  Evening 
Primrose,  Gartenrapibiizel  or  Eapontik  {Oenothera  biennis,  L.),  from 
Virginia,  and  Oenothera  grandiflora,  Ait. ,  likewise  from  North  America, 
which  are  occasionally  sought  after  on  account  of  their  sweet  turnip- 
like roots,  which  they  acquire  by  cultivation.  Oenothera  suaveolens, 
Desf.,  Oenothera  parvifiora,  L.,  and  Oenothera  miiricata,  L.,  likewise 
from  North  America,  also  furnish  edible  roots.  All  these  plants,  like 
the  parsnip  and  the  carrot,  have  laid  aside  very  little  of  their  original 
nature.  The  New  Zealanders,  and  inhabitants  of  the  Oceanic  Islands, 
have  introduced  into  cultivation  some  only  slightly-nutritious  rhizomes 
and  stems,  among  which  are  Convolvulus  turpetum,  L.,  upon  the  Society 
and  Friendly  Islands,  and  the  New  Hebrides,  the  soft,  sweet  stem  of 
which  is  sucked  by  the  boys  of  Otaheite.  The  same  is  the  case  with 
the  rhizome  and  pith  of  Pteris  esculenta,  Forst. ,  Polypodium  medidlare, 
Forst.,  Folypodium  dicJiotomum,  Forst.,  and  Acrostichumfurcatum,  L,, 
in  New  Zealand  and  on  the  Society  Islands.  The  bark  of  Hibiscus 
tiliaceus,  L.^,  furnishes  a  kind  of  nutriment  to  these  poor  natives  in  the 
general  want  of  other  substances,  as  also  the  exuding  gum  of  Avicennia 
resinifera,  Forst.,  and  the  ripe,  unpalatable  fruit  of  Pandanus  odora- 
tissiimts,  L. 

Among  the  edible  root-stalks  of  the  Ferns  we  may  also  mention 
Nephrodium  esculentum,  Don.^  in  Nepal,  and  Diplacium  esculentum,  Sw. , 
in  the  East  Indies,  chiefly  used  by  the  natives. 

Among  the  plants  characterized  by  an  abundance  of  saccharine 
juice,  those  having  sweet  fruit  are  of  very  great  importance,  as  their 
cultivation  is  usually  attended  with  little  difficulty,  the  yield  being 
very  copious,  and  their  taste  much  more  pleasant  than  that  of  the  other 
sweet  parts  of  plants.  We  will  first  mention  the  sv;^eet  and  nutritious 
fruit  of  the  Date  palm  (Phoenix  daciylifera,  L.)  "In  the  East,"  says 
Yon  Martins,  "the  date  tree  has  ever  been  considered  the  benefactor 
of  mankind.  The  life  of  the  wandering  tribes  in  the  desert  circles 
around  the  date  tree ;  and  the  Arabian  poets  ascribed  such  high  im- 
portance to  it  that  they  maintain  that  the  noble  tree  was  not  formed 
with  the  other  plants,  but  from  the  clods  which  remained  after  the 
creation  of  Adam. ' '  The  Persian  enumerates  360  attributes  as  peculiar 
to  his  palm,  probably  with  reference  to  the  career  of  the  sun,  for  the 
tree  is  consecrated  to  the  sun,  and  the  fruit  of  the  date  is  called  Sun 
fruit  (Belach).  In  the  primitive  mythology  of  the  Hindoos  we  find 
various  references  to  this  palm. 

The  native  land  of  the  date  palm  seems  to  have  been  originally  in 
the  region  along  the  east  side  of  the  Persian  G-ulf,  whence  it  has  been 
distributed  in  the  earliest  periods  of  commerce  to  Arabia,  Persia,  liin- 
dostan,  and  westward  over  the  whole  of  North  Africa.  It  reached  the 
West  Indies  a  good  while  ago. 

The  date  palm  occurs  in  the  whole  of  Greece,  and  is  particularly 
abundant  on  the  islands,  although  it  bears  fruit  only  at  Kalamata 
in  the  Southern  Morea,  and  that  of  poor  quality.     Dates  constitute 


330  AGRICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

the  principal  nutriment  for  man,  the  horse,  and  the  camel,  in  Arabia, 
Persia,  and  Egypt.  In  the  oasis  of  the  desert  it  is  the  last  resort  of 
the  starving.  From  the  great  value  of  this  palm  to  these  countries, 
and  its  very  long  period  of  culture,  it  is  not  to  he  wondered  at  that  it 
has  already  expanded  into  many  varieties. 

The  Banana  is  of  as  great,  if  not  greater,  importance  to  the  tropical 
zone.  Both  in  tropical  Asia  and  America  almost  every  hut  has  its 
plantain  tree.  In  the  great  number  of  different  forms  of  plantain,  the 
size,  form,  and  taste  of  the  fruit  are  exceedingly  different.  The  ques- 
tion has  long  since  been  started  as  to  how  far  this  has  been  derived 
from  one  or  several  species.  In  America  there  are  only  two  especially 
distinguishable  forms.  The  Banana  da  terra  (with  long,  straight, 
and  decidedly  three-cornered  fruit,  on  distinct  stems,  and  with  a  fresh, 
juicy  pulp),  and  the  Banana  de  St.  Thome  (with  smaller,  blunt, 
roundish,  and  soft,  sweet  fruit).  In  tropical  Asia  and  the  islands  of 
the  Pacific  ocean  the  different  forms  amount  nearly  to  half  a  hundred. 
Although  the  Banana  has  not  been  found  growing  wild  in  America, 
with  any  degree  of  certainty,  various  points  of  Asia  furnish,  at  present^ 
this  plant  in  its  original  form ;  a  fact  which  speaks  most  decidedly  for 
the  question  of  its  origin,  as  it  is  rarely  propagated  by  seeds,  but  prin- 
cipally by  its  suckers.  Koxburgh  found  it  growing  wild  on  the  coast 
of  Coromandel,  Kumphius  and  Blanco  on  the  Philippines,  Loureiro 
in  Cochin-China,  Finlayson  on  the  small  island  of  Pulo-Ubi,  near 
Siam,  and  so  on  to  Ceylon. 

The  names  used  for  this  plant  in  Asia  and  America  deserve  a  little 
further  attention.  In  America  there  is  no  indigenous  name,  while 
Asia  furnishes  names  in  the  Sanscrit,  Chinese,  and  Malayan  languages, 
even  to  the  definition  of  the  different  forms.  It  is  very  probable  that 
all  the  forms  of  the  Banana  are  derived  from  a  single  stock,  the  original 
locality  of  which  belongs  to  tropical  Asia,  since  the  American  and 
Asiatic  plants  are  scarcely  distinguishable  systematically ;  and  the 
genus  Musa  is  represented  exclusively  in  Asia,  and  not  in  America. 
It  will  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  two  American  forms  are  less 
connected  with  each  other  than  with  the  corresponding  Asiatic  forms. 
It  has  been  asserted  that  bananas  were  cultivated  in  America  before  its 
discovery  by  Europeans,  but  the  historical  notices  on  this  point  are  by 
no  means  unanimous,  and  the  fact  that  the  bananas  were  carried  from 
the  Canary  Islands,  in  1516,  to  St.  Domingo,  is  against  such  a  suppo- 
sition. 

The  cultivation  of  the  true  Banana  (3Iusa  sapientum,  L.)  is  more 
widely  extended  than  that  of  the  Plantain,  (Musa  paradisiaca,  L.), 
and  extends  from  the  30°  to  the  35°  north  latitude,  and  in  the 
tropics  reaches  a  height  of  5,000  feet,  though  under  the  equator  it 
does  not  furnish  ripe  fruit  at  a  height  of  3,000  feet.  The  fruit,  both 
ripe  and  unripe,  is  used  both  raw  and  cooked^  and  eaten  with  the 
addition  of  other  condiments,  (when  ripe  nearly  all  its  starch  is 
transformed  into  sugar),  and  in  many  tropical  regions  it  constitutes 
the  principal  nutriment  of  man. 

The  Banana  flourishes  upon  the  high  plain  of  Central  America  at  a 
mean  temperature  of  12°  Keaumur,  (59°  Fahr.)  Upon  the  same  sur- 
face of  ground  it  furnishes  44  times  as  much  nutriment  as  the  potato, 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  331 

and  133  times  as  mucli  as  wheat.  It  is  more  nutritious  than  the  bread- 
fruit. In  Central  America  it  supplies  to  the  poorer  classes  not  only  the 
place  of  bread,  but  even  of  meat  and  vegetables. 

The  costly  fruit  of  the  Ananas,  or  pine-apple,  (BromeUa  ananas,  L.), 
is  of  by  no  means  so  doubtful  an  origin.  It  is  indigenous  in  South 
America,-  and,  according  to  the  testimony  of  Humboldt  and  Von  Mar- 
tins, grows  wild  in  the  forests  of  the  Orinoco,  and  near  Bah.  From 
this  region  it  was  transplanted  to  Asia  and  Africa.  Its  American 
name  is  Nana,  and  it  is  without  a  Sanscrit  name.  In  1592  it  was  car- 
ried to  Bengal,  and  probably  from  Peru  by  way  of  the  Pacific  ocean 
to  China.  It  Avas  naturalized  in  Java  as  early  as  the  year  1599^  and 
was  taken  thence  to  Europe.  It  is  highly  probable  that  it  has  been 
cultivated  in  its  native  land  from  time  immemorial,  as  it  scarcely  bears 
seeds  any  longer.  Christopher  Columbus  became  acquainted  with  it 
on  his  second  journey,  in  1493,  on  the  Island  of  Guadaloupe ;  but  it 
was  not  till  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  that  some  of  its 
fruit  was  brought  to  Europe,  where  it  was  elevated  to  the  first  rank 
among  all  known  fruits  on  account  of  its  pleasant  taste.  Geronimo 
Benzene  states  (History  of  the  New  World,  1568)  that  no  fruit  on 
God's  earth  could  be  more  agreeable.  Christopher  Acosta  (1578)  calls 
the  plant  Ananas,  and  states  that  it  was  carried  from  Santa  Cruz  to 
the  West  Indies,  and  thence  to  the  East  Indies  and  China.  It  must, 
however,  have  been  distributed  with  uncommon  rapidity,  since  a  few 
years  after  it  was  tolerably  well  known.  About  this  time  the  first  ex- 
periments of  its  cultivation  v/ere  made  in  Europe,  which,  however, 
proved  a  failure.  Several  varieties  of  this  plant  have  been  developed 
which  vary  in  the  shape,  size,  color^  and  taste  of  the  fruit.  Three  of 
these  existed  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America,  and  a  fourth  has 
since  then  been  met  with.  It  is  still  questionable  whether  these  are 
not  distinct  species.  A  white  kind  in  the  East  Indies,  which  has  run 
wild,  still  contains  seed  in  its  fruit.  The  Ananas  thrives  best  in  Bra- 
zil.    In  Peru  a  vinous  drink  (chica)  is  made  from  it. 

The  Melon  tree  (Papaya  vulgaris^  D.  C,  Carica  papaija,  L.),  or 
Pawpaw,  mamao,  represents  the  bread-fruit  in  America,  and  like  this 
plant,  is  cultivated  by  the  Indians  near  their  huts  and  places  of  abode, 
and  introduced  by  the  negroes  into  their  gardens.  It  is  indigenous  in 
Brazil,  Surinam,  and  the  West  Indies  (Jamaica,  San  Domingo),  and 
from  these  points  has  been  taken  to  Congo.  Its  transfer  to  the  East 
Indies  may  have  occurred  even  soon  after  the  discovery  of  America,  for 
as  early  as  the  year  1626,  seeds  were  brought  from  the  East  Indies  to 
Nepal.  Its  further  distribution  to  China,  Japan,  and  the  islands  of 
the  Pacific  ocean,  took  place  only  in  the  last  century.  The  name 
Papaya  is  American,  and  there  is  no  Sanscrit  term  for  it.  The  fruit, 
about  the  size  of  a  child's  head,  resembles  the  melon.  It  has  a  juicy 
flesh,  which,  however,  is  insipid,  and  can  only  be  improved  by  the  ad- 
dition of  sugar. 

The  Fig,  {Ficus  carica,  L.),  a  moderately  large  tree,  furnishes  a 
sweet,  palatable  fruit,  which  is  eaten  both  fresh  and  dried.  It  is  in- 
digenous to  the  regions  which  border  the  lands  of  the  Mediterranean, 
in  the  East,  namely,  in  Syria,  Persia,  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  North 
Africa  ;  but  has  been  cultivated  in  the  same  countries  from  time  im- 


332  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

memorial,  even  as  far  as  Soiitlieru  Germany.  In  the  Taurus  it  thrives, 
at  the  present  day,  with  great  luxuriance,  at  a  height  of  4,800  feet. 

The  Fig  had  its  place  as  a  fruit  tree  in  the  garden  of  Alcinous,  and 
has  been  cultivated  longest  in  Syria  and  Palestine.  Like  the  bread- 
fruit tree  of  the  South  Sea  Islands,  it  gave  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
countries  just  mentioned  their  earliest  nutriment,  and  thus  formed 
their  tree  of  life.  The  Fig,  according  to  Magnos,  first  led  the  way  to 
civilized  life.  According  to  one  Grecian  tradition,  Dionysius  Sycetes 
was  the  discoverer  of  the  fig  tree  ;  according  to  another,  Demeter 
brought  the  first  fig  tree  to  the  nurseryman  Phytalos  ;  a  third  tradi- 
tion states  that  the  fig  tree  grew  up  from  the  thunderbolt  of  Jupiter, 
who  persecuted  the  Titan  Syceas,  whom  his  mother  Gasa  hid  in  her 
lap.  The  most  celebrated  fig  tree  {ispo.  guxyj)  stood  upon  the  sacred 
road  from  Athens  to  Eleusis.  The  fig  tree  everywhere  occurs  abund- 
antly run  wild,  but  it  has  probably  been  only  found  really  wild  by 
Kotschy,  near  Urfa,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  northern  Euphrates.  The 
finest  figs  come  from  Sicyon  and  Attica,  and  the  sycophants,  even  in 
early  antiquity,  were  held  in  no  special  esteem.  The  fig  tree,  at  least 
the  cultivated  kind,  was  brought  to  Italy  from  Syria  or  Greece,  and, 
at  the  time  of  Pliny,  was  not  widely  distributed  there,  but  became 
naturalized  in  Gallia  and  Spain. 

Among  the  different  kinds  of  figs  mentioned  by  Pliny,  Athenseus, 
Columella,  and  Macrobius,  we  may  mention  the  Moorish,  the  African, 
the  Herculanean,  the  Winter  Fig,  and  the  black  Telainan  Fig. 

The  fig  tree  is  mentioned  among  the  fruit  trees  of-  .Charlemagne, 
although  it  could  only  be  raised  in  forcing-houses  '{per  aricia  servafo- 
ria).  Cortez  carried  the  fig  tree  to  Mexico  in  the  year  1560.  The  fig  is 
a  dioecious  plant,  the  sexes  occurring  on  different  trees.  The  female 
plant,  which  produces  the  fruit,  is  alone  cultivated — the  male  growing 
wild.  The  assistance  of  an  insect,  the  fig-wasp,  {Cynips  psenes,  L.), 
is  necessary  to  effect  the  fertilization,  and  to  accelerate  the  growth  and 
the  ripening  of  the  fruit.  Various  species  have  been  recognized  by 
different  botanists  among  the  cultivated  figs,  although  all,  probably, 
have  their  native  land  in  the  regions  already  mentioned.  There  are 
two  species  of  figs  which  furnish  edible  food  in  Southern  Persia,  {Ficus 
persica,  Boiss.),  a  shrub  which  grows  wild  about  Shiraz,  with  not  very 
palatable  fruit,  and  Ficus  johannis ,  Boiss.,  which  is  distributed  in  all 
the  mountains  of  Southern  Persia.  The  fruit  of  the  latter  species,  the 
size  of  a  hazel-nut,  is  pleasant-tasted  and  quite  nutritious.  Of  the 
numerous  tropical  species  we  will  only  mention  Ficus  aspera,  Forst., 
Ficus  granatum,  Forst.,  and  Ficus  indica,  L.,  and  a  fourth  variety  un- 
named, on  the  South  Sea  Islands,  esj^ecially  on  Tanna,  with  edible 
fruit. 

The  St.  John's  Bread  tree,  or  Carob  tree  {Ceratonia  siliqua,  L.), 
distributed  over  the  Mediterranean  and  its  islands,  is  of  less  import- 
ance. Its  fleshy^  sweet  fruit,  containing  chiefly  gluten  and  sugar,  fur- 
nishes not  only  an  habitual  nutriment  to  man,  but  also  serves  as  fodder 
for  domestic  animals.  The  ancient  Hebrews  were  acquainted  with  the 
fruit  of  St.  John's  Bread,  and  manufactured  a  sweet  pulp  from  it,  and 
used  the  remainder  as  food  for  cattle.  The  "  husks"  shared  with  swine 
by  the  prodigal  son  of  the  Scripture  parable  Avere  of  this  tree.       The 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  666 

Greeks  called  the  fruit  xspcouca,  the  Komans  siliqua.  They  hrought 
this  as  an  article  of  trade  from  Africa,  as  is  shown  by  the  pods  found 
in  the  magazines  of  Pompei.  This  useful  tree  was  first  introduced  into 
Italy  by  the  Arabians,  where  it  still  bears  the  Saracen  name,  carroba 
or  carruba.     At  the  present  day  we  have  three  varieties  of  it. 

Cassia  fistula,  L.,  has  a  similar  fruit.  It  is  indigenous  to  the  East 
Indies,  but  is  now  cultivated  in  Egypt  and  the  West  Indies.  The 
same  is  the  case  with  Oynometra  caulifiora,  L.,  of  the  Moluccas,  and 
several  Mimosas,  characterized  by  a  sweet,  sticky  pulp,  as  Mimosa  inga, 
L.  {Inga  vera,  Willd.),  in  tropical  America,  Inga  sapida,  H.  B.,  I7iga 
hurgoni,  DO.,  Inga  insignis,  H.  B. ;  also,  Frosopsis  spicigera,  Lin., 
Prosopsis  Jiorrida,  Kunth,  Frosopsis  fiexuosa,  DC,  and  Frosopsis 
siliquastrum,  DC. 

The  elongated,  oval-shaped  fruit  of  Opuntia  vulgaris,  Mill.  {Cactus 
opimtia,  L.)>  ^'^^  ^'^®  Opuntia  ficus  indica,  Haw.,  belong  among  the 
sweetish,  mealy,  nutritious  substances.  They  are  known,  sometimes, 
under  the  name  of  Indian  figs,  and  when  carefully  freed  from  their 
outer  skin,  furnish  a  refreshing,  pulpy  food  in  the  warmer  countries. 
The  former,  indigenous  to  Mexico  and  Texas,  has  been  cultivated  for  a 
considerable  period  in  Europe,  especially  in  Spain,  Algiers,  Palestine, 
Syria,  and  Italy,  and  even  occurs  in  these  regions  run  wild,  as  a  hedge 
plant.  The  same  is  the  case,  also,  with  the  second  variety,  which  is 
indigenous  to  South  America,  and  has  found  a  new  home  in  Sicily  and 
Italy.  Of  the  other  Cactacew  which  have  mucilagenous  and  acid  fruits, 
we  may  mention  Mamillaria  simplex,  Hav,r.,  Blelocactus  communis, 
Link  and  Otto,  Cactus  triangularis,  L.,  the  so-called  strawberry  of  Ja- 
maica;  also,  Cactus  paniculatus.  Lam.,  Cactus  pitajay a,  DC,  Cactus 
divaricatus,  DC  and  the  fig-like  fruit  of  Cactus  peruvianus,  L.  Fe- 
reslcia  aculeata,  Mill.,  found  on  the  Antilles,  has  sweetish  acid_,  pleasant- 
tasted  berries. 

The  Saguarro  {Cereus  giganteus)  of  the  regions  adjoining  upon  the 
Grila  of  the  United  States,  and  south  of  it,  (incorrectly  called  Fita- 
liaya  by  some  American  travelers,  which  is  C.  tJiurheri,)  is  of  much 
importance  in  the  domestic  economy  of  the  Indian  tribes  of  the  coun- 
try. The  fruit  is  eaten  fresh,  the  sap  is  boiled  to  a  syrup,  called 
"  Miel  de  Saguarro,"  and  a  flour  is  prepared  from  the  cleaned  and 
dried  seeds,  which  have  some  resemblance  in  appearance  and  taste  to 
poppy  seeds,  and  are  contained  in  the  fruit  in  great  quantities.  This 
flour  is  made  partly  into  bread,  and.  partly  into  a  chocolate-like  drink, 
called  atole. 

The  population  of  Sonora  is  not  unfrequently  obliged  to  subsist 
entirely  on  the  fruit  of  this  and  other  species  of  cactus.''' 

We  may  next  mention  the  fruit  of  some  of  the  Cucurhitaceoi,  as  the 
Pumpkin  {Cucurbita  pepo,  L.),  the  Cacumber  {Cucumis  sativus,  L.), 
the  Melon  {Cucumis  melo,  L.),  the  Water  melon  {Cucumis  citridlus, 
Ser.),  the  Bottle  gourd  or  Calabash  {Lagenaria  vidgaris,  Ser,),  &c. 
These,  although  generally  insipid  in  taste,  furnish  a  pleasant  food 
after  proper  preparation,  and  are  used,  on  account  of  their  copious 
juice,  instead  of  refreshing  drinks.     All  these  plants  belong  originally 

Froebel,  Seven  Yeara'  Travel,  &c.,  1857,  page  498. 


334  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

to  the  East  and  to  Central  Asia,  and  have  been  used  from  a  very  early 
period  as  food  for  man  and  animals,  altliougli  serving  this  purpose 
only  to  a  limited  extent,  on  account  of  the  small  amount  of  nutritious 
substance  contained  in  them.  The  precise  home  of  none  of  them  is 
known  with  accuracy;  that  of  the  pumpkin  may  perhaps  be  Southern 
Asia;  of  the  melon,  the  Caucasus  and  the  southern  point  of  the  Caspian 
sea.  The  fact  that  the  native  plant  of  no  one  species  is  known  grow- 
ing wild,  and  the  great  number  of  varieties  which  most  of  them  ex- 
hibit, rendering  their  systematic  determination  at  the  present  time 
difficult,  indicate  a  remote  culture  among  the  inhabitants  of  Western 
as  well  as  of  Southern  Asia.  The  Jews  cultivated  pumpkins  and 
melons  under  their  kings;  and  it  was  the  water  melon  with  which 
they  became  acquainted  in  their  Egyptian  captivity,  and  the  want  of 
which  they  bewailed  so  loudly  in  the  wilderness.  The  Greeks  and 
Eomans  were  acquainted  with  the  pumpkin  and  cucumber,  and  water- 
melons came  with  the  Arabians  to  the  west.  Charlemagne  ordered 
cucumeres,  pepones,  cucurhitas,  coloquintidas,  (the  three  latter,  forms 
of  Gucurbita  pepo,  L.)_,  to  be  planted  on  his  estates. 

After  the  discovery  of  America,  most  of  these  plants  found  their 
way  to  the  New  World,  where  they  were  distributed  quickly  in  every 
direction,  and  subsequently  reached  Australia,  so  that  even  the  New 
Zealanders  are  acquainted  with  pumpkins  and  melons. 

We  will  next  proceed  to  consider  the  different  species  of  Leeks, 
which,  although  used  in  small  quantity,  belong  to  the  nutritious 
plants.  They  are  characterized  by  the  possession  of  starch  and  sugar, 
with  the  addition  of  an  ethereal  oil.  The  ancient  Greeks  had  a  great 
fancy  for  these  plants,  raised  them  in  their  gardens,  and  used  them 
as  a  wholesome  article  of  food.  Even  in  our  time,  this  taste  for  the 
use  of  garlic,  onions,  &c.  has  been  kept  up,  and  an  antidote  found  in 
them  for  various  diseases. 

The  Garlic  {Allium  sativum,  L.,  axopooov,  Theoph.,  Diosc),  was 
planted  in  that  division  of  the  garden  called  (rxopodcouec;.  The  dealers 
in  garlic  {axopoooncbX-fjc:)  sold  it  to  poor  people.  At  the  present  day, 
the  poorer  class  of  Greeks  use  garlic  in  enormous  quantities.  The 
avaricious  gave  their  slaves  garlic  to  eat.  A  broth  of  garlic  and  salt 
(crxopooak/irj)  belonged  among  the  dishes  of  the  ancient  Greeks.  In 
Egyj)t,  the  priest  of  Isis  could  eat  neither  garlic  nor  onions.  Garlic 
was  avoided  in  Kome  on  account  of  its  disagreeable  odor.  "Allium 
olet." 

In  all  probabilit}^,  garlic  grows  wild  on  the  Kirghese  steppes  of  Son- 
gary,  and  at  a  very  early  period  was  transported  thence  over  the  whole 
of  Asia  (excepting  Japan),  North  Africa,  and  Europe. 

It  is  impossible  to  tell  whether  the  Chive  (Schnittlaueh) ,  {Allium 
scorodoprassum,  L.),  found  on  the  islands  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago, 
and  perhaps  growing  wild,  is  a  variet}^  of  the  garlic  produced  by  cul- 
tivation, or  a  distinct  species. 

The  Onion  {Allium  cepa,  L,,  xpopiptuop,  Theoph.),  was  cultivated  by 
the  Greeks  in  particular  portions  of  their  gardens  {xpo/j.ju'j(jj!^s^,  cepi- 
anae),  and  its  sale  was  attended  to  by  the  so-called  Cejmrius.  Theo- 
phrastes  distinguished  several  species  of  the  onion,  according  to  the  place 
from  which  it  was  brought  into  the  trade,  as  Cepa  sardia,  cnidia^ 


PLANTS   USED   AS   FOOD    BY   MAN.  335 

samotJiracia,  sethamia,  and  ascalonia.  The  Island  of  Cimolus  was 
endowed  with  the  surname  of  Onion  island  (xponixoouao),  because 
onions  of  remarkable  excellence  were  cultivated  upon  it.  Herodotus 
states  that,  in  the  building  of  a  pyramid  in  Egypt,  the  garlic,  onions, 
and  horse  radish  used  by  the  workmen  cost  1,600  talents,*  or  1,647,600 
dollars. 

At  the  present  day,  the  onion  is  no  longer  found  growdng  wild. 
It  was  probably  indigenous  from  Western  Central  Asia  (Palestine)  to 
India,  whence  it  extended  to  China,  Cochin  China,  Japan,  Europe, 
and  North  Africa.  Soon  after  the  discovery  of  America  it  reached 
there  also.  The  Shalot,  or  Allium  ascalonicum,  so  called  from  the 
city  of  Ascalon,  in  Palestine,  seems  to  have  scarcely  a  less  extensive 
distribution  than  the  onion.  It  is  not  cultivated  in  Greece  at  the 
present  day,  although  it  is  frequently  found  in  gardens  in  Istria 
and  Dalmatia.  This  plant  is  probably  only  a  variety  of  the  common 
onion. 

The  Leek  {Allium  porrum,  Lin.,  Tvpaaov,  Theoph.),  was  also  culti- 
vated by  the  Greeks  in  particular  gardens,  and  was  considered  as  an 
important  article  of  food.  It  is  certainly  a  Mediterranean  plant,  and 
is  probably  only  a  variety  of  Allium  ampeloprasum,  L.,  found  fre- 
quently growing  wild  in  Algiers.  It  has  been  cultivated  in  Europe 
from  the  earliest  times,  and  was  known  not  only  to  the  Greeks,  but 
to  the  Hebrews  and  Egyptians,  being  held  sacred  among  the  latter. 
Pliny  first  called  it  Forncm.  At  the  present  day  it  has  run  wild  in 
many  portions  of  Southern  Europe,  in  vine  hills  and  abandoned  places 
of  cultivation. 

Having  thus  considered  the  specially  saccharine  plants,  we  take  up 
those  furnishing  starch  and  sugar,  in  connection  with  vegetable  acids. 
Among  these  belong  the  sweetish-sour  fruits,  in  which  sometimes  the 
sugar  and  sometimes  the  acid  predominates,  and,  by  the  addition  of 
volatile  oils,  frequently  acquire  the  most  varied  flavor.  There  is  an 
extraordinary  number  of  plants  belonging  to  this  division.  Every 
part  of  the  world  has  its  peculiar  fruits,  which,  however,  soon  become 
the  common  property  of  the  whole  cultivated  earth.  The  hand  of 
man  has  worked  wonders  in  the  improvement  of  flavor  and  yield  of 
these  plants.  I  have  space  for  a  rapid  glance  only  over  this  rich  field 
in  a  brief  mention  of  the  most  important  kinds. 

We  will  take  into  consideration,  first,  the  fruits  of  Asia,  as  most 
widely  distributed;,  then  those  of  Europe,  and,  finally,  those  of  Africa 
and  America. 

Among  the  fruits  belonging  originally  to  Asia,  are  the  mango,  the 
rose  apple,  the  orange,  the  citron,  the  peach,  the  plum,  the  apricot, 
the  cherry,  &c. 

The  Mango  tree,  {Mangifera  indica,  Lin.),  a  stout,  strong  tree, 
found  native  throughout  the  whole  of  India,  bears  a  very  excellent 
fruit,  similar  to  that  of  the  walnut,  and  the  size  of  the  fist,  or  even 
larger.  It  is  of  so  excellent  a  taste  that  the  inhabitants  of  Ormez 
neglect  all  other  fruits  as  soon  as  this  appears  in  the  market.     Be- 

*X.  Landercr  on  the  importance  of  the  different  kinds  of  Allium  to  the  ancient  Greeks. — 
Bestcr.  Botan.,  Wochenblatt,  1855,  No.  22. 


336  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

neatli  the  skin,  wliicli  resembles  that  of  the  apple  and  pear,  there  is  a 
soft,  reddish-yellow,  juicy,  sweetish-sour  flesh,  which  incloses  a  large 
hard  kernel.  The  pared  fruit  is  laid  into  water,  in  order  to  remove 
the  turpentine  smell  and  taste  attached  to  it.  The  kernel,  when 
roasted,  tastes  like  chestnuts. 

The  mango  is  an  anciently  cultivated  plant  in  the  Indian  Archipel- 
ago, as  is  shown  partly  from  the  many  different  names,  and  partly 
by  the  numerous  varieties  which  have  resulted  from  cultivation.  It  is 
still  found  growing  wild  in  Ceylon.  Its  distribution  has  extended 
over  India,  China,  Cochin  China,  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  ocean. 
It  does  not  seem  to  have  reached  the  west.  At  the  present  day,  it  is 
cultivated  in  Arabia  and  tropical  America,  and  furnishes  the  best  fruit 
in  Brazil. 

The  Eose  apple  (Jambosa  vulgaris,  DC,  Eugenia  jarribosa,  L.), 
is  a  tolerably  high  tree,  with  globular  rose-colored  fruit  as  large  as  a 
walnut.  The  flesh  has  the  flavor  of  roses  and  consistence  of  apples, 
inclosing  in  a  v/ide  cavity  a  kernel  the  size  of  a  rifle  ball.  The  tree 
grows  wild,  at  the  present  day,  upon  the  peninsula  of  Malacca  and 
in  Penang.  It  has  been  distributed  throughout  Malabar,  Ceylon,  Ara- 
bia, and  Egypt  to  the  island  of  Mauritius,  to  Sierra  Leone  and  St. 
Thomas.  Opinion's  are  divided  as  to  whether  the  rose  apples,  culti- 
vated in  Barbadoes  and  Brazil,  belong  to  this  species  or  to  Jamhosa 
macrophylla,  DC. 

The  Jamhosa  malaccensis,  Wight  and  Arn.,  {Eugenia  malaccensiSy 
Spyl.),  is  similar  to  the  preceding,  with  more  pear-shaped  fruit.  Its 
culture  has  been  carried  on  for  a  long  period  in  the  Indian  Archipel- 
ago, where  it  is  indigenous,  and  has  reached  to  the  islands  of  the  Pa- 
cific ocean  and  China,  and,  at  a  later  ^^eriod,  to  the  peninsula  of  India 
and  Ceylon  even  to  the  Mauritius. 

Jamhosa  mahava,  Mer.  and  Lens.,  furnishes  a  pear-shaped,  edible 
fruit.  It  is  cultivated  on  the  Mauritius,  and  exhibits  several  varieties. 
This  is  also  the  case  with  Jambolifera  pedunculata,  Lour. ,  in  Southern 
China,  the  black,  sweet  fruit  of  which  is  an  article  of  trade.  Here, 
also,  we  may  mention  the  fruits  of  Eugenia  djouat,  Perrot.,  of  the 
Philippine  Islands. 

I  may  next  add  a  number  of  sweetish-sour  fruits,  which  are  more  or 
less  distributed  in  Tropical  Asia,  but  of  Vv^hich  we  know  less  than  of 
the  others.  Those  are:  Sapindus  fruticosus ,  Roxb.,  of  the  Moluccas, 
and  Nephelium  liichi^  Camb.,  of  China  and  Cochin  China,  cultivated 
also  in  Bengal  and  the  West  Indies.  The  fruit  of  these  plants  is  con- 
sidered the  best  that  can  be  brought  to  the  table  of  the  Emperor  of 
China.  Nephelium  longanum,  Camb.,  of  Southern  China,  Neplielium 
lappaceum,  Linn.,  on  the  Malacca  and  Sunda  Islands,  as  also  Nephe- 
lium rimosum,  W.  and  Arn.,  belong  in  the  same  category.  We  may 
also  mention  the  acid  fruits  of  Schleichera  trujuga,  W.,  Schmiedelia 
scrraia,  D.  C,  IVillughheia  edidis,  Roxb.,  Greioioj  asiatica,  L.,  and 
Greuia  sapida,  Roxb.,  in  the  East  Indies.  The  East  Indian  wood 
apple  (Johnia  salacioides,  Roxb.),  from  Eastern  Bengal,  is  less  known 
than  the  large  and  pleasant-tasting  Molucca  apple,  (Xanthochjmusdidcis, 
Roxb.),  and  Xantliochyinus  pictorius,  Roxb. 

In  addition  to  the  preceding,  edible  fruits  are  furnished  by  Emhlica 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  337 

officinalis,  Gartn.  {PlujllantJius  emhlica,  Lin.),  the  Mirobolane,  Cieca 
disticha,  L.,  and  several  species  of  Flacorttia,  siicli  as  Fl.  cataplirceta, 
Willd.,  Fl.  sepiaria,  Koxb.,  Fl.  sapida,  Roxb.,  Fl.  itiermis,  Roxb.; 
also,  Carisca  caraoidus,  L.,  Niehulwia  ohlongi/olia,  DC,  Crataeva 
nurvala,  Hamilt.,  Crcdaeva  religiosa,  Forster,  Crataeva  magna,  DC, 
and  Cicca  racemosa,  Lonr. ,  the  former  from  the  East  Indies,  the  two 
latter  from  Cochin  China  and  China;  as  also  Arduina  edtdis,  Spgl.,  in 
Arabia. 

The  small  pomegranate-like  fruit  of  Sandoricum  indicum,  Cav.,  of 
the  Moluccas,  the  mucilaginous  and  sub-acid  fruit  of  Dillenia  serrata 
Thunb.,  and  D.  elliptica,  Thunb.,  oi  Erioglossum  edide,  Blume,  and 
the  excellent  stone-fruit  of  Lansium  domesticum.  Jack.,  all  from  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  are  better  and  more  pleasant-tasted  than  those 
above  mentioned. 

The  fruit  of  Nyalelia  racemosa,  Dennstedt,  of  Malabar,  the  size  of 
the  wine  grape,  and  the  fruit  of  Durio  zibethinus,  L.,  the  size  of  a 
man's  head,  in  the  East  Indies,  and  the  fruit  of  Mimusops  hallota, 
Gart.  (Achras  bcdlota,  Aub.),  and  Lacuma  mammosmn,  Gart,  {Acliras 
mammosa,  Lin.),  which  have  been  brought  from  the  East  Indies  to 
Tropical  America,  are  worthy  of  mention ;  as  also  the  fruit  oi  Blorinda 
citrifolia,  L.,  Maba  major,  Forst.,  and  Solanum  aviculare,  Forst., 
species  belonging  to  India  and  the  Islands  of  the  Pacific  ocean. 

The  Indian  tamarind,  {Tamarindus  indica,  L.),  ixirnishes  a  pod-fruit 
in  Southern  Asia  and  Middle  Africa,  which  is  used  for  food  and  man- 
ufactured into  cooling  drinks.  This  large  tree  is  planted  before  the 
houses  in  Senegal,  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  India.  The  acid  pulp  is  used 
in  India  in  the  preparation  of  a  sugar  beer.  Tamarindus  occidentalis, 
DC,  seems  to  be  only  a  variety  of  the  same  plant. 

We  have  now  to  mention  some  fruits  of  more  general  importance 
than  those  already  referred  to. 

The  citrons  are  characterized  by  the  predominance  of  an  acid  pulp, 
the  berry  of  which  has  a  thick,  even  rind,  and  is  divided  into  many 
compartments.  There  are  two  varieties,  those  are  the  genuine  Citron 
or  cedrate,  {Citrus  medica,  L.),  and  the  Lemon,  {Citrus  medico,  h,  limo- 
nium,  Lm.),  together  with  a  bastard  form  of  citron  or  orange,  the  Lime, 
{Citrus  medica  c,  limetta,  Kostel.) 

It  is  native  in  Tropical  Asia,  and  has  been  distributed  thence  in  all 
directions  from  the  very  earliest  times.  The  Jew^s,  who  at  the  present 
day  use  it  on  festive  occasions,  became  acquainted  with  it  during  their 
captivity  in  Babylon.  It  was  unknown  in  Greece  before  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  Theophrastus  first  makes  mention  of  it,  and 
states  that  its  fruit  is  not  edible.  After  the  time  of  Pliny,  it  vras 
brought  to  Italy,  but  was  not  cultivated  there  before  the  time  of  Palla- 
dius.  The  custom  of  having  this  fruit  among  clothes  in  wardrobes 
and  chests,  has  continued  to  the  present  day.  The  Hesperian  apple, 
according  to  the  mythical  statements  of  the  Greeks,  was  a  love  gift  of 
Gaea  to  the  bride  Hera,  which  she  brought  out  at  the  time  of  her  mar- 
riage to  Zeus.  Hercules  stole  this  golden  fruit  from  the  garden  of 
Hesperides,  where  it  was  cultivated  only  for  the  table  of  the  gods,  and 
brought  it  to  Greece. 

Royle  has  met  with  the  citron  growing  wild  at  the  present  day  in 
22 A 


338  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

the  forests  of  Northern  India,  although  in  Media  and  Persia,  it  is  only 
found  as  a  cultivated  plant.  It  is  now  distributed  throughout  the 
whole  of  Southern  Europe^  as  also  in  America,  (Brazil,)  and  in  Congo 
it  is  domesticated. 

The  lemon,  which  is  considered  by  many  as  a  distinct  species,  is 
distinguished  from  the  preceding  only  by  the  more  oval  and  pointed 
fruit,  of  a  pale  yellow  color  and  very  acid  pulp.  The  lemon  has  been 
found  growing  wild  in  the  forests  of  Northern  India  by  Koyle.  The 
Bengal  name  Nibii,,  and  the  Hindostan  Nimu  and  Limu,  the  Arabian 
Limun,  and  the  Italian  Limone,  seem  to  be  derived  from  its  Sanscrit 
name,  Nimhuka.  Its  cultivation  in  the  West  was  introduced  by  the 
Arabians.  In  the  tenth  century  it  was  transplanted  by  this  nation 
from  the  gardens  of  Oman  to  Palestine  and  Egypt,  and  the  Crusades 
paved  its  way  to  Italy.  At  the  present  time  it  is  distributed  over  the 
whole  of  Asia  and  other  parts  of  the  world. 

The  bitter  and  sweet  Oranges  (Citrus  aurantium  a,  amara,  Kostel,) 
Citrus  bigaradia,  Duham.  (Citrus  vulgaris,  Risso),  and  Citrus  aurantium 
b,  dulcis,  Kostel,  {Citrus  aurantium,  Risso),  have  a  history  going  back 
quite  as  far  as  the  plant  just  mentioned.  There  is  much  probability  for 
the  opinion  that  both  of  these  varieties,  which  differ  oxi\j  in  taste,  belong 
to  a  single  species — the  bitter  orange  of  older,  the  sweet  of  more  recent 
origin.  The  former  does  not  occur  wild,  but  only  cultivated  in  India, 
its  native  country,  and  the  latter  is  met  with  wild  in  Southern  China, 
Cochin  China,  Sillet,  and  Birmah.  It  is  not  difficult  to  refer  its  name 
to  a  Sanscrit  origin,  Nagrunga.  The  bitter  orange  was  distributed 
throughout  the  world,  as  the  earlier  or  primitive  form,  at  a  much 
earlier  period  than  the  sweet  orange.  In  the  tenth  century  the  Ara- 
bians brought  it  to  Palestine  and  Egypt,  and  into  the  countries  of  the 
Mediterranean.  The  Arabian  physicians  prescribed  its  juice  in  various 
diseases.  All  chroniclers  from  the  tenth  to  the  fifteenth  century  make 
mention  only  of  the  bitter  orange.  The  sweet  orange  has  been  culti- 
vated from  the  earliest  jDeriod  in  China,  Cochin  China,  and  Japan.  It 
seems  first  to  have  passed  from  Hither  India  to  Further  India,  and  then 
extended  its  range  by  degrees  through  Asia  into  the  West.  The 
Arabians  and  the  trading  Genoese  and  Venetians  seem  to  have  contri- 
buted most  to  its  distribution.  It  is  probable  that  about  the  same  time^ 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  orange  was  met  with  by 
the  Portuguese  on  their  journeys  around  the  Cape  to  China,  and  planted 
in  their  own  country,  which  was  particularly  favorable  to  its  growth. 
At  the  present  day  it  is  distributed  throughout  the  v/arm  zone  of  the 
whole  earth,  and  was  brought  to  America  immediately  after  the  dis- 
covery by  Columbus.  Besides  these  two  species  of  Citron,  there  are, 
especially  in  China,  Japan,  India,  and  the  Indian  Archipelago,  still 
other  species,  such  as  Citrus  Japonica,  Thunb.,  Citrus  javanica,  Blume, 
Citrus  decumana,  Willd.,  (the  Shaddock),  as  well  as  a  great  number 
of  varieties  and  hybrids,  of  which  the  Citrus  sinensis,  Pers.,  the  Berga- 
mot  {Citrus  aurantium  e  hergamia,  Kostel),  Citrus  nohilis.  Lour.,  and 
the  Limette  already  mentioned  {Citrus  limetta,  Risso.)  In  Citrus 
cJiilensis,  Molina,  America  has  also  its  representative  of  this  highly 
useful  tree. 

The  true  Jujube  tree  {Ziziphus  jujuha,  Lam.),  which  is  indigenous 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  339 

to  the  East  Indies,  and  the  jujube  bush  {Ziziplius  vulgaris,  Lam.), 
probably  belonging  to  India,  are  of  less  importance  than  the  fruits 
just  mentioned.  They  have  a  sweetish  stone-fruit,  similar  to  that  of 
the  olive.  The  Ziziphus  vulgaris  furnishes  the  well-known  mucilagin- 
ous and  very  sweet  red  jujube  berries,  which  are  eaten  as  fruit  in  South- 
ern Europe,  (Spain,  France,  and  Italy.)  This  plant  was  first  brought, 
shortly  before  the  time  of  Pliny,  from  Syria  to  Italy,  but  was  not 
indigenous  there,  having  been  received  from  India,  by  way  of  Palmyra. 

Next  to  the  fruits  of  Asia,  we  may  mention  the  fruits  of  certain  Date 
plums,  especially  of  the  black-wooded  date  plum  {Diospyros  melanoxy- 
lon,  Roxb.),  the  ebony  date  plum  (Diospyros  ehenaster,  Retz.),  and  also 
Diospyros  haka,  Linn.,  jr.  The  fruit  of  the  former,  which  is  indigen- 
ous to  the  East  Indies,  is  the  size  of  a  small  apple;  it  is  yellow  and 
juicy,  but  astringent  and  unpalatable.  The  second  species  resembles 
a  large  apple,  with  a  mealy,  acid  flesh,  (ineel-appels.)  The  beautiful 
cherry-red  fruit  of  the  Japanese,  D.  JcaJci,  has  a  honey-like  and  very 
pleasant  taste;  that  of  D.  glufinifera,  on  the  other  hand,  is  astringent. 
In  the  southern  parts  of  the  United  States,  the  persimmon  {Diospyros 
virginiana)  is  a  well-known  fruit,  exceedingly  astringent  when  unripe, 
but  becoming  very  palatable  towards  the  beginning  of  winter. 

Here  also  belong  the  black  jujube  tree  (Cordia  myxa,  L.)  and  the 
Sebestan  (Cordia  sebestina,  L,),  both  with  mucilagenous  fruit ;  the 
former  native  in  the  Indies,  but  at  the  present  time  cultivated  in 
Egypt;  the  latter  belongs  to  the  West  Indies.  The  mangosteen  (Gar- 
cinia  mangostana,  L.)  is  limited  to  some  of  the  eastern  islands  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  and  is  not  cultivated  to  any  advantage  in  the  West 
Indies.  It  furnishes  a  fruit  the  size  of  an  apple,  which  has  the  taste 
of  strawberries  and  grapes,  and  is  considered  the  best  fruit  in  India. 

Besides  this  species,  Garcinia  celehica,  L.,  G.  gambogia,  Desp.,  (Cam- 
hogia  gutta,  L.),  G.  morella,  Desp.,  G.  kydia,  Roxb.,  G.  purpurea, 
Roxb.,  and  G.  paniculata,  Roxb. ,  furnish  edible  fruit. 

The  Peach  (Amygdalus  persica,  L.,  Fersica  Vulgaris,  Auct.)  is  one 
of  the  most  agreeable  sweetish-acid  fruits  of  Asia.  It  grows  best  in 
China  and  Japan.  Its  cultivation  in  China  goes  back  to  the  furthest 
antiquity.  The  peach  is  the  Tao  mentioned  in  the  books  of  Confucius 
in  the  tenth  century  before  Christ.  It  is  no  longer  found  wild,  although 
forms  run  wild  are  met  with  wherever  the  cultivation  of  the  peach  has 
been  carried  on  for  any  time,  especially  in  the  Caucasian  country,  in 
Terek,  Persia,  Southern  Himalaya,  Cbina,  &c.  The  native  land  is  there- 
fore, probably,  to  the  northeast  rather  than  the  northwest  of  India, 
whence  it  extended  first  to  Cashmere  and  to  Bucharia,  and  gradually 
to  Persia,  Asia  Minor,  &c.  The  absence  of  a  Sanscrit  name  for  this 
important  fruit  shows  that  its  transplantation  from  its  native  land  took 
place  before  the  migration  of  the  Sanscrits. 

At  the  time  of  Aristotle  there  were  no  juicy  peaches  raised  in  Greece 
as  in  Egypt^  even  upon  the  Island  of  Rhodes  (to  which  point  this  tree 
probably  first  came  from  Asia  Minor),  and  where  it  produced  at  that 
time  only  flowers  and  single-scattered  fruit.  Hence,  it  is  probable,  that 
what  might  be  considered  as  different  species  of  peach,  are  only  varieties 
which  all  arose  in  the  course  of  cultivation.  Among  these  belong  the 
fruits  with  naked  and  hairy  skin,  {psilocarpoi  and  dasycarpce,)  with 


340  AGRICULTURAL  REPORT. 

adherent  and  free-stone,  (cling-stones  and  free-stones,)  with  white, 
yellow,  and  variegated  flesh,  and  finally  with  elongated,  round,  and 
compressed  forms.  The  peach  at  the  present  day  is  distributed  every- 
where, not  only  in  the  Old  but  in  the  New  World. 

The  species  of  plums  {Primus),  with  pleasant  sweetish-sour  fruit, 
are  very  numerous.  The  most  esteemed  is  the  apricot,  {Prunus  arme- 
niaca,  L.,  Anneiiiaca  vulgaris,  L.)  Alexander  the  G-reat  brought  the 
apricot  from  Armenia  to  Greece  and  Epirus,  from  which  countries  it 
reached  Italy.  For  this  reason  it  bears  the  names  in  this  country, 
/uYjXa  dpixevcaxd,  mala  epirotica  s.  armeniaca,  prcecotia.  There  are  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  this;  some  with  small  fruit  (A.  cerasince  and  A. 
prunarioi)  and  some  with  large  fruit  (A.  armeniacarice,  amygdalince, 
persicarice) ,  of  which  the  latter  far  exceed  the  former  in  excellence. 
At  present^  the  ajDricot  occurs  wild  in  the  regions  of  the  Caucasus,  par- 
ticularly on  its  southern  slope.  In  Armenia,  where  it  was  probably 
first  cultivated^  it  is  found  run  wild.  It  is  distributed  throughout  the 
entire  east,  even  to  Cashmere  and  Northern  India,  and  over  Northern 
Africa  and  Southern  Europe.  Its  cultivation  is  most  extensively 
prosecuted  about  Damascus.  A  marmalade  is  prepared  from  the  fruit 
by  boiling,  which  is  spread  upon  cloth,  dried,  and  thus  brought  into 
the  trade,  (Kamerdm.) 

The  most  generally  distributed,  and  longest  known  species  of  i^lura, 
is  the  common  plum  {Prunus  domestica,  L.),  coming  originally  from 
the  Caucasus,  and  the  mountains  of  Talysch.  It  is  cultivated.exten- 
sively  in  Syria,  w^here  it  has  passed  into  numerous  varieties.  It  reached 
Italy  about  the  time  of  Cato,  and  Pliny  speaks  of  ^Hngens  turha 
prunorum,"  by  which  he  designated  the  numerous  varieties.  At  the 
present  day  the  different  varieties  may  be  referred  to  the  following 
kinds:  1.  The  little  cherry-plum,  (Pnmijs  cerasma.)  2.  The  genuine 
plum  {Prunus prunaria),  of  a  little  larger  size;  here  belong  the  dam- 
sons. 3 .  The  spilling  or  egg-plum  {Prunus  armeniaca) ,  which  includes 
the  mirabellas  and  reine  claude,  or  green-gage  plums.  4.  The  almond 
plum,  {Prunus  amygdalina.)  And,  finally,  5.  The  Primus  persicaria. 
Although  the  plum  has  been  distributed  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  and 
extended  far  to  the  north,  it  is  little  known  in  Eastern  Asia,  and  it  is 
doubtful  whether  it  occurs  in  Northern  China. 

The  bullace  plum  {Prunus  msiiitia,  L.),  which  is  closely  allied  to 
the  common  plum,  is  of  slight  importance.  It  is  found  wild  on  the 
Caucasus.  It  is  difficult  to  decide  whether  it  occurs  wild,  or  only  run 
wild  in  Greece  and  Southern  Europe.  This  tree  has  certainly  not  been 
derived  from  the  sloe  bush. 

Here  also  belongs  the  Bear  plum  {Prunus  ursina,  Kotschy),  a 
thorny,  tree-like  shrub,  which  grows  wild  everywhere  on  Anti-Leba- 
non, the  sweet,  pleasant  fruit  of  which,  the  size  of  our  damson,  is  eaten 
not  only  by  the  bears,  but  serves  as  food  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
mountain  regions. 

Among  the  plums,  in  the  most  extended  sense,  may  be  mentioned 
the  cultivated  cherry  {Prunus  cerasus,  L.),  and  the  wild  black  cherry 
{Primus  avium,  L.)  The  former,  growing  wild  in  the  mountain  forests 
of  Southern  Caucasus,  was  brought  to  Italy  from  Cerasunt,  in  Pontus, 
after  the  conquest  of  Mithridates,  (74  before  Christ.)     The  latter  is 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  341 

indigenous  botli  in  tlie  Caucasus  and  Central  Europe,  especially  in 
Greece.  Both  species  have  passed  into  a  great  number  of  varieties  in 
the  course  of  time,  which  differ  most  decidedly  in  shape,  size,  consist- 
ency of  the  pulp,  in  juiciness,  and  in  taste,  and  may  he  referred  to  at 
least  five  easily  distinguishable  forms. 

A  small,  entirely  jDrostrate  shrub,  Primus  (Cerastes)  2^'^^ostrata, 
Labill.,  growing  wild  on  the  Alpine  summits  of  Lebanon,  has  small 
cherries,  which,  according  to  Kotschy,  are  sought  after  and  eaten  in 
the  entire  East. 

The  Quince  (Cydonia  vulgaris,  Pers.),  with  its  large,  yellowdsh,  and 
doAvny  pear  or  apple-like  fruit,  is  still  native  in  Asia.  It  was  known 
in  Grreece  in  the  earliest  times,  and  its  fruit  dedicated  to  the  Goddess 
of  Love.  Melus,  a  priest  of  Aphrodite,  hung  himself,  from  grief  at 
the  death  of  Adonis,  to  a  quince  tree,  into  which  he  was  then  trans- 
formed. The  Quince  is  probably  native  to  Northern  India,  (Hindu- 
kusch,)  and  was  carried  by  way  of  Ispahan  and  Syria  to  Greece.  Even 
Theophrastes  knew  a  variety^  Irpoud-cov,  the  quince  pear,  and  at  a  later 
period  the  quince  apple,  with  more  rounded  fruit,  (xudcovea,  Dios,)  was 
recognized.  It  was  brought  to  Italy  from  Kydron,  a  city  of  the  Island 
of  Crete.     (A  Cyclone,  Cretan  oj)2oido,  unde  primum  advecta,  Pliuy.) 

At  the  present  day  the  Quince  is  found  over  all  the  Mediterranean 
regions,  from  Imeretea,  where  it  occurs  with  fruit  the  size  of  a  child's 
head.  It  has  been  transported  from  the  Crimea  to  Spain  and  Algiers, 
where  it  quickly  runs  wild.  It  is  cultivated  in  Kashmir  and  Northern 
India,  though  in  Northern  China  it  is  replaced  by  another  sj)ecies, 
{Cydonia  sinensis,  Thouin.) 

The  Medlar  (Mespilus  germanica,  L.),  although  distributed  through- 
out Germany  and  over  almost  the  whole  of  Europe,  is  not  indigenous, 
but  only  runs  wild  here  and  there.  This  small,  rather  shrubby  tree, 
with  its  top  shaped  apple-like  fruit,  is  native  to  Northern  Persia.  Th. 
Kotschy  found  it  on  the  southern  side  of  the  Albors,  at  a  height  of 
6,000  feet,  as  a  shrub  4  to  5  feet  high,  and  covering  whole  mountain 
slopes.  It  was  brought  to  Greece  at  an  early  period.  Theophrastus 
was  acquainted  with  three  varieties.  At  the  time  of  Cato  it  was  un- 
known in  Italy,  and  was  first  brought  there  from  Macedonia,  after  the 
Macedonian  war.  The  fact  that  the  Komans  met  with  the  medlar  tree 
in  Gaul,  only  proves  that  it  came  there  earlier  in  the  way  of  trade. 
At  the  present  time  we  distinguish  apple  medlars  with  short  and  peaf 
medlars  with  long-stemmed  fruit. 

The  white  and  black  mulberry  trees  (Ilorus  alba  and  Morus  nigra,  L.) 
possess  a  not  unpalatable  sweetish  acid  berry,  and  seem  to  have  been 
brought  at  a  very  early  period  from  their  native  land.  North  Persia, 
the  Caucasus,  Asia  Minor,  &c.,  to  Greece.  Theophrastes  was  ac- 
quainted with  the  mulberry  tree  :  his  ffuxd/^cuoc;  is  Morus  nigra,  Lin.  It 
is  only  at  a  late  period  that  this  useful  tree,  which  had  been  brought 
by  Lucius  Vitellus  from  Syria  to  Rome,  was  successfully  reared  in  Italy, 
after  all  earlier  experiments,  according  to  Pliny,  had  been  conducted 
in  vain.  At  the  time  of  Palladius,  and  even  at  that  of  Athaneus,  the 
mulberry  tree  had  multiplied  but  little  in  that  country.  The  introduc- 
tion of  silk-culture  under  Justinian  gave  a  new  importance  to  this  little- 
esteemed  tree,  and  from  that  time  to  the  present  its  propagation  in 


342  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Western  and  Northen  Europe,  Denmark,  and  Sweden  has  taken  place 
very  rapidly.  The  mulberry  tree  has  attained  its  greatest  extent  and 
variety  of  form  in  Persia,  Northern  India,  and  China.  In  the  earlier 
periods  of  the  silk-culture,  the  silk-worms  were  fed  in  Italy  with  the 
leaves  of  Morus  nigra,  and  not  until  the  sixteenth  century  did  3forus 
alba  take  its  place.  At  the  present  day  both  species  have  run  into  a 
considerable  number  of  varieties. 

We  have  now  to  mention  a  fruit  which  is  cultivated  more  on  account 
of  the  application  of  its  sweet  juice  in  the  manufacture  of  drinks  than 
as  an  article  of  food.  I  refer  to  the  wine-grape.  There  is  no  uncer- 
tainty as  to  the  native  land  of  the  grape,  {Vitis  vinifera,  L.)  The 
southern  part  of  the  Caucasian  mountain  chain,  Armenia,  and  the 
South  Caspian  region  exhibit  it  at  the  present  day  in  its  original  form, 
as  a  tall,  climbing  plant,  twining  about  the  trees  with  small  and  but 
slightly-palatable  berries.  The  numerous  varieties  which  have  been 
developed  from  this  plant  in  the  course  of  cultivation  show  a  long- 
continued  influence  of  most  varied  circumstances.  The  history  of  the 
cultivation  of  this  plant  would  be  one  of  the  richest,  and,  perhaps, 
most  interesting  possible,  since  its  manifold  phases  have  certainly 
depended,  in  part,  at  least,  upon  the  nature  and  mode  of  life  of  the 
plant  itself.  Its  distribution  towards  the  west  has  far  surpassed  that 
towards  the  east,  (North  India  and  China.)  Its  introduction  into  all 
parts  of  the  world  has  contributed  only  to  the  multiplication  of  its  pe- 
culiarities. At  the  present  day  wine  is  pressed  from  the  wild  grape 
on  the  banks  of  the  Orontes. 

The  other  species  which  occur  in  Africa,  America,  &c.,  and  are 
likewise  made  use  of,  I  cannot  refer  to  here  for  want  of  space ;  never- 
theless, the  group  indigenous  to  North  America  (Vitis  lahrusca,  Lin.) 
increases  in  its  extent  of  cultivation  from  year  to  year,  and  has  already 
produced  a  small  number  of  varieties.  Even  Africa  has  its  grape,  in 
a  still  undescribed  species,  which  Eussegger  and  Kotschy  found  on  the 
Nile.  It  forms  a  low  bush,  the  berries  of  which  are  excellent,  and  are 
collected  and  eaten  by  the  negroes  as  raisins. 

The  Pomegranate  tree  {Funica  granatum,  L.)  is  to  be  considered 
rather  as  a  plant  peculiar  to  southwestern  Asia  than  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean zone  of  Africa.  It  has  been  announced  as  growing  wild  in  the 
mountains  of  the  Atlas,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  Southern  Europe 
has  received  it  from  Africa.  Nevertheless,  the  fact  of  its  very  ancient 
cultivation  in  Palestine,  Persia,  Northern  India,  and  its  occurrence, 
not  only  run  v/ild,  but  truly  wild  in  Asia  Minor,  Armenia,  Southern 
Caucasus,  and  Northern  Persia,  show  that  its  early  native  land  was 
Western  Asia.  From  this  it  has  been  distributed,  eastward,  to 
Northern  China,  but  principally  in  a  western  and  southern  direction. 
According  to  Athena3us,  Aphrodite  first  planted  the  Pomegranate  on 
Cyprus  and  in  G-reece.  It  experienced  its  first  cultivation  in  the 
district  of  Sidai.  The  fancy  of  the  Greeks  derived  this  fruit  from  the 
blood  of  Dionysius  Zagreus.  It  was  known  in  Egypt,  and  cultivated 
even  in  the  time  of  Moses.  It  was  raised  in  the  gardens  about 
Carthage.    Darius  Hystaspes*  eats  of  its  fruit.    Homer  makes  mention 

*  Herodot.  iv,  143. 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  343 

of  it  as  existing  in  the  gardens  of  Alcinoiis.  The  Eomans  brought  it 
from  Carthage  to  Italy,  for  which  reason  they  called  its  fruits  Blala 
punica.  Pliny  enumerates  nine  different  kinds  of  Pomegranate,  which 
at  the  present  day  have  multipled  very  greatly.  When  wild,  it  is  a 
shrubby  plant  with  not  very  large  fruit,  but  by  cultivation  it  attains 
the  size  of  a  tree,  the  fruit  of  which  is  as  large  as  an  apple,  and 
possesses  a  pleasant  acid  pulp.  Three  principal  varieties  are  dis- 
tinguished, namely,  with  sour,  sub-acid,  and  sweet  fruit.  The 
inclination  it  has  to  run  wild  seems  peculiar  to  this  plant ;  for  even 
at  the  borders  of  its  distribution  to  the  north,  as,  for  example,  in 
Southern  Tyrol  and  Southern  Switzerland,  it  is  met  with  run  wild,  as 
also  in  Spain,  Southern  France,  Greece,  and  Abyssinia. 

We  may  here  mention  a  few  more  sweetish-acid  fruits  of  the  Old 
World,  even  though  of  no  greater  importance.  Among  these  are 
several  Palms,  such  as  Zalacca  edulis,  Keinw.  {Calamus  zalacca, 
Gartn.),  of  the  islands  of  the  Indian  ocean;  Elate  silvestris,  Ait., 
likewise  found  in  the  East  Indies,  and  Arenga,  saccharifei^a,  Labill. 
These  fruits,  partly  in  a  ripe  and  partly  in  a  half-ripe  condition, 
furnish  a  pleasant-tasted  article  of  food. 

I  may  further  mention  Celtis  australis,  L.,  the  sweet,  honey-like 
fruit  of  which  serves  as  an  article  of  food  in  Southern  Europe,  North 
Africa,  and  the  East,  also  several  species  of  Elceagnus,  and  our  native 
Elder  {Samhucus  nigra,  L.)  The  olive-like  fruit  oi  Elceagnus  angusti- 
folia,  L.,  especially  in  Turkey  and  Persia,  is  large,  and  pleasant 
tasted,  on  which  account  it  is  sought  after,  and  even  occurs  dried,  in 
commerce.  This  is  less  the  case  with  Elceagnus  orientalis,  L.,  E. 
arhorea,  Roxb.,  and  E.  conferta,  Roxb.  The  fruit  of  the  Philippine 
oleaster  {Elceagnus  philipjjensis ,  Perrot.)  has  the  taste  of  the  best 
cherries. 

Only  a  few  species  of  fruits  are  peculiar  to  Africa,  and  those  have 
been  brought  from  that  country  as  the  common  property  of  cultivators. 
We  may  mention  first  all  the  edible  Jew  Thorn,  or  the  African  Date 
plum,  the  Lotus  of 'the  ancients  {Ziziplius  lotus,  Lam.),  a  shrub,  the 
roundish,  purplish  fruit  of  which,  having  the  appearance  of  sloes  or 
olives,  and  a  sweet  taste  resembling  figs  or  dates,  constitute  the  Italian 
Jujube  berries.  This  shrub  is  chiefly  found  in  Tunis,  but  has  been 
distributed  into  the  interior  of  Africa.  This  plant  was  described  by 
Polybius.  According  to  Theophrastes,  the  Xioroq  was  so  common  on 
the  island  of  the  Lotophagi  (Zerbi)  that  a  Roman  army_,  on  its  way 
to  Carthage,  was  nourished  several  days  by  its  fruit.  Homer  also 
mentions  this  attractive  fruit,  from  which  Ulysses  succeeded,  only  by 
violence,  in  turning  away  his  companions.  At  the  present  day  this 
fruit  is  used  in  the  smaller  Syrtis,  and  is  called  by  the  Arabians  Nabha, 
and  the  bush  Seder.  It  is  not  known  when  this  tree  was  brought 
to  Southern  Europe,  where  it  is  cultivated  at  the  present  time. 

Western  Africa  has  its  Clirysohalanus  ellipticus,  Soland.,  and  Chr, 
luteus,  Sab.,  corresponding  to  the  American  Icaco  plum. 

Of  a  less  extended  distribution  are  Anoncc  senegalensis,  Juss.,  ScJimi- 
delia  africana,  DC,  which  occur  along  the  entire  extent  of  the  coast 
of  Senegambia,  and  Greiuia  megcdocarpa,  of  Guyana ;  as  also  the  Pear 
tree  of  Guinea,  Salacia  senegalensis,  DO.     The  fruit  of  the  African 


344  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Mammey  tree  {Mammeo,  africana,  Don.)  The  pleasant-tasted  wine-like 
fruit  oi  Sapidus  senegalensis ,  Poir.,  called  the  Cherry  of  Senegal,  and 
the  fruit  of  a  Bursera,  (Safu,)  which  is  cultivated  everywhere  in  Congo 
along  the  villages,  are  more  highly  prized.  The  fleshy  fruit  of  Pappea 
ccqjensis,  Ekl.  and  Zeih.,  of  the  Cape,  the  seeds  of  which  furnish  oil; 
the  orange-yellow  berries  of  Strychnos  spinosa,  Lam.,  only  edible  in 
the  ripe  state,  and  the  berry-like  fruit  of  Sodada  decidua,  Forsk.,  in 
Egypt,  and  even  the  fruit  of  the  Baobab,  Adansonia  digitata,  L., 
furnish  only  a  scanty  nutriment.  Another  fruit  which  deserves  men- 
tion, on  account  of  its  butter-like  fruit,  which  the  natives  of  Sierra 
Leone  make  use  of,  is  Pentadesma  butyracea,  also  Dialium  nitidum, 
Guill.  and  Perrot. 

Balanites  aegyptiaca,  Delil.  {Ximenia  aegyptiaca,  L.),  a  tree  with 
edible  fruit,  is  also  peculiar  to  Africa.  It  is  abundant  in  Nubia,  from 
20°  N.  latitude  to  beyond  Sennaar,  and  at  a  very  early  period  was 
transplanted  to  Egypt.  It  was  brought  by  the  negro  slaves  to  St. 
Domingo  from  Senegambia,  where  it  is  likewise  found.  The  fruit  is 
sweet;  the  seeds  contain  oil.  The  Hypliaenethehaica,  Del.,  indigenous 
to  Upper  Egypt,  (Dongola,)  furnishes  but  a  scanty  flesh.  It  is  eaten 
only  in  cases  of  need,  although,  according  to  Kotschy,  beer  is  brewed 
from  it.  The  fruit  of  Ficus  sycamorus,  L.,  the  Asses  fig,  is  not  of 
much  greater  value.  It  has  a  somewhat  aromatic  taste ;  is  brought 
to  the  market  in  Cairo,  and  is  eaten  throughout  the  entire  East. 
Kotschy  has  frequently  eaten,  in  Fazokl,  a  fruit  of  Diospyros  amoena, 
Wall.,  which  has  a  taste  similar  to  chocolate.  The  best  native 
African  fruits,  one  not  dissimilar  to  our  peach,  is  that  of  Paranarium 
senegalense,  G-uill.  and  Perrot.,  a  tree  distributed  from  Senegal 
throughout  Africa  to  Fazokl.  The  fruit  of  Detarium  senegalense,  Gmel. , 
is  also  similar  to  the  preceding.  It  has  a  greenish,  mealy  flesh,  of  a 
sweet  taste,  although  somewhat  sharply  acid.  It  is  eaten  in  great 
quantity,  both  in  Senegal  and  Eastern  Africa  (Fazokl). 

Europe  furnishes  only  a  small  number  of  sweetish-acid  fruits.  Of 
these  the  apple  and  pear  are  of  most  importance.  'Others  are  species  of 
Sorhus,  Crataegus,  and  Cornus,  some  kinds  of  Pihes  and  Vaccinium  as 
also  various  Bosaceae  (Fragaria,  Biibus.)  Both  the  pear  (Pyrus 
communis,  L.)  and  the  apple  tree  {Pyrus  malus,  L.)  are  native  in  the 
mountain  forests  of  temperate  Europe,  as  also  in  the  Caucasus.  The 
pear  tree  in  Balkan  even  forms  large  groves,  while  elsewhere,  like  the 
apple  tree,  it  is  more  or  less  solitary.  These  two  plants,  with  small, 
acid,  and  bitter  fruits,  have  been  an  object  of  cultivation  from  time 
immemorial.  They  have  been  altered  in  the  most  varied  manner, 
and  now  furnish  the  most  palatable  and  enduring  of  fruits,  which  are 
eaten  both  fresh  and  dried,  and  in  many  regions  furnish  an  abundant 
subsistence.  Both  pears  and  apples  were  raised  in  the  gardens  of  the 
Pheaecians,,  and  Thasos  was  celebrated  in  ancient  times  on  account  of 
the  excellence  of  its  pears.  The  primitive  festival  of  the  BalLachrades 
of  the  Argives  with  the  wild  pears  (ajf^oac)  has  reference  to  this  first 
article  of  food  of  their  forefathers.  The  Jews  were  acquainted  with 
greatly  improved  varieties  of  the  pear,  but  the  Romans  first  occupied 
themselves  more  closely  with  its  cultivation,  and  produced  numerous 
varieties,  among  which  we  may  recognize,  in  part^  the  kinds  of  apples 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  345 

and  pears  of  tlie  present  day.     Many  of  these,  as  for  example  Malum 
appianum,  were  introduced  by  Appius  from  Qreece, 

If  we  review  the  progress  of  the  cultivation  of  these  two  fruit  trees 
we  find  that  Theophrastes  knew  three  kinds  of  pears  and  two  of 
apples ;  Cato  knew  six  kinds  of  pears  and  seven  of  apples ;  Pliny  knew 
forty-one  kinds  of  pears  and  thirty-six  of  apples ;  Palladius  knew  fifty- 
six  kinds  of  pears  and  thirty-seven  of  apples. 

Since  then,  owing  to  the  constant  efforts  of  cultivators,  they  have 
increased  more  than  thirty-fold,  so  that  at  the  present  day  we  are 
acquainted  with  over  1,500  varieties,  often  differing  extremely  from 
each  other  in  the  size,  form,  taste,  and  consistence  of  the  fruit. 

At  the  present  day  neither  the  pear  nor  the  apple  occurs  wild  in  the 
East.  Landerer*  states  that  the  wild  pear  tree  grows  in  G-reece,  par- 
ticularly in  the  Morea,  on  the  driest  declivities  of  the  mountains,  as.  a 
small  shrubby  and  thorny  plant,  and  that  the  fruit  is  by  no  means 
pleasant.  Between  Shiras  and  Ispahan,  Kotschy  found  a  village  with 
large  plantations  of  pear  trees,  but  was  not  able  to  ascertain  with 
certainty  whether  they  were  the  same  as  our  Pyrus  communis. 

With  reference  to  the  apple,  it  is  remarkable  that  in  the  entire  East 
only  summer  apples  are  cultivated,  never  the  kinds  which  can  be  kept 
over  winter. 

The  common  pear,  from  its  naturally  wide  circle  of  distribution, 
would  necessarily  receive  a  great  variety  of  appellations.  The  Celtic 
word  Peren  will  serve  as  the  primitive  word  for  the  greater  portion  of 
Middle,  Southern  and  Western  Europe ;  and  even  the  Grecian  arriroc, 
which  was  constantly  used  for  the  cultivated  form,  may  have  been  de- 
rived from  it.  The  names  used  by  the  Sclavonic  nations,  as  well  as 
those  of  the  Persians,  Arabians,  and  Chinese,  among  which  this  has 
been  cultivated,  are  very  different  from  these. 

The  apple  tree,  of  less  extensive  distribution,  has  nevertheless  a 
more  universal  primitive  name,  which  consist  in  the  root  Ah,  Ap),  Al, 
Av,  whence  also  is  derived  the  latin  word  Malum,  which  differs  little 
from  the  G-recian  ixr^lsa.  The  Sanscrit,  Arabian,  and  Chinese  words 
for  the  apple  are  entirely  distinct  from  those  just  mentioned. 

It  maybe  mentioned,  in  addition,  that  besides  this  species  oi  Pyrus, 
the  East  possesses  still  other  indigenous,  partly  shrubb}^,  and  partly 
tree-like  species,  the  fruit  of  which  is  eaten  to  some  extent.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  Pyrus  glabra,  Boiss.,  in  Southern  Persia,  and 
Pyrus  syriaca,  Boiss.,  a  tree  exceeding  our  pear  tree  considerably  in 
height,  the  mellow  fruit  of  which  is  used  as  food  in  the  autumn. 

The  Service  apple,  (Serines  domestica,  L.),  indigenous  in  the  mount- 
ain forests  of  Southern  Europe,  and  even  cultivated  here  and  there,  is 
of  much  less  importance.  The  Romans  were  acquainted  with  four  dil- 
ferent  kinds  of  it. 

The  wild  service  berry  (Crataegus  terminalis,  L.^  and  Crataegus 
aria,  L.),  both  found  in  the  mountain  forests  of  Middle  Europe,  and 
the  Azarole,  (Crataegus  azarolus,  Willd.),  in  the  middle  Mediterranean 
region,  are  of  equally  little  value.  Crataegus  frilobata,  Labill.,  found 
on  Lebanon,  comes  likewise  in  the  same  category.     The  small  berry- 

*Oesterr.  bot.  Woclienblatt,  1856,  p.  355. 


346  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

like  fruits  of  a  pleasant  flavor,  and  tasting  like  pears,  according  to 
Kotscliy,  are  frequently  collected  and  brought  to  market  in  Damascus, 

To  these  insignificant  fruits  may  be  added  the  Cornel  cherry,  (Cornus 
mascula,  L.),  though  much  more  widely  distributed  than  they  are. 
Homer  and  Theophrastes  mention  this  hard-wooded  tree,  which  grows 
very  abundantly  in  Thessaly  and  Macedonia,  as  well  as  in  Asia  Minor. 
The  cornel  was  at  one  time  preferred  for  the  shafts  of  lances  to  any 
other  wood.  The  Komans  used  its  fruit  fresh,  dried  and  put  up  in 
salt,  and  fed  swine  with  it,  as  was  the  case  formerly  in  the  regions  of 
the  Rhine  and  Moselle.  There  are  several  varieties  of  it,  among 
which  there  are  even  some  with  yellow  fruit. 

Diospyros  lotus,  L.,  a  woody  shrub  of  Southern  Europe  and  North- 
ern Africa,  has  a  fleshy  and  not  unpleasant  fruit  somewhat  like  the 
sloe.     A  vinous  drink  is  prepared  from  it  in  many  places. 

As  many  species  of  Pdhes  are  peculiar  to  EurojDC,  it  may  be  well 
supposed  that  the  Eed  currant  {Pdhes  ruhrum,  L.)  and  the  Gooseberry 
(Bibes  grossularia,  L.)  are  likewise  indigenous  here.  In  fact,  the 
former  species  has  a  distribution  extending  over  the  whole  of  Northern 
and  Middle  Europe,  and  reaching  even  to  Kamtschatka  and  the  whole 
of  northern  North  America.  This  berry  was  not  known  to  the  Greeks 
and  Eomans,  and  it  seems  that  it  first  made  its  appearance  in  our 
gardens  in  the  middle  ages.  The  currant  was  cultivated  earlier  in 
Northwestern  France  than  in  England,  where  it  first  appeared  without 
a  name  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  names  gardes,  grades, 
and  gradilles,  in  Normandy,  certainly  had  their  origin  in  the  Celtic 
word  gradiz,  meaning  sour.  The  name  Bibes  seems  to  owe  its  origin 
rather  to  the  Scandanavian  Bisp  and  Beps  than  to  the  Arabian  Bibes. 
In  Italy,  where  the  currant  is  little  cultivated,  it  is  called  Uva  di 
fratri,  which  has  reference  to  a  monkish  origin.  The  "Masterly  Book 
of  Medicine  and  Plants,  1497,"*  of  Johannes  Tollat,  of  Vochenberg,  is 
the  first  botanical  work  in  which  the  currant  occurs  under  the  name  of 
Bibes  joanis.  The  French  name  Groseille  d'outremer,  and  the  name 
Baisin  de  mare  (Meertriibli),  used  in  Switzerland,  may  be  easily  ex- 
plained. 

The  parent  plant  of  the  Gooseberry  is  the  Bibes  uva  crispa,  L.,  very 
common  in  Europe,  although  the  gooseberry  itself  actually  occurs  run 
wild  escaped  from  gardens.  Its  distribution  extends  furthest  towards 
the  north.  In  England,  four  hundred  varieties  are  known,  differing 
very  much  from  each  other  in  color,  size,  taste  of  the  berries,  &c.  The 
cultivated  gooseberry,  as  well  as  the  currant,  has  become  widely 
known  in  North  America.  The  names  Grossularia  and  Groseille  are 
probably  derived  from  the  German  Krausbeere  or  Krausebeere.  The 
Celtic,  Breton,  and  Sclavonic  names  are  entirely  different.  A  still 
undescribed  species  on  Lebanon  and  Herrnon,  according  to  Th.  Kotschy, 
furnishes  palatable  fruit  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  mountains. 

The  genera  Fragaria  and  Bubus  furnish  smaller  acid  fruits.  Three 
ispecies  of  Strawberry  occur  in  Europe,  the  fruit  of  which  furnishes  a 
delightful  dish :  these  are  the  common  strawberry  {Fragaria  vesca,  L.), 
the  garden  strawberry  {Fragaria  elatior,  Ehrh.),  and  the  hard  straw- 
berry {Fragaria  collina,  Ehrh.)    The  first  of  these  is  the  longer  known 

*Sprengel,  Gesch.,i,  p.  297. 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  347 

and  most  widely  distributed  plant,  tlie  two  otliers  are  rarer  and  only 
occasionally  met  with.  The  forest  and  garden  strawberry  are  culti- 
vated everywhere,  though  not  for  a  very  long  period.  Numerous 
varieties  have  arisen  from  them,  differing  from  each  other  in  size, 
color,  and  quality  of  the  fruit. 

At  the  present  day  the  Scarlet  strawberry  (Fr.  virginiana,  Mill.), 
the  Pine  apple  strawberry  from  Surinam  {Fr.  grandifiora,  Ehr.),  and 
the  Chilian  strawberry  {Fr.  chilensis,  Ehr.),  are  also  cultivated  in 
gardens. 

The  Blackberries  belong  to  our  native  fruits,  while  the  greater 
number  of  the  species  of  liubus  furnish  only  slightly  valued  fruits.  The 
Piubus  idaeus,  L,  or  Raspberry,  and  the  Cloudberry,  peculiar  to  the  far 
north,  Buhus  cJiaonaemoncs,  L.,  as  well  as  Buhus  arcticus,  L.,  are  much 
esteemed.  The  first  species  is  cultivated  in  our  gardens  at  the  present 
day,  and  is  mentioned  even  hj  Palladius  as  a  garden  plant.  Both 
Strawberries  and  Easpberries  lose  their  pleasant  taste  by  cultivation 
in  hot  regions. 

Various  species  of  Vaccinium  furnish  a  not  unacceptable  fruit  in 
certain  countries,  owing  to  the  very  great  number  of  individuals  dis- 
tributed over  entire  forests,  heaths,  and  moors.  Their  fruit  is  used 
both  fresh  and  dried,  and  cooked  in  various  ways,  and  is  even  employed 
in  the  preparation  of  drinks.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  the 
common  Heathberry  {Vaccinium  my rtillus,  L.),  the  Moorberry  {Vacci- 
nium zdginositm,  L.),  the  Cowhevrj  {Vaccinium  vitis  idoea,  L.)  The 
American  Cranberry,  Oxycoccus  macrocarpus,  furnishes  a  berry  which  is 
highly  prized ;  it  grows  abundantly  in  boggy  and  peaty  places  in  the 
Northern  United  States  and  British  America,  and  is  beginning  to  be 
cultivated  very  successfully.  The  Sandberry  {Arhutus  unedo,  L.), 
without  any  peculiar  taste,  is  a  small  evergreen,  growing  in  Southern 
Europe  and  Middle  Asia ;  it  has  fruit  resembling  strawberries,  which 
ripens  in  the  second  year,  becomes  first  yellow  and  then  red. 

Australia  is  still  very  sparsely  provided  with  fruits.  The  most 
useful  indigenous  fruit  tree  is  the  peach-like  Quandang,  {Fusanus 
acuminatus,  R.  Br.)  Of  less  importance  are  the  fruits  of  Santalum 
kinceolatum,  R.  Br.,  Mesemhryantliemum  aequilaterale,  Haw.,  and  M. 
praecox,  Mill.,  Leptomeria  pungens,  Mill.,  and  L.  acerha,  R.  Br. 
Samhucus  xantJiocarpa,  Mill.,  Nitraria  billardieri,  DC,  and  several 
species  of  Exocarpus,  Leucopogon,  and  Lissanthe.  The  berry-like  fruit 
stem  of  F.  cupressiformis,  Sab.,  are  particularly  remarkable,  as  also 
the  berries  of  Coriaria  sarmentosa,  Forst.,  a  shrub  growing  wild  in 
New  Zealand,  The  New  Zealanders  use  Isesides  this  the  berries  of 
Dracaena  indivisa,  Forst. 

America,  on  the  other  hand,  furnishes  a  much  richer  supply  of 
pleasant-tasted  acid  fruits.  We  may  first  mention  the  Cashew  tree, 
caju,  acaju  {Anacardium  occidentale,  L.),  a  large  wide-spreading  tree 
of  the  family  of  Terehinthaceae.  The  fruit  consists  of  a  pear  or 
cucumber-shaped  fruit  stem  on  which  is  a  large  brown  nut.  The  two 
are  used  both  raw  as  well  as  coolced,  and  made  into  dishes.  The  fruit 
stem  when  ripe  has  an  acid  taste,  and  the  kernel,  when  peeled  and 
roasted,  tastes  like  chesnuts.  The  natives  of  Brazil  often  go  to  war 
with  each  other  on  account  of  this  fruit,  and  the  conquerors  establish 
themselves  about  the  trees  till  the  fruit  is  all  consumed.     The  tree  is 


348  '      AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

indigenous  to  the  West  Indians,  Central  America,  Gruyana,  Peru,  and 
Brazil,  and  is  cultivated  there  also. 

The  Portuguese  transplanted  this  useful  tree  as  early  as  the  sixteenth 
century  to  the  East  Indies  and  Indian  Archipelago.  All  its  names 
point  to  an  American  origin.  Its  existence  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Africa  is  of  still  more  recent  date,  while  neither  China,  Japan,  or  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific  ocean  are  acquainted  with  it.  Its  fruit  stem  is 
sometimes  longer  and  sometimes  shorter,  varying  with  the  influence 
of  cultivation.     In  the  Asiatic  plant  the  stem  is  always  shorter. 

The  American  Mammey  tree,  {llammea  americana,  L.),  sixty  to 
seventy  feet  in  height,  is  one  of  the  finest  trees  of  the  Antilles,  with 
its  pyramidal  crown,  the  largest  berries  of  which,  from  three  to  seven 
inches  in  diameter,  furnish  a  much  prized  fruit.  The  outer  and  middle 
epidermis  are  leathery  and  tough,  the  iimer  skin  hitter,  while  the 
yellow  pulp  is  more  spicy  and  palatable,  and  is  used  raw,  and  prepared 
in  various  ways.  Though  it  is  cultivated  in  the  West  Indies,  experi- 
ments have  not  been  made  to  propagate  it  more  extensively. 

The  fruit  of  llammea  emarginata,  Sess.,  is  eaten  in  Mexico. 

The  Avocado  Pear,  or  Abacate,  (Persea  gratissima,  Gart.),  is  the 
most  highly  prized  fruit  of  Brazil.  It  is  like  a  large  pear,  with  a  green, 
leathery  rind,  and  tender,  juicy  flesh,  which  incloses  a  hard  nut,  like  a 
walnut.  The  flesh,  made  into  a  sauce,  with  citron  juice  and  sugar, 
has  a  delightful  taste.  One  fruit  is  sufiicient  for  three  or  four  persons. 
In  itself  the  flesh  is  insipid,  but  tender  and  soft,  tasting  like  artichokes. 
Moritz  Wagner  says  it  may  be  called  vegetable  butter,  as  it  melts  upon 
the  tongue.  This  very  large  tree  flourishes  only  in  the  warmer 
countries  of  Brazil.  Its  real  native  country  is  Central  America, 
Mexico,  and  the  northern  part  of  South  America,  whence  it  has  been 
distributed  by  cultivation  to  the  Antilles.  It  seems  to  have  been  culti- 
vated longest  in  Mexico  under  the  name  of  Aliuaca.  It  has  been 
naturalized  on  the  islands  of  Bourbon  and  Mauritius  since  1758. 

The  guavas  of  America  are  of  much  importance  for  the  abundance 
of  their  yield.  The  pear  guava  (Psidium  pyriferum,  L.),  is  distin- 
guished from  the  apple  guava  (P.  pomiferum)  by  the  shape  of  the 
fruit,  that  of  the  former  being  pear-shaped,  that  of  the  latter  being 
globular,  and  varying  from  the  size  of  a  plum  to  that  of  an  apple, 
and  resembling  an  orange.  Under  the  firm  leathery  shell,  there  is  the 
soft  flesh  which  passes  inwards  into  a  beautiful  rosy-red  pulp,  inclosing 
numerous  small  kidney-shaped,  hard  seeds.  The  fruit  of  the  first- 
mentioned  species  tastes  like  strawberries  and  raspberries ;  that  of  the 
latter  is  somewhat  bitter,  but,  with  the  addition  of  sugar,  becomes 
very  palatable.  At  the  present  day,  it  is  not  decided  whether  these 
two  plants  are  of  one  species,  or  mere  races  or  varieties ;  though  there 
seems  to  be  more  reason  for  the  latter  than  for  their  specific  distinc- 
tion. 

Both  forms  belong  to  the  tropical  main  land  of  America,  from  Mex- 
ico to  Brazil,  and  have,  probably,  been  carried  thence  to  the  West 
Indies.  The  trees  are  thin-stemmed  and  rather  low,  but  bushy;  and, 
at  the  present  day,  grow  wild  or  run  wild  in  many  places,  especially 
in  the  vicinity  of  settlements.  They  were  first  distributed  in  various 
directions  by  birds  and  beasts,  which  eat  their  fruit  greedily,  and  drop 


PLANTS   USED   AS   FOOD    BY   MAN.  349 

the  seed  undigested.  Their  cultivation  has  been  carried  on  by  the 
primitive  inhabitants  of  those  countries  from  time  immemorial,  as  is 
shown  by  the  fruit,  which  is  frequently  without  seeds.  This  plant 
first  reached  the  East  Indies  through  the  agency  of  the  Portuguese 
and  Spaniards.  It  is  remarkable  that  Psidimn  jpomiferum  has  been 
propagated  there  more  than  Psidium  pyriferum.  It  is  only  recently 
that  the  guava  has  extended  to  China  and  the  Philippine  Islands ;  and 
it  has,  thus  far,  advanced  neither  to  Japan  nor  to  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific  ocean.  It  has  only  recently  been  introduced  on  the  west  coast 
of  Africa  and  the  Island  of  Mauritius. 

It  is  uncertain  whether  Psidium  sapidissimum,  Jacq.,  with  its  dirty 
yellow  fruit,  the  size  of  a  plum,  is  a  variety  or  not  of  Psidium  pom- 
iferum,  of  which,  besides,  there  are  numerous  varieties.  The  other 
species  of  Psidium,  such  as  Psidium  aromaticum,  Aubl.,  Ps.  cattley- 
anum,  Sabine,  Ps.  grandiflorum,  Aubl.,  Ps.  guineense,  Sm.,  and  Ps. 
lineatifolium,  Pers.,  have  likewise  edible  fruits,  but  are  not  much 
known. 

We  may  here  also  mention  the  large  egg-shaped  fruit  of  Grias  cau- 
lifiora,  L.,  the  anchovy  pear  of  the  West  Indies. 

Our  cherry  is  replaced  in  Southern  America  by  the  Pitanga  {Eugenia 
michelii,  Lam.),  indigenous  principally  in  Cayenne,  as  well  as  by  the 
Jabuticaba  (Eugenia  caidifiora,  M.)  The  fruit  of  the  latter  is  the  size  of 
our  oxhart  cherry;  and,  under  the  tender  black  epidermis,  there  is  a 
white,  soft,  and  even  juicy  flesh,  in  which  are  two  or  three  seeds.  It 
is  inferior  in  taste  to  our  cherry.  In  Brazil,  it  ripens  at  the  end  of 
winter,  (September,  October,)  and,  as  it  is  the  only  fruit  which  can  be 
had  fresh  at  that  time,  is  very  much  esteemed.  Both  species  have 
been  planted  on  the  Antilles,  and  even  introduced  into  the  East 
.Indies. 

Eugenia  Jlorihunda,  West.,  and  Eugenia  brasiliensis,  Lam.,  also 
furnish  edible  fruit. 

Another  fruit,  the  size  and  shape  of  our  plum,  the  ibametara,  or 
Spanish  plum,  is  obtained  from  a  tree  {Spondias  mijrobalanus ,  Jacq., 
Spondias purpurea,  Ij.)  \f\\\c\i  grows  wild  in  the  forests  of  Jamaica, 
and  is  cultivated  in  the  northern  regions  of  the  tropical  parts  of  Brazil. 
The  natives  eat  the  sweetish  acid  flesh,  prepare  a  sauce,  and  manufac- 
ture drink  from  it. 

Another  species  of  the  same  genius  (Spondias  dtdcis,  Lam.)  is  found 
on  the  Friendly  Islands.  The  tree  is  50  feet  high,  with  a  straight 
trunk  the  thickness  of  a  man,  and  bears  clusters  of  large,  oval,  golden 
yellow,  stone  fruit,  like  pomegranates,  the  fleshy  putamen  of  which  is 
sweet  and  palatable,  and  reminds  one  of  the  pine-apple.  The  Spondias 
tuherosa,  Aruda,  and  Spondias  lutea,  Lam.,  (Spondias  momhin,  Jacq.), 
in  the  West  Indies,  also  furnish  edible  fruit. 

The  Icaco  plum  (Chrysohalanus  icaco,  L.)  is  also  worthy  of  mention. 
This  tree-like  shrub,  with  its  fruit  similar  to  the  damson,  grows  wild 
as  well  as  cultivated  in  the  forests  along  the  shores  of  South  America, 
and  on  the  wet  coasts  of  Carolina.  It  has  been  introduced  from  Africa, 
where  it  occurs  from  Senegal  to  Congo.  The  fruit  is  made  into  pre- 
serves, and  brought  to  Europe. 

The  common  Sapodilla  or  Zapota  (Sapota  acJiras,  Mill.,  Achras  sa- 


350  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

yota,  L.)  furnislies  a  much-esteemed  fruit.  The  tree  is  50  feet  high, 
with  an  expanding  crown,  and  is  still  to  be  met  with  in  its  wild  state 
in  the  forests  of  Venezuela  and  the  islands  of  the  Antilles.  Although 
it  has  been  long  ago  introduced  into  the  gardens  both  there  and  in 
South  America,  it  has  but  recently  found  its  way  to  Mauritius,  to  Java, 
to  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  even  to  the  Indian  continent.  The 
medlar-like  fruit,  of  a  milky,  quince-like  taste  and  form,  is  a  much- 
esteemed  fruit  in  the  whole  of  tropical  America.  There  are  several 
varieties  of  this  plant. 

The  genus  Anona  is  rich  in  species  furnishing  very  pleasant  fruit. 
They  belong,  with  the  exception  of  a  single  species,  Anona  senegal- 
ensis,  Juss.,  already  mentioned,  exclusively  to  America,  whence  they 
have  been  distributed  to  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  following  spe- 
cies may  be  mentioned  more  particularly : 

The  Sugar  Apple  {Anona  squamosa,  L.)  has  a  conical  or  pin-shaped 
fruit,  (whence  it  is  called  Pinhain  Brazil,)  with  a  greenish,  imbricated, 
scaly  shell.  The  flesh  is  white,  full  of  long,  brown  granules,  very 
aromatic,  and  of  an  agreeable,  strawberry-like,  piquant  taste.  In 
Costa  Kica  it  is  the  most  valuable  fruit  of  the  country.  It  is  uncertain 
whether  the  native  land  of  this  tree  is  to  be  looked  for  in  Mexico  or  in 
ihQ  plains  along  the  mouths  of  the  Amazon.  Von  Martins  found  it 
forming  entire  forest  groves  in  Para.  Its  cultivation  in  tropical  Amer- 
ica and  the  West  India  Islands  undoubtedly  goes  back  very  far.  It,  of 
course,  could  not  be  otherwise  than  that  so  useful  a  tree  should  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  Indian  Archipelago  just  as  soon  as  trade  with  these  two 
parts  of  the  world  was  established.  Accordingly,  it  was  carried  to 
Cochin  China,  China,  the  Philippines,  and  throughout  the  whole  of 
India  with  very  great  rapidity,  so  that  we  should  be  in.  doubt  whether 
it  was  actually  introduced,  and  was  not  really  indigenous,  had  we  not 
sufficient  grounds  to  substantiate  its  American  origin. 

A  second  species  is  the  Anona  muricata,  L.  This  tree  bears  a  large, 
fleshy,  juicy,  and  well-flavored  fruit,  of  a  sweetish  acid  taste,  like  Bihes 
nigrum.  It  grows  wild  on  the  Antilles,  (Barbadoes,  Jamaica),  but  in 
Surinam  has  only  escaped  from  gardens,  and  is  cultivated  in  the  whole 
of  Brazil,  Peru,  and  Mexico.  In  Jamaica  the  fruit  is  only  sought 
after  by  negroes.  The  plant  has  quite  recently  been  carried  to  Sierra 
Leone. 

Botanists  are  not  agreed  as  to  whether  Anona  asiatica,  L.,  which  is 
cultivated  in  Cochin  China,  is  to  be  referred  to  this  or  to  the  following 
species. 

The  third  American  species  is  the  Anona  reticulata,  L.,  with  brown 
berries  the  size  of  a  man's  fist,  which  constitute  a  highly-prized  fruit. 
It  is  native  to  the  forests  of  the  Antilles,  especially  to  Barbadoes  and 
Jamaica,  but  it  is  cultivated  in  Peru  and  Brazil. 

The  Anona  cherimolia,  Lam.,  originally  from  Peru,  seems  to  be  nat- 
uralized only  in  the  mountains  of  Port  Koyal,  in  Jamaica.  Venezuela, 
New  Grenada,  and  Brazil  only  know  it  as  a  plant  of  cultivation.  It 
has  been  carried  to  the  Cape  de  Verd  Islands,  and  to  Guinea. 

We  may  mention,  also,  in  conclusion,  A^iona  paludosa,  Aiibl.,  a 
small  tree,  the  height  of  a  man,  growing  upon  marshy  meadows,  with 
elongated  yellow  berries  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  which  have  a  juicy 


PLANTS   USED   AS   FOOD   FOR   MAN.  351 

flesli.  Also,  Anona  palustris,  L,,  in  the  West  Indies  and  South 
America,  with  fruit  the  size  of  the  fist;  Anona  punctata,  Aubl.,  from 
Cayenne,  with  palatable  fruit  of  a  reddish,  gritty,  and  granular  flesh ; 
Anona  longifolia,  Auhl.,  also  found  in  Guyana,  has  round  fruit,  the 
,size  of  the  fist,  the  flesh  of  which  is  excellent  and  is  very  much  prized 
by  the  Caribs  ;  Anona  cinerca,  Dunal;  Anona  mucosa,  Jacq.,  in  the 
West  Indies  and  Guyana;  and,  finally,  Anona  tripetala,  Ait.,  from 
Peru.  The  fruit  of  the  latter,  known  as  the  Cherimoyer,  the  size  of  the 
fist,  with  white,  sweet,  and  pleasant-smelling  flesh,  is  ranked  among 
the  best  in  the  land.     (Poj)pig's  Travels,  xi,  p.  135.) 

Some  other  acid  fruits  are  furnished  by  Sapindus  esculentus,  St.  Hil., 
Sterculia  cliica,  St.  Hil.,  and  Sclimidelia  edulis,  St.  Hil.,  in  Brazil; 
JRheedia  laterijiora,  L.,  in  the  Antilles,  as  also  Malpighia  punicifolia, 
L.  (Antilles  cherries),  and  Byrsonima  spicata,  D  C.;  also,  Melicocca 
hijuga,  L.,  Hancornia  speciosa,  Gomez,  and  Couma  guyanensis,  Aubl. 
The  gooseberry-like  fruit  of  Melastoma  arhorescens ,  Aubl.,  31.  fiaves- 
cens,  Aubl.,  M.  guyanensis,  Poir^  31.  spicata,  Aubl.,  M.  succosa, 
Aubl.  (the  Coca  Henriette  of  the  French),  and  31.  tococoj,  Ders.,  are  of 
little  value,  as  is  also  the  case  with  the  berries  of  Ainbelania  acida, 
Aubl.,  of  Guyana,  of  Fuchsia  7'acemosa,  Lam.,  and  Fuchsia  denticu- 
lata,  Kuiz  and  Pav.,  of  South  America.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
fruit  of  Podophyllum  peltatum,  L.,  Podophyllum  callicarpum,  Eafin, 
the  May  apple  of  North  America. 

We  may  also  mention  the  Persimmon  or  Date  plum  {Diospy7VS 
virginiana,  L.)  of  North  America,  already  referred  to  on  a  previous 
page.  Its  fruit  can  only  be  used  in  a  perfectly  ripe  state,  when  it  is 
of  a  pleasant  sweetness  and  quite  nutritious.  Previous  to  this  it  is 
excessively  astringent.  Drink  is  made  from  it.  It  is  also  found  in 
the  gardens  of  Europe.  Cerasus  virginiana,  Michx,  and  Cerasus  cepol- 
lin,  D  0.  of  Mexico,  are  species,  the  latter  of  which  is  frequently 
cultivated  on  account  of  its  pleasant  taste. 

The  acid  fruits  of  a  few  paims,  such  as  Corypha  cerifera,  Arrud., 
and  3Iauritia  vinifera.  Mart.,  of  Brazil,  belong  in  this  connection. 

The  group  of  nutrimentitious  plants  to  be  last  mentioned  is  charac- 
terized less  by  the  presence  of  one  or  other  vegetable  substance,  than 
by  a  mixture  of  starch,  gum,  sugar,  wax,  albumen,  &c.,  to  which 
here  and  there  may  be  added  various  peculiar  vegetable  principles. 
These  are  the  green  garden  vegetables,  such  as  species  of  cabbage, 
kale,  spinach,  lettuce,  asparagus,  artichokes,  &c.,  which  are  used 
sometimes  in  the  leaves  or  young  shoot,  sometimes  in  the  flowers,  as 
they  contain  a  proportionally  small  portion  of  nutriment.  They  are 
seldom  eaten  raw,  but  are  cooked  up  in  combination  with  other  sub- 
stances. 

A  peculiar  character  is  given  to  those  nutrimentitious  plants  by  the 
no  small  amount  of  vegetable  acids,  alkalies,  and  earths  which  they 
contain.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  malic  acid,  oxalic  acid, 
potash,  soda,  lime,  and  magnesia,  which  make  their  use,  in  connection 
with  meat,  particularly  advantageous,  on  account  of  their  tendency  to 
render  the  latter  more  digestible  and  soluble.  The  amount  of  nutri- 
ment of  the  green  herbaceous  parts  of  plants  is  still  more  scanty,  and, 
strictly  considered,  they  have  little  to  entitle  them  to  the  name  of  escu- 


352  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

lent  vegetables,  sucli,  for  instance,  as  the  leaves  of  Ranunculus  jicaria, 
tlie  beech,  &c. ;  and  it  is  somewhat  astonishing  that  these  could  ever 
have  been  used  as  nutriment  for  man,  except  in  time  of  famine. 

The  youngest  shoots  and  the  young  leaves  of  various  palms,  though 
in  reality  limited  to  the  tropical  zone,  furnish  most  important  and  pro- 
ductive esculent  vegetables.  The  principal  of  these  is  the  cabbage  palm, 
called,  alsOj  cabbage  tree  {Euterpe  carihcea,  Spgl.,  Areca  oleracea, 
Jacq.)  This  stately  palm,  200  feet  in  height,  is  native  in  the  whole 
of  the  West  Indies.  The  "cabbage,"  prepared  in  various  ways,  forms 
a  pleasant  dish ;  as  a  preserve,  it  has  even  found  its  way  to  Europe. 
Three  other  species,  Cocos  oleracea,  MsLvt.,  Euterpe  oleracea,  Mart., 
and  EiUerpe  edulis,  Mart.,  indigenous  in  Brazil,  are  likewise  known 
on  account  of  their  cabbage.  The  Palmetto  (Chame7vps  palmetto)  of 
the  southern  United  States  is  also  made  use  of  for  a  similar  purpose. 
The  mountain  cabbage  and  the  manico  palm,  upon  which  Schomburgk 
lived  almost  exclusively  for  weeks,  on  the  banks  of  the  Oronoco,  prob- 
ably belongs  to  one  of  these  species. 

The  Old  World,  also,  has  its  cabbage  palm.  Among  these,  may  be 
mentioned  the  cocoa  tree,  the  young  top  of  which  contains  a  succulent 
mass,  which  is  sweet  and  tastes  like  hazel-nuts,  and  is  considered  a 
choice  dish  wherever  it  occurs.  Other  cabbage  palms  are  Areca  glan- 
dceformis,  L.,  and  Areca  humilis,  L.,  found  in  the  Moluccas,  and  Sagus 
raphia,  Lam.,  in  Malabar  and  Guinea  ;  also,  Coryplia  umhraculifera. 
L.,  (7.  rotundifoUa,  Lam.,  and  Caryofa  urens,  L. 

Australia,  also,  in  Coryplia  australis,  and  New  Zealand,  in  Areca 
sapida,  Soland,  have  nutritious  cabbage  palms. 

Even  the  Date  palm,  the  fruit  of  which  is  so  useful,  is  here  and 
there  robbed  of  its  soft  top  and  leaf-buds,  which  the  Arabians  and 
Persians  consider  one  of  the  choicest  dishes. 

A  very  important  dish  is  furnished  in  the  regions  of  the  Blue  Nile 
by  Ilusa  ensete,  Bruce.  Although  the  fruit  of  this  plant  is  not  palat- 
able, and  rarely  eaten,  the  young  stems,  on  the  other  hand,  furnish  a 
better  article  of  food.  The  white  marrowy  portion,  freed  from  the 
rind  and  cooked,  has  the  taste  of  the  best  wheat  bread,  and  dressed 
with  milk  and  butter,  supplies  a  very  excellent,  wholesome  dish.  The 
plant  occurs  even  in  the  Egyptian  antiques,  and  seems  to  have  been 
more  widely  distributed  at  an  earlier  period  than  at  the  present  day. 
Large  plantations  of  it  occur  at  Maitsha  and  Goutto,  (Gondar?) 
according  to  Bruce. 

We  do  not  often  meet  with  a  plant  exhibiting  so  many  forms  in  its 
variations  from  the  original  type  as  the  Cabbage  {Brassica  oleracea., 
L.),  the  different  races  and  varieties  of  which  may  be  estimated  at  30 
or  more.  No  kitchen-garden  in  Europe  is  without  it,  and  it  is  dis- 
tributed over  the  greater  part  of  Asia,  and,  in  fact,  over  most  of  the 
entire  world.  The  original  plant  undoubtedly  occurs  wild  at  the 
present  day  on  the  steep  chalk  rocks  of  the  sea  province  of  England, 
and  on  the  coast  of  Denmark,  (Seeland,)  and  of  Northwestern  France  ; 
and  it  is  a  question  whether  this  marine  plant  did  not  at  one  time 
have  a  much  wider  distribution  when  the  climatic  peculiarities  of 
Europe  were  different  from  what  they  are  now.  Other  species  of 
Brassica,  very  nearly  allied  to  the  preceding,  such  as  Brassica  halea- 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  353 

rica,  Kiclil.,  Brassica  insularis,  Moris,  and  Brassica  cretica,  Lam., 
belong  to  tlie  Mediterranean  flora,  and  it  is  perhaps  possible  that 
some  of  these  species,  likewise  introduced  into  tlie  gardens,  and  estab- 
lished as  cultivated  plants,  may  have  mixed  with  each  other,  and  thus 
have  assisted  in  giving  rise  to  some  of  the  many  races  cultivated  at  the 
present  day. 

It  is  very  remarkable  that  the  European  and  Asiatic  names  used  for 
different  species  of  cabbage  may  all  be  referred  to  four  roots.  The 
names  Kopfkohl,  Cabus,  Cabbage,  Kappes,  Kraut,  Kapost,  Kaposta, 
Kapsta  (Tartar),  Kopee  (Bengal),  Kopi  (Hindostan)^  have  a  manifest 
relation  to  the  Celto-Sclavonic  root  Cap,  or  Kap,  which  in  Celtic 
means  head.  Brassica  of  Pliny,  is  derived  from  the  Celtic,  Bresic, 
(cabbage.) 

The  Ceito-Germanico-Greek  root  Caul  may  be  detected  in  the  word 
Kaol  (Breton),  the  Grecian  xauXcov  of  Theophrastes,  the  Latin  Caulis ; 
also  in  the  words  Caulx,  Cavolo,  Caou,  Kolil,  Kale,  Kaal  (Norwegian), 
Kohl  (Swedish),  Col  (Spanish),  Kelum  (Persian) ;  finally,  the  Greco- 
Germanic  root  Gramb,  xpdp.^-/],  passes  into  Krumh,  Karumb  of  the  Ara- 
bians, and  probably  into  the  German  Kraut,  which  originally  indicated 
the  cabbage  plant,  but  subsequently  became  a  generic  name. 

The  want  of  a  Sanscrit  name  shows  that  the  cabbage  tribe  first  found 
their  way  at  a  later  period  to  India  and  China.  Even  in  the  time  of 
Thunberg  it  was  wanting  in  Japan, 

The  young  shoots  of  Brassica  cretica,  Lam.,  were  formerly  used  in 
Greece  as  a  dish. 

Brassica  carinata  is  allied  in  habit  to  Brassica  nigra ;  it  is  found 
wild  in  Abyssinia,  and  is  also  cultivated  there  ;  although  it  furnishes 
very  poor  cabbage,  not  to  be  compared  with  ours. 

It  seems  pretty  well  established  that  our  Lettuce  (salad),  Lactuca 
sativa,  L.,  is  not  a  true  species,  but  rather  a  variety  of  Lactuca  scariola, 
L.,  indigenous  to  the  Southern  Caucasus  and  the  neighboring  regions, 
and  thence  distributed  over  the  whole  of  Europe  to  Altai.  The  lettuce 
plant  is  no  where  found  wild,  though  continually  met  with  run  wild. 
The  ancient  Greek  cultivated  two  varieties,  L.  capitata  and  L.  crisjpa, 
and  lettuce  was  known  to  the  Persians  in  the  time  of  Cambyses.  It  is 
called  dcda^  by  Dioscorides,  and  it  even  now  belongs  among  the  most 
prized  dishes  of  the  Greeks.  The  common  people  are  satisfied  with 
raw  lettuce,  eaten  with  a  few  olives  and  a  piece  of  bread  and  cheese. 
Pliny  was  already  acquainted  with  all  our  most  important  varieties  of 
the  cultivated  j)lant,  especially  L.  capitata,  L.  crisjja,  L.  laciniata,  &c. 
The  Eoman  family  of  the  Lactucini  was  noted  for  its  lettuce  beds, 
(Romani  quidem  in  Valeria  familia  ob  diligentem  lactucarum  curam 
Lactucini  appelant.  Plin. ,  19,4.)  At  the  present  day  the  lettuce  plant 
is  distributed,  not  only  over  the  whole  of  Europe  and  Asia  (Cochin 
China,  Northern  China,  and  Japan),  but  also  over  all  other  parts  of 
the  world.  Schultz,  quite  recently,  has  been  inclined  to  recognize  the 
parent  plant  of  Lactuca  sativa,  L.,  in  specimens  brought  by  Th. 
Kotschy,  from  the  savannas  of  Cordovan. 

The  origin  of  the  Endive  [Gicliorium  endivia,  L.)  is  somewhat  doubt- 
ful. It  is  a  widely-distributed  |)lant,  but  is  distinguished  from  the 
closely  allied  chicory  or  succory  {Gicliorium  intybus,  L.)  chiefly  by  its 
23 A 


354  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

annual,  or  at  most  biennial  cliaracter.  Although  distributed  over  the 
whole  of  Europe  and  Northern  Africa  (Egypt),  its  original  plant  may 
be  sought  for  with  less  probability  of  success  in  the  Mediterranean  than 
in  India,  where  Cicliorium  cosnia,  Ham., is  certainly  the  same  plant,  and 
met  with  about  Patna  and  Kamaon,  as  well  as  in  Nepal,  growing  wild. 
The  varieties  divaricata,  humilis,  and  nana  may  be  considered  as  the 
result  of  cultivation. 

This  plant,  unknown  to  the  early  Greeks,  is  at  present  cultivated 
and  eaten  in  Greece.  The  young  shoots,  as  well  as  the  leaves,  are 
boiled  and  eaten  with  vinegar. 

The  chicory  (Cicliorium  intybus,  L.,  xcy^copcov  of'Theophrastus)  is  a 
plant  of  as  wide  or  even  wider  distribution  than  that  just  mentioned. 
The  young  leaves  are  used  as  food.  Here  and  there  only  it  is  cultiva- 
ted largely  on  account  of  its  root,  as,  for  instance,  in  Egypt,  probably 
as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Pliny.  The  dried  root  is  frequently  used  in 
France  and  Germany  as  a  substitute  for  or  addition  to  coffee. 

The  samphire  (Crithmum  maritimum,  L.)  is  a  salad  plant  much 
prized  in  the  entire  East,  as  well  as  in  Greece.  It  is  cooked  and  used 
in  sea  voyages  as  an  anti-scorbutic.  Dioscorides  mentions  a  xpcd/jtou. 
Whether  this  plant  is  the  above-named  wild  plant,  or,  as  Landerer 
supposes,  the  latter  is  rather  the  xpd/jLJ^Tj  dalaaaia  of  Dioscorides,  I  will 
not  here  attempt  to  decide.  Grecian  fable  narrates  that  the  Krambe 
arose  from  the  tears  which  Lycurgus,  priest  of  Jupiter,  shed  when  he 
beheld  his  slain  child. 

Bunias  Erucago,  L.,  Senebiera  coronopus,  Poir.,  and  Senebiera  nilo- 
tica,  D  C,  are  of  less  value.  The  first  is  used  by  the  poor  in  Italy, 
the  second  in  England,  and  the  third  in  Egypt. 

We  may  here  mention  a  few  plants  allied  to  the  above,  such  as  Zillia 
myagroides,  Forsk.,  (Bunias  spinosa,  L.)^  Crambe  maritima,  L.,  and 
Crambe  tataria,  Jacq.  The  former,  occurring  in  the  deserts  of  Egypt, 
furnishes  only  a  poor  dish  on  account  of  its  spiny  leaves,  though  it  is 
used  by  the  Arabians  for  lack  of  something  better. 

Crambe  maritima,  L.,  (Sea  hail),  growing  upon  the  sandy  shores  of 
the  East  and  North  sea,  and  the  Atlantic  ocean^  and  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean sea,  is  more  fitted  for  the  purposes  of  nutriment.  Even  this, 
however,  by  the  ancient  Eomans,  was  considered  an  indifferent  article 
of  food.  When  cultivated,  and  the  young  shoots  are  protected  against 
the  sun,  it  is  like  asparagus,  and  quite  as  good  as  this  or  cauliflower. 
The  plant  is  chiefly  cultivated  in  England. 

Crambia  tataria,  Jacq.,  is  a  plant  of  the  steppes  of  the  region  along 
the  Lower  Danube,  Dnieper,  and  the  Don.  The  root  is  fleshy  and 
sweet,  the  thickness  of  a  man's  arm.  It  is  eaten  raw  as  a  salad  in 
Hungary  as  well  as  cooked,  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  young  shoots  of 
the  stem.  It  is  called  Tatar  kenyer  (Panis  tataricus),  probably,  be- 
cause the  Hungarians  became  acquainted  with  it  in  Tartary.  In  time 
of  famine,  it  is  used  as  bread  in  Hungary.  It  is  probable  that  it 
was  the  Cliara  caesaris  which  the  soldiers  of  Julius  Cassar  used  for 
bread. 

The  spinach  (Spinacia  oleracea,  L.),  a  much-esteemed  green  vege- 
table, is  probably  native  in  the  regions  between  Caucasus  and  the 
Persian  Gulf,  as  also  another  species  of  the  genus,  Spinacia  tetrandria. 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  355 

The  cultivation  of  this  plant  in  Persia  and  Arahia,  undoubtedly  took 
place  in  the  time  of  the  Eomans,  and  it  was  thence  distributed  over 
Europe  and  Eastern  Asia.  The  Arabian  name  for  spinach  is  Is- 
fdnddsch,  the  Persian  Ispanj,  the  Hindostan  Is/any.  Neither  the 
Greeks  nor  Romans  were  acquainted  with  it.  The  Dutch  spinach 
{Spinacia  glabra,  Mill.),  is  a  variety  of  the  common  kind,  produced  in 
the  course  of  cultivation.  Of  less  importance  are  the  green  plants  of 
the  Fortulacca,  and  numerous  species  of  dock,  such  as  Bumex  scutatus, 
L.,  a,  acetosa,  L.,  and  H.  patiejitia,  L. 

The  Portulacca  or  Purslane  (Fortulacca  oleracea,  L.),  the  ovdpd-prj 
of  Theophrastus  and  Dioscorides,  is  a  very  widely  distributed  plant  of 
the  Mediterranean,  occurring  everywhere,  and  readily  entering  the 
loose  soil  of  the  gardens.  According  to  Landerer,  it  is  used  as  a  salad 
in  Greece,  with  oil  and  vinegar,  and  is  also  kept  for  a  longer  period  in 
salt-water  and  vinegar. 

A  much  more  extended  use  is  made  of  a  species  of  Purslane,  the 
Leiuisia  rediviva,  Pursh.,  growing  in  North  America.  This  plant, 
which  occurs  in  great  abundance  on  the  western  side  of  the  Eocky 
mountains,  especially  in  the  valley  of  Columbia,  is  collected  by  the 
natives,  who  carry  its  dried  root  with  them  on  their  wanderings,  and 
use  it  cooked  like  arrow-root  to  very  great  advantage.  A  man  in  full 
health  and  vigor  can  be  supported  merely  by  the  daily  use  of  not  more 
than  two  or  three  ounces. 

The  Canadian  hunters  and  servants  of  the  Hudsons'  Bay  Company, 
have  long  since  learnt  its  use  from  the  natives.  (W.  J.  Hooker,  Bot. 
Miscellany,  vol.  1,  p.  344.) 

The  different  species  of  dock,  rich  in  oxalate  of  lime,  and  therefor<? 
of  an  acid  taste,  are  entirely  wild  plants  raised  here  and  there  in  gar- 
dens. The  longest  known,  perhaps,  is  the  common  garden  dock, 
Bumex  patientia,  L.,  which  Pliny  designated  Bumex  sativus  ;  at  the 
present  day  B.  scutatus  and  B.  acetosa,  are  more  used  than  the  first 
mentioned. 

Here  also  may  be  mentioned  the  borage,  (Borago  officinalis,)  which 
is  characterized  by  the  possession  of  a  great  amount  of  acetic,  sul- 
phuric, and  nitric  phosphoric  salts,  as  well  as  of  chloride  of  potassium, 
and,  therefore,  frequently  used  as  a  salad.  The  plant,  native  to  the 
east,  has  been  distributed  throughout  the  whole  of  southern  and  mid- 
dle Europe,  even  in  the  humblest  gardens.  It  is  also  cultivated  in 
North  America  and  Chile. 

The  leaves  of  certain  species  of  Oxalis  furnish  similar  sourish,  edible 
dishes,  such  as  Oxalis  cernua,  Thunb.,  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
Oxalis  plumieri,  Jacq.,  from  the  Antilles,  and  Oxalis  zonata,  DC, 
in  South  Africa,  cultivated  at  the  present  day  in  Belgium;  Oxalis 
crassicaidis ,  Zucc,  (0.  arracalia,  Don.),  already  mentioned  on  account 
of  its  nutritious  tubers,  and  Oxalis  esculenta,  Hort.  Berol.,  furnish  an 
excellent  dish  from  their  leaves. 

The  Corchorus  (Corcliorus  olitoiHus,  L.)  is  a  plant  of  the  kitchen 
garden,  the  leaves  of  which  are  cooked  like  our  spinach,  and  serve  for 
food  in  the  tropical  regions  of  the  earth.  It  is  cultivated  throughout 
the  whole  of  Egypt  to  Cordova. 

Other  species  of  Corcliorus,  such  as  0.  tridens,  L.,  C.  acutangidus, 


356  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Lam,,  C.  fruticulosus ,  Vis.,  native  in  Sennaar  and  Cordova,  are  tliere 
used,  as  well  as  Cor  chorus  oUtorius. 

Tliere  are  still  some  other  plants  to  be  mentioned,  wliicli,  althougli 
for  the  most  part  growing  wild,  or  partly  cultivated,  are  used  as  vege- 
tables. Among  these  belong  SpilantJius  oleraceus,  L.,  eaten  as  a  salad 
on  the  Mascarenhas,  in  the  East  Indies,  and  South  America,  and  called 
the  cress,  of , Para,  as  well  as  SpilantJius  hrasiliensis,  Spgl.,  applied  to 
a  similar  purpose  in  Brazil. 

A  few  Cichoracew,  such  as  Tragopogon porrifolius,  L.,  Tr.pratensisy 
L.,  Leontodon  taraxacum,  L.  (dandelion),  Sonchus  oleraceus,  L.,  &c., 
are  hardly  worth  mentioning  here,  though  their  leaves  are  used,  both 
raw  and  cooked,  as  greens.  The  latter  is  eaten  as  a  salad  in  New 
Zealand  and  on  the  Friendly  Islands. 

The  field  or  JRapunsel  salad  {Valerianella  olitoria,  Monch,)  is  well 
known  throughout  the  whole  of  Germany. 

New  Zealand  has  its  spinach  plant  in  Tetragonia  expansa,  Murr., 
which  is  not  only  distributed  over  the  entire  archipelago  of  the  Pacific 
ocean  and  Japan,  but  has  also  been  introduced  into  Europe.  A  second 
species,  Tetragonia  lialimifolia,  Forst.,  which  is  as  good  as  the  first,  is, 
nevertheless,  not  used  in  New  Zealand  as  on  Tongatabu, 

A  good  many  acid  vegetables  are  used  as  salad,  as  well  as  the  sweet- 
ish and  bitter-sweet.  Among  these  belong  some  species  of  Ranunculus 
and  the  plants  known  as  cresses  in  Europe  and  other  parts  of  the  world. 

Besides  the  young  leaves  oi  PMnunculus  Jicaria,  L.,  which  are  eaten 
here  and  there  in  Europe,  another  species  of  Ranunculus  is  brought  to 
market  in  north  Persia,  Ranunculus  (Ficaria)  edulis,  Boiss.  It  is  called 
morcli-serdag  (egg  yolk),  on  account  of  the  yellow  color  of  its  flowers. 
The  small  tubers,  together  with  the  young  stems  and  leaves  of  the 
blossoms,  serve  as  food.  With  these,  according  to  Th.  Kotschy,  there 
appears  in  the  bazar  in  Teheran,  as  a  vegetable,  the  Uolag  of  the  Per- 
sians {Allium  latifolium,  Jaub.  and  Spach.)  This  grows  on  the  Alps. 
The  Avhole  of  the  young  plant  is  considered  a  delicacy,  and  is  used  as 
an  addition  to  rice  (in  a  pilau.)  Ui^tica  dioica,  L.,  is  used  by  the 
Northern  Persians,  as  well  as  by  the  Europeans.  The  best  known  cress 
is  the  garden  cress  {Lepidium  sativum,  L.),  which,  originating  in  the 
East  and  Egypt,  is  cultivated  in  Europe.  It  is  mentioned  by  Dios- 
corides  under  the  name  of  Kapdajjov.  Lepidium  oleraceum,  Forst.,  is 
used  in  New  Zealand  as  a  spinach,  particularly  by  seafarers,  while 
Lepidium  piscidium,  Forst.,  of  the  lower  oceanic  islands  is  useless  as 
food,  on  account  of  the  great  sharpness  of  the  leaves,  although  it  is 
employed  in  the  caj^ture  offish.  Iberis  nudicaidis,  L.,  and  Cochlearia 
danica,  L.,  with  the  garden  cresses,  are  similarly  employed. 

To  these  we  may  add  the  native  Cardamine  amara,  L.,  and  C.  jjra- 
tensis,  L.^  as  well  as  C.  nasturticioides,  Bertero,  in  Chile.  Nasturtium 
officinale,  E.  Br.,  is  much  esteemed  in  France.  It  loses  its  bitter  taste 
by  cultivation.  The  Indian  cress  {Nasturtium  indicum,  D.)  has  also 
found  its  way  into  the  gardens  of  France.  Other  cresses  are  furnished 
by  Tropoiolum  majus,  L.,  and  Tr.  minus,  L.,  from  Peru,  as  also  by 
Chimocarpus  pentapliyllus ,  Don,  {Tropoiolum  pentaphyllum.  Lam.),  in 
Brazil  and  Chile. 

The  Atriplicece  and  Chenx)podicece  are  richer  in  esculent  species  than 


PLANTS  USED  AS  FOOD  BY  MAN.  357 

tlie  preceding.  The  Orache  (AtripUx  hortensis,  L.),  which  is  native 
in  Tartary,  has  long  ago  been  introduced  as  a  kitchen  vegetable  in 
Europe,  and  has  already,  here  and  there,  run  wild.  It  was  known  to 
the  G-reeks  as  Azpdipa^iq  (Dioscorides).  TJieligonum  cynocrambe,  L., 
{Kovoxpdfi^-f],  Diosc),  indigenous  to  Europe,  is  also  used  here  and  there 
as  a  vegetable.  The  same  is  the  case  with  (7/ie?iopoc?mm  album,  L., 
Gh.  viride,  L.,  Ch.  hybridum,  L.,  Ch.  bonus  Jienricus,  L.,  and  Ch. 
rubrum,  L. 

The  Strawberry  spinach,  or  blite  (Blitum  capitatum,'L.,  and  mV- 
gatum,  L.),  is  also  more  or  less  known.  Even  its  insipid,  strawberry- 
like fruit  finds  consumers. 

Basella  alba,  L.,  is  an  East  Indian  spinach  plant;  and  the  roots  of 
Basella  tuber osa,  H.  B.,  serve  as  food  in  Colombia. 

The  species  of  Amaranthics,  such  as  Am.arantJius  ascendens,  Loisl., 
A.  prostratus,  Balb.,  and  A,  sylvesto^is,  J)esf.,  are  used  ^ among  us, 
although  AmarantJms polygonoides,  Lin.,  in  Further  India,  is  used  only 
by  the  poor  people.  The  younger  shoots  of  the  hop  (Humidus  lupulus, 
L.),  likewise  have  a  very  limited  application. 

Some  other  plants  of  the  Oceanic  Islands  and  New  Holland  may  be 
mentioned,  especially  in  the  southern  part  of  the  latter  (Victoria), 
which  are  used  as  an  antiscorbutic  spinach.  Doctor  Miiller  mentions 
the  following :  Tetragonia  inermis,  Trigonella  suavissima,  Tetragonella 
imjjlexicoma,  and  several  species  of  Cardamine,  also  Nasturtium  ter- 
restre,  and  Laurentia  spicata.  Forster  refers  to  the  use  of  Dracaena 
terminalis,  L.,  JDracceena  indivisa,  Forst,,  Boerhavia  erecta.,  h.,  Por- 
tulacca  lutea,  Sol.,  and  Solanum  viride,  Soland.,  upon  the  Society 
Islands  and  in  New  Zealand  as  kitchen  vegetables. 

The  fruits  of  some  of  the  Solanacece  are  of  great  importance  as 
kitchen  vegetables,  especially  the  egg  plant  and  the  tomato  plant. 
The  former  (Solanum  esculentum,  Dun.),  {S.  melongena,  L.,  p.  p.),  is 
a  plant  of  Southern  Asia  and  the  Indian  Archipelago,  of  very  ancient 
cultivation,  although  no  longer  met  with  there  in  a  wild  state.  It 
came  by  way  of  the  East  to  Europe,  even  in  the  time  of  the  Komans, 
and  has  been  distributed  over  its  entire  southern  part.  It  is  culti- 
vated at  the  present  day  on  the  western  coast  of  Africa  and  the  Islands 
of  Mauritius  likewise,  and  has  become  an  inhabitant  of  America  since 
the  eighteenth  century. 

To  the  Egg  plant  may  be  added  the  Tomato,  (Lycopersicum  escu- 
lentum, Mill.,)  which  is  certainly  an  American  plant,  like  most  of  the 
species  of  Lycopersicum.  Although  cultivated  at  present  in  the  East 
Indies,  its  cultivation  there  dates  only  from  the  discovery  of  America. 
The  names.  Mala  peruviana  and  Pomi  del  peru,  indicate  still  more 
decidedly  its  trans- Atlantic  origin,  and  it  is  very  probable  that  this 
plant  was  cultivated  in  Mexico  at  a  very  early  period.  At  the  present 
day  the  wild,  original  plant  has  disappeared  from  America,  and  even 
the  form  found  on  the  Gallapagos  seems  to  be  only  a  stunted  cultivated 
plant. 

Two  other  plants,  which  in  all  probability  belong  to  the  western 
hemisphere,  must  not  be  passed  over,  although  they  have  there  a  quite 
limited  culinary  application,  they  are  the  well-known  Phytolacca  de- 
candria,  Lin.  (Poke  berry),  and  Ph.  esculenta.  Van  Houtte.     The 


358  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

former,  originally  from  JSTortli  America,  its  probable  native  land,  lias 
been  distributed  througbout  Mexico,  Brazil,  the  Sandwich  and  Atlantic 
Islands,  and  the  region  of  the  Mediterranean,  even  to  Switzerland.  It 
is  used  at  the  present  day  as  a  vegetable  in  the  United  States,  and  its 
young  shoots  are  considered  almost  equal  to  spinach.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  Ph.  escuUnta  is  originally  from  Mexico  or  the  East  Indies ; 
and  it  is  only  in  more  modern  times  that  its  leaves  have  been  used  as  a 
spinach.  (A.  Braun  on  Phytolacca  esculenta,  a  new  edible  plant. 
Verhand.  Gartenhau-Vereins,  xxi,  1,  1852.) 

In  conclusion^  I  may  mention  Asparagus,  the  Artichoke  and  the 
Gondelia,  several  species  of  Malvacem,  the  Caper,  and  the  interesting 
Cabbage  of  Kerguelen's  Land,  and  some  other  less  known  and  less 
widely  distributed  vegetables. 

There  are  several  species  of  Asparagus  belonging  to  the  Mediterra- 
nean regions.  Of  these  the  true  Asparagus  {Asparagus  officinalis,  L.) 
furnishes  a  very  excellent  and  much  prized  dish,  and  may,  by  cultiva- 
tion, be  brought  to  great  perfection.  It  is  a  plant  of  the  sea-shore 
and  river-banks  of  Southern  Europe,  the  Crimea,  &c.  It  is  not  found 
either  wild  or  cultivated  in  Greece.  Only  the  young,  juicy  shoots  are 
used,  which,  when  cooked,  are  soft  and  sweetish,  and  have  a  charac- 
teristic taste  from  a  peculiar  principle,  asparagin.  It  is  raised  exten- 
sively at  the  present  day  in  North  America. 

The  common  Artichoke  {Gynara  scolymus,  L.)  is  also  a  Mediterra- 
nean plant,  and  probably  only  a  variety  of  Gynara  cardunculus,  L. ,  pro- 
duced by  cultivation,  which  is  native  to  the  Mediterranean,  the  Islands 
of  Greece,  and  to  Sardinia.  The  ayMonoq  of  Dioscorides  is  not  this 
plant,  but  Scolymus  maculatus,  L.,  the  young  leaves  of  which,  when 
cooked,  serve  as  a  vegetable.  Only  the  undeveloped  flower-head  of  the 
artichoke,  especially  its  much  thickened  parts,  is  used,  and  it  furnishes 
a  much  prized  dish.  This  plant  is  only  cultivated  in  Greece,  although 
it  is  sometimes  met  with  wild,  escaped  from  gardens.  The  varieties 
produced  by  cultivation  differ  in  having  larger  or  smaller,  round  and 
oval,  armed  and  unarmed  heads. 

Gondelia  tournefortii,  L.,  a  thistle  occurring  abundantly  in  Pales- 
tine, is  similar  to  the  artichoke.  The  young  plant,  especially  the  thick 
stem,  with  the  young  and  still  undeveloped  flower-heads,  is  brought 
to  the  market  of  Jerusalem  under  the  name  of  Gardi,  and  sought  after 
as  a  vegetable.     (Kotschy.) 

The  unripe  and  still  green  capsule  of  the  Okra  (Ahelmoschus  escu- 
lentus,  Guill.  and  Perrott,  Hibiscus  esculentus,  L.)  is  rich  in  mucilage, 
and,  therefore,  very  nutritious ;  when  cooked,  it  is  frequently  used  as 
a  vegetable.  It  is  native  to  tropical  Africa^  and  has  been  distributed 
as  a  plant  of  cultivation  from  Chartumand  Sennaar,  and  over  Egypt  to 
Palestine  and  Syria,  and  has  become  naturalized  in  America.  Its 
Arabian  name,  according  to  Kotschy,  is  Bamia;  the  American,  Gombo, 
Gobo,  Ochro. 

The  unripe  capsule  oi  Ahelmoschus  longifolius,  Medik^  originally  an 
American  plant,  at  the  present  day  replaces  the  preceding  as  an  arti- 
cle of  food  in  tropical  Asia. 

The  flowers  of  Ahutilon  esculentus,  St.  Hil.,  (Sida  esculenta,  Steud.), 
which  are  used  cooked  in  Brazil^  are  of  less  moment. 


PLANTS  USED  AS  POOD  BY  MAN.  359 

The  following  plants  of  tlie  same  family  are  used  as  vegetables  in 
difierent  places:  Hibiscus  cannabinus,  L.,  of  tropical  Asia,  at  present 
cultivated  in  Senegal;  H.  Jiirtus,  h,,  H,  micranthus,  h.,  H.  furcatus, 
Eoxb.,  and  H.  radiatus,  Cav.,  used  both  in  Bengal  and  the  East 
Indies;  S.  Jiculneus,  L.,  cultivated  in  Egypt;  H.  sabdariffa,  L.,  from 
Guinea,  cultivated  now  in  the  East  Indies  and  America ;  H.  digitatus, 
Cav.,  from  Guinea;  and  H.  macidatus,  Desf. 

We  may  also  mention  here  two  other  plants,  Malva  verticillata,  L., 
in  China,  and  Malva  rotundifolia,  L.,  used  formerly  as  a  vegetable  in 
Europe,  but  at  present  more  in  China  and  Lower  Egypt.  Even  Pyth- 
agoras thought  much  of  this  spinach;  and  among  the  Greeks,  as  well 
as  among  the  Eomans,  it  was  at  one  time  much  esteemed.  3Ialve  and 
Asphodell  were  raised  at  Delos  for  the  temple  of  Apollo,  as  a  symbol 
of  the  first  nourishment  of  man.  At  the  present  day  the  young  shoots 
are  used  as  a  salad  in  Southern  France  and  Italy. 

Indifferent  greens  are  furnished  by  the  young  shoots  and  leaves  of 
some  species  of  Epilobmm,  as  Epilohium  angustifoUum,  L.,  Up.  latifo- 
lium,  L.,  Ep.  tetragonum,  L.,  &c.,  although  sufficing  for  Northern 
Asia  and  Iceland.  The  same  is  the  case  in  Iceland  with  the  fleshy  and 
saline  leaves  oi  Arenaria peploides ,  L.,  or  Sandwort. 

The  preserved  flower  buds  of  the  Caper  bush  {Capparis  spinosa,  L.) 
have  received  a  wide  distribution  as  a  vegetable.  It  was  known  to  the 
ancient  Greeks,  and  the  renowned  Phyrne,  at  the  first  period  of  her 
residence  in  Athens,  was  a  dealer  in  capers.  The  Capparis  herhacea, 
Willd.,  and  0.  ru-pestris,  Sibth.  and  Smith,  are  also  used  for  the  same 
purpose,  as  well  as  the  Spartium  scoparium,  L.,  of  Germany,  and  the 
Zygophyllumfahago,  L.,  in  Northern  Africa  and  Syria. 

In  conclusion,  I  will  mention  a  few  other  less  widely  distributed 
and  little  known  green  vegetables.  Among  these  are  EupJiorhia  edtdis, 
Lour.,  of  Cochin  China;  E.  pilulifera,  L.,  of  the  East  Indies;  E.  hirta. 
L.,  Plukenetia  cornicidata,  Sm.,  and  Apocynum  indicum,  Lam.,  from 
the  Moluccas;  Codiaeum  cJirysosticton,  Rumph.,  from  Hither  India; 
Osyris  japonica,  Thunb.,  from  Japan.  Also  several  species  of  Cissus, 
with  their  acid  leaves,  such  as  Cissus  latifolia,  Vahl.,  C.  quadrangu- 
laris,  L.,  and  C.  crenata,  Vahl.,  of  the  East  Indies;  C.  rotundifolia, 
Vahl.,  and  C.  ternata,  Gmel.,  from  Arabia;  Cleome  cuneifolia,  Mtihlb., 
and  CI.  speciosa,  H.  B.,  the  former  of  North,  the  latter  of  South 
America;  Gynandropsis  pentaphylla,  DC,  is  used  as  a  vegetable  in 
the  East  and  West  Indies;  Cassia  sopliora,  L.,  and  Cassia  esculenta, 
Sweet,  in  Amboyna;  Bauhinia  racemosa,  Vahl.,  in  the  East  Indies; 
B.  lingua,  DC,  on  the  Moluccas;  Trigonella  escidenta,  Willd.,  in 
Bengal;  and  Trygonella  platycarpos,  L.,  in  Siberia;  Bombax  ceiba, 
L. ,  the  Cotton  tree,  and  Bombax  septenatum,  Jacq. ,  of  tropical  America, 
and  Agave  americana,  L.,  the  leaves  of  whicli,  when  cooked,  furnish  a 
palatable  and  easily-digested  food. 

The  cabbage  of  Kerguelen's  Land  {Pringlea  antiscorbutica,  R. 
Brown)  is  similar  to  our  cabbage,  in  the  shape  and  tendency  of  the 
.eaves  to  form  a  head.  It  was  first  discovered  by  Cook,  in  his  first 
voyage,  and  subsequently  by  Hooker,  jr.  It  was  found  again  in  the 
Antarctic  voyage  of  Captain  Ross,  and  is  used  to  great  advantage  as 
a  pleasant  anti-scorbutic  by  the  sailors.     It  grows  abundantly  in  every 


360  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

part  of  the  island  to  an  elevation  of  one  thousand  four  hundred  feet, 
although  particularly  luxuriant  and  fitted  for  food  as  a  sea-shore  plant. 
The  young  leaves  have  the  taste  of  cresses  or  mustard,  only  somewhat 
more  pungent. 

The  preceding  enumeration  of  nutrimentitious  plants,  wliicli  I  have 
endeavored  to  make  as  complete  as  possible,  omitting  nothing  of  im- 
portance, will  enable  us  to  take  a  general  survey  of  the  vegetable  sub- 
stances used  as  food  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  The  number  of 
different  kinds  of  plants  in  this  category  amounts  to  nearly  800,  which, 
could  be  very  considerably  increased  by  adding  those  plants  and  vege- 
table substances  which  are  only  used  here  and  there  by  man,  and  then 
chiefly  when  driven  by  hunger,  such  as  the  bark  of  trees,  the  acrid 
tubers  and  roots,  the  sprouts  and  leaves  of  various  kinds  of  herbs, 
insipid  and  unpalatable  fruits,  &c.,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  tubers 
of  Chaeropliyllum  bulhosum,  the  plant  of  Salicornia  Jierhacea,  the  fruits 
of  the  Haw,  Bramble,  and  Sloe,  of  Hippopliae  rliamnoides,  the  Beech- 
nut, &c. 

If  we  bear  in  mind,  liowever,  that  we  are  far  from  being  acquainted 
with  all  the  nutritious  vegetable  substances  which  are,  or  may  be, 
drawn  by  man  into  the  circle  of  his  domestic  economy,  we  may  estimate 
the  entire  number  of  such  species  of  plants  at  1,000.  Now,  allowing, 
on  an  average  only  10  to  12  varieties  of  cultivation  to  each  species,  we 
will  have  10,000  different  kinds  available  for  his  wants. 

If  we  follow  still  further  the  facts  mentioned  above  in  detail,  it  is 
evident,  as  we  remarked  at  the  beginning,  that  the  nutritious  plants 
were  originally  distributed  over  the  whole  earth,  and  that  the  western 
hemisphere,  as  well  as  the  eastern,  had  its  peculiar  vegetable  products 
at  the  service  of  mankind.  It  will,  however,  be  seen  that  the  distri- 
bution of  nutritious  plants  is  by  no  means  uniform,  but  that,  on  the 
contrary,  certain  parts  of  the  earth  are  particularly  favored,  while  in 
others  they  occur  but  sparsely,  and  in  many  regions  are  almost  entirely 
wanting.  This  must  necessarily  have  influenced  very  much  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  human  race  over  the  earth,  and  its  increase  and  accumu- 
lation in  particular  regions. 

If  we  investigate  this  condition  of  things  still  further,  by  marking 
down  upon  a  map  of  the  earth  the  different  nutrimentitious  plants  in 
their  original  localities,  or  in  the  ideal  central  point  of  their  distribu- 
tion, and  represent  the  different  varieties  by  particular  symbols,  we  will 
obtain  a  very  intelligible  idea  of  the  primitive  condition  of  things,  from 
which  many  important  conclusions  may  be  deduced. 

If  we  now  compare  the  two  hemispheres,  eastern  and  western,  to- 
gether, it  will  be  seen  that  the  eastern  has  a  great  preponderance  over 
the  western,  so  much  so  that,  with  the  addition  of  New  Holland  and 
the  islands  of  the  Pacific  ocean,  it  contains  almost  three  times  as  many 
nutritious  plants  as  the  western.  The  following  table  will  elucidate 
this  more  clearly : 


PLANTS   USED    AS   FOOD    BY   MAN. 


361 


Comparative  table  of  the  richness  of  the  eastern  and  loestern  hemispheres 

in  nutritious  plants. 


Nutritious  plants. 


c.o 


Number  of  nutritious  plants. 


1)  .1i 

•5  S 


Amylacea,  (starch  plants) 

Oleosa,  (oil  plants) 

Dulcia,  (sugar  plants) 

Acidula,  (acid  plants) 

Salina,  (saline  plants) , 

Total 


237 

94 

81 

213 

145 


191 

49 

52 

151 

122 


770 


565 


45 
45 
29 
62 
23 


204 


It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  nutritious  plants  are  accumulated  together 
in  a  linear  direction,  both  upon  the  eastern  as  well  as  upon  the  western 
hemisphere.  If  we  draw  a  line  from  the  Moluccas  to  Ireland,  by  far 
the  largest  number  and  most  important  nutritious  plants  are  seen  to 
have  originated  along  or  in  the  direction  of  this  line.  Into  this  line 
fall  the  nutritious  plants  of  the  eastern  archipelago,  of  Hither  and 
Further  India,  of  Nepal,  Persia,  Armenia,  the  Crimea,  Greece,  Italy, 
and  Central  Europe.  The  regions  exterior  to  this  belt  of  land  furnish 
only  a  few  species,  and  these  mostly  of  little  value,  such  as  China, 
Japan,  Central  Asia,  and  the  eastern  and  western  coast  lands  of  Africa. 
The  coast  of  North  Africa  falls  in  part  into  this  linear  belt,  ranging 
from  southeast  to  northwest. 

New  Holland,  New  Guinea,  &c.,  take  their  place  as  the  most  inhos- 
pitable portions  of  the  earth. 

The  same  law  of  distribution,  although  less  prominently  exhibited, 
exists  in  the  western  hemisphere.  A  similar  line  runs  from  Brazil, 
by  way  of  Guyana,  Peru,  Ecuador,  Central  America,  the  West  Indies, 
and  Mexico,  along  which  are  accumulated  by  far  the  most  important 
and  influential  nutritious  plants.  The  species  peculiar  to  North  America, 
Chile,  &c.,  are  only  of  inconsiderable  moment. 

The  result  of  our  investigation  is  so  remarkable  that  I  cannot  refrain 
from  considering  the  hromatorial  line  as  of  the  greatest  importance  in 
respect  to  the  history  of  cultivation,  and  as  a  road  which,  while  leading 
the  wandering  man  along  a  sure  path,  renders  it  possible  for  him  to 
accomplish  the  great  problem  of  his  existence  here  below ;  he  advances 
towards  greater  perfection.  In  fact  it  is  this  and  no  other  line,  upon 
the  extreme  point  of  which  the  history  of  cultivation  of  the  ancient 
world  takes  its  starting  point,  and  along  which  the  nations  penetrated 
victoriously,  by  degrees,  into  the  heart  of  Europe. 

How  far  this  idea  is  to  be  applied  to  American  humanity,  I  may  not 
venture  to  assert,  since  at  present  only  loose  fragments  are  known  to  us 


362  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

of  the  earlier  history  of  cultivation  in  that  country ;  nevertheless,  such 
a  connection  with  the  line  of  vegetable  nutriment  seems  to  he  clearly 
indicated. 

By  whatever  path,  and  with  whatever  assistance,  man  may  progress 
to  a  condition  of  high  moral  and  physical  development,  this  much  is 
certain,  that  food,  and  particularly  vegetable  nutriment,  must  have 
the  greatest  influence  upon  the  attainment  of  this  great  object. 


ART  OE  GOVEMmG  THE  SAP. 

BY  M.  P.  JOIGNEAUX,  EDITOR  IN   CHIEF    OF  THE  "FEUILLE  DU  CULTIVATEUIl, " 

PARIS. 


[Translated  by  C.  A.  Alexander,  of  Washington,  from  the  "  Journal  Mensual  de  I'Acade- 
mie  Nationale  Agricole,  Manufacturiei-e,  et  Commerciale,  Paris.] 


A  cultivator  who  gives  himself  no  concern  about  the  circulation  of 
the  sap  in  vegetables  is  not  more  in  his  place  in  the  midst  of  the  fields, 
than  an  engineer  of  a  locomotive  would  be  in  his,  who  knew  nothing 
of  the  properties  of  steam.  The  rejoinder,  it  is  true,  may  be  made 
that  ignorance  of  physiological  laws  is  very  pardonable  in  the  cultiva- 
tor, since  men  of  science  are  by  no  means  of  accord  with  regard  to 
the  course  of  the  sap.  In  effect  they  range  themselves  in  two  diiferent 
camps,  one  admitting  the  descent  of  the  sap,  the  others  denying  it; 
but  what  imports  to  us  the  divergence  of  their  hypothesis,  if,  as  far 
as  practice  is  concerned,  they  correspond  to  observed  facts,  and  termi- 
nate in  the  same  results  ? 

Now,  this  is  precisely  what  happens.  Both  equally  satisfy  us,  and 
if  we  here  adopt  the  theory  of  the  descent  of  the  sap,  it  is  because  it 
is  the  most  widely  diffused,  and  for  no  other  reason. 

We  say  then,  the  roots  take  up  the  liquid  manure,  which  becomes 
sap,  and  ascends  through  the  body  of  the  plant,  chiefly  through  the 
alburnum,  is  retarded  awhile  in  the  upper  part,  becomes  modified  and 
thickened,  and  then  descends  from  the  top  towards  the  roots,  depositing 
in  its  passage  a  new  layer  of  alburnum.  It  is  the  blood,  the  life  of 
vegetables. 

It  is  the  sap  which  makes  the  wood  and  the  leaf — which  makes  also 
the  fruit ;  the  wood  and  the  leaf,  when  it  circulates  in  abundance  and 
with  force  ;  the  fruit,  when  its  circulation  is  slackened,  whether  natu- 
rally, or  in  consequence  of  the  obstacles  we  oppose  to  it.  Knowing 
this,  we  comprehend,  of  course,  that  the  art  of  governing  the  sap  is 
of  the  greatest  consequence  to  the  cultivator.  According  as  he  governs 
it  well  or  ill,  it  will  give  good  or  bad  results.  The  pruning  of  trees, 
grafting,  the  culture  of  pot  herbs,  as  well  as  culture  on  a  larger  scale, 
are  subordinated  to  this  principle. 

Have  we  not  slayers  of  trees,  who  end  by  killing  outright  their 
most  robust  specimens  without  obtaining  any  thing  from  them,  while 
the  skillful  orchardist  rears  and  keeps  them  long  in  a  bearing  condition. 


ART    OF    GOVERNING   THE    SAP.  363 

Have  we  not  kitchen  gardeners  wlio,  so  to  speak,  do  what  they 
please  with  their  herbs,  while  others  succeed  only  by  chance,  and  can 
never  be  sure  of  anything?  Why  is  this?  Because  the  one  has 
learned  to  manage  the  sap,  the  others  know  nothing  about  it. 

Here  and  there,  in  ]3rofessional  books,  we  are  supplied  with  judicious 
indications,  but  the  writers  do  not  attach  themselves  sufficiently  to 
those  little  practical  details  in  which  consists  the  skill  of  the  cultivator,  • 
but  which  escape  the  attention  of  scientists. 

Now  these  little  details  interest  us  most ;  they  form  the  principal 
object  of  the  present  article. 

Let  us  commence  with  trees.  When  we  have  to  do  with  subjects 
which  are  too  vigorous,  giving  every  thing  in  wood  and  nothing  in 
fruit,  we  naturally  infer  that  there  is  excess  of  health,  and  that  it  is 
proper  to  proceed  with  them  as  we  would  with  sterile  animals;  in 
other  words,  let  blood  and  put  them  on  diet.  Every  enfeebled  or  suf- 
fering tree,  plant,  or  animal  is  determined  to  the  reproduction  of 
itself.  Hence  we  deal  roughly  with  our  barren  trees ;  we  make  them 
suffer  in  diiferent  ways.  Some  retrench  the  roots,  and  thus  cut  off  a 
portion  of  the  channels  which  receive  and  distribute  the  sap ;  some 
drive  nails  into  the  trunk;  some  make  holes  with  the  gimblet  as 
physicians  puncture  with  the  lancet.     So  much  for  the  violent  means. 

The  cultivators  of  the  new  school,  if  we  may  be  allowed  the  expres- 
sion, have  recourse  to  procedures  less  energetic  in  form,  but  quite  as 
sure  in  the  result.  To  make  a  tree  bear  they  content  themselves  with 
binding  down  the  branches,  with  compressing  the  boughs  against  a 
wall  or  stake,  with  pinching  the  extremities.  All  this  is  perfectly 
known,  but  the  reason  of  these  little  operations,  it  appears  to  us,  is 
not  so  clearly  comprehended. 

The  explanation,  in  a  few  words,  is  this  :  When  you  bend  a  branch 
down,  you  strangle,  to  some  extent,  the  sap-bearing  vessels  at  the 
point  of  curvature,  at  the  same  time  that  you  withdraw  the  branch 
from  the  vertical  direction  which  is  favorable  to  the  motions  of  the  sap. 
Thus,  this  nutritive  liquid  no  longer  circulates  so  freely;  there  is  a 
retardation  of  the  developing  process,  and  hence  a  determination  to 
reproduction,  that  is,  to  fructification.  When  you  tighten  a  bough 
against  an  espalier,  you  necessarily  crowd  the  young  alburnum,  and 
thus  choke  the  channels  of  the  sap,  and  hence  the  same  effects.  When 
you  pinch  the  end  of  a  leaf-bud,  you  equally  interfere  with  the  flow  of 
the  nutritive  juices,  and  disturb  the  functions  of  the  tree,  causing  the 
bud  to  develop  into  a  spur,  which  will  produce  flower-buds  the  next 
season;  or  by  destroying  a  considerable  number  of  leaf-buds,  and  thus 
checking  the  normal  vegetation,  you  produce  the  same  result  with  the 
buds  that  are  left.  And,  as  by  thus  depriving  it  of  sap,  you  may 
convert  a  leaf-bud  into  a  flower-bud,  since  the  flower  is  in  some  sort 
but  an  abortive  leaf,  you  may  equally,  by  furnishing  too  much  sap  to 
the  flower-buds,  develop  them  into  wood  and  leaves. 

Would  you  have  a  proof?  Cut  close  a  subject  charged  with  shoots, 
and  you  will  see  the  greater  part  of  those  shoots  changed  into  sterile 
branches,  instead  of  fruitful  ones. 

When  you  practice  close  trimming,  that  is,  when  you  remove  much 
wood,  the  roots  of  the  tree  continue  to  supply  sap,  as  if  they  had  still 


364  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

to  nourish  tlie  parts  cut  away.  This  sap,  being  no  longer  entirely 
used  up,  since  you  have  diminished  the  number  of  the  branches  which 
it  fed,  will  turn  aside,  right  and  left,  to  form  new  wood,  or  else  perish 
for  want  of  issues,,  under  the  bark.  Three  fourths  of  those  who  un- 
dertake the  trimming  of  trees  never  think  of  this.  They  cut  and 
prune  at  random,  with  very  questionable  benefit.  But  who  is  in  fault  ? 
Those,  undoubtedly,  who  will  not  give  themselves  the  trouble  to  pop- 
ularize the  "most  elementary  notions  of  arboriculture.  Say,  then  to 
our  pruners:  The  amount  of  water,  joined  to  the  soluble  matters  of 
the  soil,  makes  the  amount  of  sap.  We  have  more  of  it,  therefore  in 
moist  than  in  dry  soils ;  more  in  crops  watered  than  in  those  not 
watered ;  more  in  a  damp  than  a  dry  climate ;  more  in  a  tree  grafted 
on  a  seedling  with  thirsty  roots  than  in  one  grafted  on  the  quince^ 
with  temperate  roots.  This  being  understood,  it  is  clear  that  we  ought 
to  modify  our  practice  in  pruning,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
ject and  the  climate.  If  there  is  no  inconvenience  in  trimming  a  little 
close  such  trees  or  plants  as  have  little  vigor,  there  is  much  in  pursuing 
tlie  same  course  with  those  of  great  vigor.  If  it  is  easy  to  stop  a 
gentle  rivulet,  and  lead  it  aside  in  trenches  and  streamlets ;  it  is  diffi- 
cult, on  the  other  hand,  to  dam  up  a  torrent. 

When  you  have  an  impetuous  sap,  you  will  have  no  fruit;  and  it  is 
not  by  cutting  away  largely  that  you  will  prevent  this  impetuosity  of 
the  sap.  You  will  turn  it  aside,  and  nothing  more.  In  such  case, 
then,  restrict  yourself  to  light  trimming,  and  endeavor  to  moderate 
the  circulation  by  bending  the  boughs  and  branches  from  a  vertical 
position,  and  rubbing  off  some  of  the  buds.  In  this  way,  a  certain 
amount  of  embarrassment  and  obstruction  may  be  produced ;  the  sap 
will  moderate  its  course,  and  fructification  will  ensue.  From  this  ob- 
servation has  arisen  the  idea  of  the  annular  incision,  which  consists 
in  removing  a  ring  of  bark  from  the  lower  part  of  limbs,  in  order  to 
make  them  produce  fruit.  By  removing  these  rings,  we  produce  diffi- 
culty and  retard  the  descent  of  the  sap.  Both  wood  and  fruit  form 
more  rapidly;  but  at  this  game  we  discount  largely  on  the  life  of  our 
trees,  and  alter  the  quality  of  their  products. 

What  has  been  said  of  trees  applies,  necessarily,  to  flowers,  to  pot- 
herbs, and  to  plants  of  a  higher  culture.  Would  you  have  an  instance? 
the  small  periwinkle,  which,  you  know,  at  least  by  name,  does  not 
easily  produce  seed.  Tournefort,  one  day,  bethought  himself  of  forcing 
it  to  do  so,  and  succeeded,  by  placing  a  specimen  of  the  plant  in  a  pot, 
where  its  roots  were  straitened  for  want  of  room.  Philip  Miller,  in 
England,  took  a  different  course  with  the  same  plant,  and  obtained 
satisfactory  results,  by  moderately  pinching  the  leaves  at  the  base.  In 
what  concerns  the  kitchen- garden  we  should  daily  take  account  of  the 
sap.  Should  our  cabbages  appear  to  grow  too  vigorously,  so  that  their 
leaves  seem  more  disposed  to  spread  than  form  heads,  it  will  be  advisble 
to  cleave  their  stalks  through  and  through,  and  often  three  or  four 
times  during  the  course  of  their  vegetation,  as  has  occurred  in  our  own 
practice  during  the  past  year,  when,  in  vegetables  of  this  species,  a 
tendency  to  uncoif  instead  of  heading  manifested  itself,  in  consequence 
of  a  superabundant  flow  of  sap.  The  practice,  too,  of  shortening  the 
tops  of  our  beans  and  peas,  has  it  not,  for  its  end,  a  slackening  of  the 


ART    OF   GOVERNING    THE   SAP.  365 

circulation  of  the  sap^  thereby  to  procure  a  greater  development  and 
precocity  for  the  pods?  Undoubtedly;  but  this  can  only  be  on  condi- 
tion that  the  pinching  of  the  beans  and  peas  be  judiciously  calculated, 
for,  if  we  practice  it  at  random,  we  shall  by  no  means  obtain  the  desired 
result.  They  tell  us  to  pinch  our  peas  above  the  second  flower,  and 
rightly;  but,  as  they  tell  us  no  more,  some  gardeners,  and  many 
amateurs,  wait  until  the  peas  acquire  four  stages  of  flowers  before  they 
suppress  two. 

Thus,  effectively,  they  do  pinch  above  the  second  flower ;  only,  by 
operating  too  late,  they  practice,  without  being  aware  of  it,  that  short 
and  close  pruning  which  impels  the  sap  to  form  rapidly  new  branches 
and  leaves.  Had  they,  on  the  contrary,  removed  but  a  slight  portion 
of  the  stalk  when  it  had  just  passed  the  second  range  of  buds,  the  dis- 
posable sap  vfould  not  have  been  considerable,  would  not  have  had  the 
force  to  send  out  vigorous  branches,  and  would  have  distributed  itself 
among  the  neighboring  flowers.  As  a  general  rule,  then,  suppressing 
the  tops  of  ]3lants  is  not,  necessarily,  conducive  to  fructification,  except 
on  condition  that  it  be  done  in  moderation.  If  you  remove  too  much, 
you  practice  what  is  equivalent  to  close  pruning  in  trees  abounding  in 
sap,  and  promote  the  production  of  leaves.  It  is  not  enough  to  trim; 
you  must  trim  in  due  time  and  measure. 

In  cutting  the  vines  of  our  gourds  and  melons  (courges)  we  usually 
proceed  without  reason,  and,  of  course,  without  success.  We  ought 
to  cut  above  the  fruit  first  formed,  instead  of  leaving  several  to  form 
with  a  view  to  making  a  choice.  If  it  happens  that  the  finest  of  the 
number  is  nearest  the  base,  we  are  forced  to  remove  a  long  piece  of  the 
vine,  that  is^  to  employ  close  pruning.  We  wish  a  very  large  specimen, 
and  we  operate  so  as  to  produce  leaves  and  branches.  In  our  own 
practice  we  prefer  bruising  the  vine  a  little  above  the  fruit  and  covering 
the  bruised  part  with  earth.  In  this  way  there  is  no  complete  sup- 
pression of  the  sap-bearing  vessels,  but  only  a  slackening  of  the 
circulation. 

In  knotting  the  stalks  of  the  onion  and  the  garlic,  do  we  not  see  an 
attempt  at  governing  the  sap?  We  thereby  comjoel  it  to  moderate  its 
flow.  So,  too,  in  giving  a  twist  to  the  seed-vessels  of  the  beet  and  the 
purslaine,  we  hasten  the  maturing  of  the  seeds,  which,  in  France, 
would  often  take  place  too  slowly,  if  the  sap  were  allowed  its  free  career. 
The  same  end  is  gained  by  straining  the  stems  in  two  or  three  places 
against  stakes  in  such  a  way  as  to  strangle  somewhat  the  channels 
of  the  nutritive  juices.  With  a  similar  view,  would  it  not  be  advisable 
to  diminish  the  height  of  our  kidney-beans,  that,  by  obliging  the  stems 
to  fall  and  curve  backward,  we  might  procure,  not  only  an  earlier, 
but,  probably,  also  a  more  abundant  product? 

When  the  heads  of  cauliflowers  attain  the  size  of  one's  fist,  we  par- 
tially break  the  leaves  which  surround  them,  and  superpose  those 
leaves  on  the  heads ;  then,  in  proportion  as  others  are  developed,  we 
break  the  tops  of  these,  also,  until  all  are  passed  over,  and  the  head 
of  the  plant  is  completely  hidden.  By  merely  doing 'this,  the  head  is 
screened  from  the  light,  and  kept  white  and  tender. 

Gardeners  know  this ;  but  it  may  be  doubted  whether  they  generally 
know  that  such  breaking  of  the  leaves  moderates  the  impetuosity  of 


366  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

tlie  sap,  and  renders  a  large  part  of  it  disposable  for  tlie  growth  of  the 
head,  which  is,  consequently,  better  developed  than  under  ordinary 
circumstances.  The  breaking  is  tantamount  to  what  may  be  called  long 
pruning  in  trees ;  while,  in  place  of  breaking,  if  we  took  the  leaves 
away,  we  should  have  the  equivalent  of  close  or  short  pruning,  and  a 
result  entirely  opposite.  The  stalks  would  grow  upward,  and  the 
heads  would  open  to  grow  upward  also.  An  example  maybe  observed 
in  the  Island  of  Jersey,  where  the  cabbages  for  feeding  cattle  attain  an 
extraordinary  height,  simply  in  consequence  of  the  daily  gathering  of 
the  leaves  nearest  the  base.  If  cultivators  had  an  idea  of  the  art  of 
governing  the  sap,  they  would  beware  of  cutting,  either  in  whole  or 
in  part,  the  vines  of  their  potatoes,  in  order  to  preserve  them  from 
disease,  or  to  increase  their  size.  When  they  cut  them  partially,  the 
sap  develops  a  multitude  of  small  shoots,  to  the  prejudice  of  the  tubers ; 
when  they  cut  them  entirely,  they  put  forth  no  more  shoots,  but  lose 
a  prodigious  quantity  of  sap,  which  moistens  the  ground  and  marks 
the  place  of  each  cluster.  The  tubers  do  not  profit  by  it;  the  sole 
result  being  a  great  number  of  them,  of  the  size  of  a  hazel  nut.  We 
have,  ourselves,  made  trial  of  both  these  kinds  of  close  pruning,  not, 
however,  with  the  least  expectation  of  benefit,  but  simply  to  have  our 
mind  disabused  of  all  the  nonsense  which  is  emitted  on  the  subject  of 
agriculture.  Eeason  condemned  these  experiments,  and  the  result 
condemned  them  just  the  same.  We  approve  of  pinching  the  stalk 
of  the  potato,  when  the  buttons  disclose  themselves,  because  it  is  a 
means  of  producing  a  pause  in  the  rise  of  the  sap,  without  much  dis- 
turbance, and  of  determining  the  formation  of  tubers,  which  does  not 
commence  until  after  the  complete  development  of  the  tops.  But  we 
greatly  prefer  bending  to  pinching.  And  why  ?  In  order  to  develop 
the  underground  branches  or  tubers. 

By  bending  the  branches  above  ground,  we  embarrass  the  flow  of 
sap,  and  may  be  sure  that  a  part  of  it  will  be  employed  in  producing 
buds  beneath  ground.  If  you  desire  precocity,  use  this  means:  bend 
the  stalk,  and  keep  them  in  place  with  a  lump  of  earth.  It  is  as  if 
you  were  told,  whenever  you  wish  a  bud  to  develop  itself  quickly  and 
surely,  bend  the  bough  a  little  above  that  bud,  in  order  to  retard  the 
sap  at  that  point.  It  is  precisely  what  is  done  in  the  vineyard  at 
Thomery  to  establish  the  second  tier  or  line  of  an  arbor  or  trellis. 
The  curvature  of  the  leading  branch,  above  a  bud  of  good  appearance, 
develops  that  bud,  and  produces  the  desired  result. 

Enough  has  probably  been  said  to  evince  the  importance  of  the 
subject  we  are  engaged  with — a  subject  which  we  here  only  indicate, 
but  which  will  furnish,  we  doubt  not,  sooner  or  later,  the  matter  of 
some  special  treatise. 

The  art  of  governing  the  sap  does  not  interest  alone  the  gardener 
and  the  orchardist ;  it  concerns,  in  an  equal  degree,  agriculturists 
on  a  larger  scale  ;  for  it  is  "certainly  with  the  sap  that  they  are  dealing 
when  they  mow  crops  which  grow  too  vigorously,  or  pasture  young 
meadows  to  make  them  thicken,  or  roll  the  cereals  to  suspend  awhile 
their  vegetation,  or  top  their  corn  and  beans,  or  pinch  their  tobacco. 
And,  in  these  difierent  cases,  gross  blunders  may  be  committed  in 
default  of  an  intelligent  apprehension  of  the  reasons  of  the  operation. 


FARM   JOURNALS.  367 

PAEM  JOURNALS. 


BY  JOHN  L.  GOW,  OF  WASHINGTON,  PENNSYLVANIA. 


It  would  seem  to  be  demanded  of  the  agriculturist,  above  all  other 
professions  and  trades,  that  he  should  keep  a  daily  record  of  facts  imme- 
diately connected  with  his  business,  for  various  and  important  reasons. 

The  farmer's  field  is  an  extended  one,  full  of  varied  and  diversified 
knowledge,  in  itself  continually  suggestive  of  theories  fruitful  of  exper- 
iment, and  coextensive  with  the  ages  and  development  of  man. 

Natural  philosophy  and  chemistry  are  essentially  the  handmaidens 
of  agriculture.  Who  can  estimate  the  value  of  the  improved  plow  over 
the  clumsy  implement  of  the  olden  times  ;  of  the  present  reaper  and 
mower,  the  thresher  and  cleaner,  over  those  of  fifty  or  a  hundred  years 
ago  ?  Who  can  say  what  will  be  the  result  of  future  chemical  discov- 
eries? Yet,  important  as  these  matters  are  to  the  farmer,  he  cannot 
be  expected  to  devote  much  time  to  them.  It  is  rare,  indeed,  that  he 
may  become  a  chemist  such  as  Liebig,  but  he  should  read  "Liebig's  Or- 
ganic Chemistry,  in  its  Application  to  Agriculture  and  to  Physiology ;' ' 
and  then,  by  a  record  of  his  own  experience,  faithfully  set  down,  he 
may  be  able  not  only  to  verify  the  truth  of  the  experiments  of  others, 
and  so  improve  himself,  but  also  contribute  his  share  to  the  advance- 
ment of  the  art  and  science  of  agriculture. 

The  advantages  of  daily  journals  have  been  declared  by  the  practice 
of  distinguished  men,  and,  were  it  necessary,  we  might  obtain  many 
great  names  as  authority  for  our  suggestions ;  we  shall  refer  to  but  one 
instance,  that  of  our  own  Washington.  It, was  not  only  in  his  first 
public  employment,  his  embassy  through  the  wilderness  to  French 
Creek,  in  his  Braddock  campaign,  and  during  his  glorious  national 
career  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  armies  of  the  revolution,,  that  his 
daily  journals  were  accurate,  useful,  and  interesting,  but  his  methodi- 
cal habits  induced  a  continuous  record  of  home  concerns,  his  farm  and 
plantation  labor,  the  rotation  of  his  fields  and  crops,  and  of  all  those 
things  which  he  wished  to  remember,  exhibiting  the  exactness  as  well 
as  comprehensiveness  of  his  mind,  and  his  devotedness  to  system  in  all 
his  private  as  well  as  public  affairs.  There  is  also  an  advantage  in 
such  records  to  the  farmer's  family,  in  a  literary  point  of  view. 
Young  men,  and  even  children,  participating  in  them,  become  more 
and  more  interested  in  the  matters  of  the  farm,  not  only  learning  to 
write,  (which  of  itself  is  important,)  but  at  the  same  tune  to  express 
any  particular  subject  or  event  in  proper  ideas  and  words,  thus  estab- 
lishing the  character  of  business  men,  and  acquiring  that  happy 
faculty  which,  with  many,  is  the  labor  of  years — to  write  clearly  and 
forcibly.  At  first  a  duty  and  labor,  this  practice  will  soon  become  an 
easy  habit,  a  source  of  gratification  to  the  individual,  and  of  interest 
to  others. 

Let  us  examine  the  subject  more  minutely.  All  our  farmers  are 
deeply  interested  in  the  subject  of  timber,  cut  or  to  be  cut,  for  various 


368  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

necessary  and  indispensable  farm  purj^oses.  Timber  at  times  is  unex- 
pectedly durable,  and  again  as  unaccountably  perisbable.  As  there  is 
no  effect  without  an  adequate  cause,  we  naturally  seek  that  cause  when 
we  find  remarkable  differences.  Is  the  durability  of  fencing  materials 
produced  by  the  time  of  cutting  the  timber,  the  state  of  the  saj)  at  the 
time,  or  the  age  and  size  of  the  tree?  Has  the  moon's  phase  at  the 
season  of  cutting  anything  to  do  with  it?  Is  it  a  combination  of  any 
or  all  of  these  things,  perhaps  also  united  with  the  period  of  setting 
the  posts  or  splitting  the  material?  Or  is  there  a  more  hidden  cause 
proclucing  the  results?  We  should  be  likely  to  obtain  satisfactory 
answers  to  these  questions,  did  every,  farmer  keep  an  accurate  record 
of  his  timber-cutting,  even  to  a  tree,  and  the  purpose  for  which  it  was 
required.  The  journal  of  a  single  farm,  where  much  timber  was  used 
for  thirty  years,  would  throw  great  light  upon  the  subject;  and  how 
much  more  satisfactory  would  be  the  result  if  every  intelligent  farmer 
were  a  contributor  to  the  general  information. 

^'On  the  score  of  economy,"  says  the  "Ohio  Farmer,"  "much 
depends  on  the  time  trees  are  cut,  whether  to  be  used  for  timber  or 
fuel.  That  which  is  cut  from  the  middle  of  July  to  the  last  of  August, 
will  last  twice  as  long  for  timber  fences,  and  be  worth  fifty  per  cent, 
more  for  firewood,  than  that  which  is  cut  in  the  fall  or  winter.  Cut  in 
July  or  August,  the  last  running  of  the  sap,  it  seasons  through  quickly, 
becomes  hard  and  firm,  and  will  bear  far  more  hard  usage  than  that 
cut  at  any  other  season ;  seasoned  immediately,  it  is  not  subject  to  be 
eaten  by  worms,  nor  destroyed  by  dry  rot,  but  will  remain  sound  for 
years." 

Now  all  this  may  be  true ;  but  how  many  farmers  can  verify  it  by 
their  experience  as  reliable? 

Had  we  the  recorded  life-time  experience  even  of  twenty  farmers — 
of  every  fence  and  building,  every  roof  and  sheep-shed,  the  aggregate, 
by  comparison,  would  surely  go  far  to  settle  all  dispute  upon  this  sub- 
ject, and  no  doubt  reveal  important  facts  not  generally  known,  as  to 
fencing  and  carriage  materials,  utensils,  barrels^  hoop-poles,  and  the 
cutting  of  underbush. 

Again,  it  is  believed  by  many  that  the  phases  of  the  moon  have  a 
direct  efiect  upon  the  results  of  spreading  manure,  setting  fences,  lay- 
ing shingles,  planting  gardens,  &c.  Followers  of  these  signs  say  that 
potatoes,  carrots,  beets_,  &c.,  productive  from  the  root,  should  be  de- 
|)osited  during  the  dark  of  the  moon,  and  corn,  beans,  peas,  melons, 
&c.,  growing  above  ground,  in  the  light  of  that  orb.  They  tell  us, 
also,  that  beef  and  pork  killed  in  a  particular  phase  of  the  moon,  will 
shrink  in  cooking,  and  otherwise  will  swell.  Much  of  this,  no  doubt, 
is  exceedingly  ridiculous;  but  what  is  the  true  course  for  a  wise  man 
to  pursue  in  regard  to  it? 

"  There  are  more  things  in  Heaven  and  earth,  Horatio, 
Than  are  dreamed  of  in  your  philosophy." 

Then,  should  not  every  farmer  assist  in  verifying  or  disproving  these 
assertions  by  his  own  notation  of  facts  and  results,  and,  if  certain  con- 
sequences do  follow  certain  acts,  instead  of  laughing  at  the  signs,  let 
us  patiently  explore  the  occult  causes. 


FARM  JOURNALS.  369 

You  have  liacl,  I  will  suppose,  an  unusual  good  crop  of  wlieat.  Your 
son,  ten  years  after,  desirous  of  like  profit,  inquires,  "Did  you  manure 
the  field?  What  kind  of  manure?  What  quantity?  When  spread? 
What  time  did  you  sow?  What  quantity  of  seed?  What  had  heen 
in  the  field  before?  What  time  did  you  harvest?"  &c.  You  reply: 
"It  was  not  written  down,  and  all  these  things  have  escaped  my 
memory." 

Again,  in  elucidation  of  our  subject,  live  stock  is  one  of  the  means, 
and  no  inconsiderable  one,  in  a  farmer's  available  income.  This,  of 
course,  includes  neat  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  swine.  It  is  true,  when 
we  see  the  kind  of  cattle  raised  by  some  farmers,  we  should  suppose  the 
whole  a  matter  of  chance.  Others,  again,  adopt  a  different  view  of 
the  matter,  and  make  money,  too,  by  their  views. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  some  breeds  of  neat  cattle  are  prefer- 
able for  form.,  some  for  milk,  some  for  facility  of  fattening,  some  for 
docility,  and  some  for  the  greatest  combination  of  all  these  good 
points. 

Let  us  suppose  a  farmer  has  a  cow,  (accidentally  obtained,)  extraor- 
dinary for  quantity  and  quality  of  milk,  beautiful  in  form  and  color, 
easily  managed  and  milked,  and  readily  fattened  when  no  longer  fit 
for  the  dairy,  he  would  like  another  of  equal  properties.  Now,  were 
this  a  race-horse,  or  even  a  good  common  stallion,  he  could  find  out  all 
about  the  pedigree  of  the  animal  without  difficulty_,  but  as  it  is  noth- 
ing but  a  cow,  although  really  ten  times  more  important  to  the  farmer 
than  any  race-horse  that  ever  existed,  he  can  discover  no  records  on 
the  subject,  simply  because  farmers  fail  to  note  down  every  calf,  bull, 
and  cow,  and  the  crossing  of  breeds,  &c.  Therefore,  he  must  look  to 
chance  for  the  next  cow  to  supply  her  place.  If  it  be  true  that  it  costs 
no  more  to  rear  a  good  animal  than  a  bad  one,  (and  some  say  it  costs 
less,)  then  should  farmers  know  all  about  their  stock,  and  keep  a 
record  of  the  kinds  and  crossings.  These  are  but  examples  of  many 
things  equally  iinportant. 

Still,  it  maybe  said  by  some  that  these  are  small  matters,  too  minute 
to  deserve  the  attention  required.  True,  they  are  individually  so,  but 
our  whole  life  is  given  in  minutes,  and  the  success  of  our  lives  and 
business  is,  in  the  main,  dependent  upon  what  appear,  separately  con^ 
sidered,  to  be  trifl.es. 

,  Again,  we  may  be  told,  to  journalize  all  the  circumstances  of  a 
farm  would  be  troublesome,  the  work  of  a  lifetime.  True,  also;  but 
remember  you  have  a  lifetime  to  do  it  in ;  and  as  to  the  trouble,  it  will 
only  be  one  until  habit  makes  it  a  pleasure,  and  its  utility  shall  become 
so  obvious  as  to  prove  a  ten-fold  recompense  were  it  a  continuous 
trouble. 

Were  our  young  farmers  induced  to  observe,  record,  and  study  the 
affairs  of  the  farm — were  they  to  learn  the  true  nature  of  the  profession — 
how  elevating,  in  a  moral  point  of  view,  as  a  philosophical  as  well  as 
a  mechanical  pursuit,  and  thus  how  dignified,  how  independent  is 
farm  labor,  we  should  have  fewer  young  re  en  forsaking  what  they  call 
"its  drudgery"  and  "degradation"  for  the  learned  professions,  thus 
throwing  away  the  pearl  of  independence  for  the  apparently  easy  life 
24 A 


370  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

of  tliose  who  will  tell  you  that  success  v/ith  them  is  toil  unremitting, 
harrassing  and  oppressive,  to  which,  in  comparison,  "holding  the 
plow"  is  a  holiday. 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  PAW  PAW  SPIRITS. 

[Extract  of  a  letter  from  Dr.  Charles  T.  Jackson.] 

Boston,  October  11,  1859. 

I  have  completed  my  experiments  on  the  paw  pav/  spirit  you  sent 
me,  and  find  that  it  is  very  easy  to'  prepare  a  perfectly  pure  spirit  from 
it  hy  means  of  Atwood's  patented  process,  viz:  by  the  aid  of  the  per- 
manganate of  potash  and  redistillation. 

I  have  a  sample  put  up  to  send,  which  you  will  find  quite  pure  spirit^ 
and  free  from  all  fusil  oil  and  acids. 

Mr.  Atwood  now  resides  at  the  Kerosene  Oil  Works,  at  Williams- 
burg, Long  Island. 

In  the  Smithsonian  Eeports  on  recent  improvements  in  the  arts. 
Booth  &  Morfitt,  1857,  p.  182,  you  will  find  another  method  of  de- 
priving spirits  of  fusil  oil,  which  is  not  subject  to  patent. 

MODE    OF   PURIFYING   ALCOHOL,    ETC. 

[Patented  by  Luther  Atwood,  of  Boston,  Massachusetts,  August  23,  1853.] 

The  nature  of  the  invention  consists  in  "destroying,  by  chemical 
means,  the  fusil  oil  and  odorous  oils  found  present  in  alcohol  and 
alcoholic  spirits.  These  oils,  derived  from  the  various  matters  which 
have  been  fermented  in  obtaining  the  alcohol  and  alcoholic  spirits,  are 
more  or  less  abundant  in  such  manufacture,  and  are  dsitinctive  of  the 
source  from  which  each  kind  of  alcohol  or  spirit  wS,s  obtained.  The 
principal  oil  has  been  long  known  by  the  name  of  fusil  oil,  or  amylic 
alcohol,  which  is  also  mixed  with  other  bodies,  such  as  acetic  acid  and 
butyric  acid,  and  ammonia,  ibrraiug  compounds  more  or  less  volatile. 
Besides  these  compounds,  there  are  present  in  some  alcoholic  spirits 
volatile  oils  which  are  fragrant  and  give  names  to  the  spirits.  These 
oils  interfere  with  the  uses  of  alcohol  for  many  purposes ;  thus,  in  the 
preparation  of  chloroform,  alcohol  being  used  which  contains  fusil  oil, 
there  are  a  variety  of  products  formed,  having  this  oil  as  their  bases, 
existing  as  ethers  mixed  with  the  chloroform,  rendering  it  unpleasant 
or  dangerous  in  its  most  important  application.  In  the  jDreparation 
of  perfumes,  alcohol  containing  fusil  oil  cannot  be  used  as  a  solvent, 
from  the  action  which  the  oil  and  its  compounds  exert  on  the  essential 
oils  used  to  give  delicate  odors.  More  generally,  for  officinal  use,  ordi- 
nary alcohol  confers  a  repulsive  odor  when  used  for  preparing  tinctures 
and  extracts.  I  am  aware  tliat  alcohol  has  been  partially  purified  by 
distillation  and  the  use  of  charcoal  and  hypochlorite  of  lime,  (Ca.  0.  X 
CI.  0.,)  but  the  best  samples  contain  notable  proportions  of  fusil  oil 
and  ethers. 


EXPERIMENTS   ON    PAP   PAW   SPIRITS.  371 

"To  enable  others  skilled  in  tlie  art  to  use  my  invention,  I  will  pro- 
ceed to  describe  my  method,  which  is  founded  on  the  oxidating  power 
exerted  by  manganic  acid  and  permanganic  acid  on  the  oils  and  ethers 
found  in  alcohol.  I  take  of  finely  ground  manganese  oxide  thi'ee 
pounds,  nitrate  of  potash  or  nitrate  of  soda  five  pounds,  in  a  state  of 
mixture,  and  slowly  melt  them  in  a  crucible,  continuing  the  heat  until 
the  melted  mass  passes  from  a  fluid  to  a  stiff,  pasty  mass. 

"When  cold,  the  mass  must  be  powdered  and  kept  dry  for  future  use. 
It  contains  manganate  of  potash  or  soda,  or  gives  permanganates  of 
these  bases,  with  excess  of  potash  or  soda  and  earthy  impurities.  Man- 
ganates  and  permanganates,  however  obtained,  may  also  be  used  instead 
of  the  crude  compound  thus  formed.  In  either  case,  I  have  found  that 
these  agents  act  on  and  destroy  the  oils  present  in  common  alcohol  and 
alcoholic  spirits  rapidly,  forming  valerianic  and  other  acids,  which 
unite  to  the  base  of  the  manganate  used,  and  may  be  removed.  For 
every  gallon  of  alcohol,  of  85  or  90  per  cent.,  I  use  two  ounces  of  the 
manganic  compound,  dissolved  in  eight  ounces  of  water,  and  add  the 
solution  to  the  alcohol  while  the  whole  is  briskly  agitated.  This  pro- 
portion is  the  average  quantitj'-  required  for  common  alcohol ,  but  so 
much  should  be  used  as  is  sufiicient  to  destroy  the  odor  of  the  fusil  oil, 
and  the  purified  alcohol  must  then  be  distilled  from  the  matters  dis- 
solved and  suspended  in  it  by  gentle  heat.  In  purifying  alcoholic 
spirits  of  proof  strength,  such  as  rum,  whisky,  &c.,  I  add  the  fine 
powder  of  the  manganic  compound  in  successive  portions,  agitating 
the  whole  rapidly,  until  the  odor  of  the  fusil  oil  disa|)pears,  and  then 
distil  the  purified  spirits.  The  manganic  and  permanganic  acids, 
although  combined  with  strong  bases,  are  decomposed  by  the  fusil  and 
other  oils,  even  when  a  great  excess  of  alcohol  is  present.  Pure  alcohol 
is,  on  the  contrary,  slowly  changed  into  acetic  acid,  and  should  an 
excess  of  the  manganic  comjDound  be  used,  acetic  acid  would  be  pro- 
duced, with  loss  of  alcohol.  The  valerianic,  butyric,  and  acetic  acids, 
produced  and  previously  existing,  are  left  after  the  distillation  com- 
bined with  the  potash  and  soda." 

DISTILLED   LIQUORS   AND    FUSIL    OIL. 

[From  Booth&  Morfitt,  "On  recent  improvements  in  the  Chemical  Arts,"  page  182.  Smith- 
sonian Report.] 

To  free  them  readily  from  fusil  oil,  Peters  recommends  a  hogshead, 
with  a  false  bottom,  to  be  half  filled  v^ith  well-ignited  charcoal,  the 
top  of  this  to  be  strewed  over  with  ten  pounds  of  boneblack  and  five 
pounds  of  black  oxyde  of  manganese,  and  the  whole  to  be  filled  up  with 
charcoal.  The  hogshead  is  to  be  filled  with  brandy,  whisky,  &c., 
which  is  to  remain  in  it  for  three  days,  and  then  drawn  off.  That 
which  first  runs  off  cloudy  is  to  be  redistilled,  but  this  operation  v/ili 
not  be  again  required.  The  vessel  thus  prepared  will  last  twelve  to 
fifteen  months. 


B72  AGRICULTURAL    REPOR*. 

VEGETABLE  EIBEU. 


VEGETABLE  FIBER,  CONSIDERED  WITH  REFERENCE  TO  ITS  STRUCTURE 
AND  CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES. 


BY  GEORGE  C.  SCHAEFFER,  M.  D. 


Althoiigli  the  general  structure  of  vegetable  fiber  has  long  been 
known,  it  is  only  within  a  few  years  that  the  rapid  advances  made  in 
the  science  of  vegetable  anatomy,  aided  by  improvements  in  the  mi- 
croscope, have  cleared  up  much  that  was  doubtful,  and  given  us 
definite  notions  upon  points  which  have  a  direct  application  to  the 
processes  of  the  arts.  But  few  writers  on  vegetable  anatomy  have 
studied  the  subject  with  immediate  reference  to  its  technical  applica- 
tions, and  it  is  only  since  the  year  1852  that  we  have  been  furnished 
with  minute  and  correct  representations  of  the  principal  varieties  of 
vegetable  fiber. 

The  increasing  want  of  paper-making  material  has  stimulated  the 
study  of  this  subject,  which,  however,  with  few  exceptions,  has  been 
attempted  in  the  wrong  direction,  that  is  from  a  purely  empirical 
point  of  view.  The  result  has  been^  mainly,  a  revival  of  old  and  well- 
known  processes,  with  immaterial  alterations. 

Our  present  object  is  to  give  an  outline  of  the  chemical  properties 
and  of  the  minute  structure  of  vegetable  fiber,  a  knowledge  of  which 
we  consider  as  absolutely  necessary  before  considering  the  technical  or 
economical  questions  which  may  arise. 

Owing,  however,  mainly  to  ignorance  of  the  subject  upon  which  we 
are  about  to  treat,  the  economical  questions  themselves  have  been  often 
misstated,  and  real  advancement  in  the  arts  has  been  prevented  by 
the  unfavorable  impression  produced  by  the  useless  solution  of  such 
misstated  questions.  For  instance,  it  is  unwise  and  useless  to  attempt 
to  supersede  a  well-established  staple  by  another  not  fitted  by  nature 
to  take  its  place.  Long-continued  agricultural  and  commercial  rela- 
tions cannot  readily  be  overturned,  even  when  they  have  not  some 
well-founded  reason  for  their  continuance.  The  attempt  to  supersede 
cotton  by  the  ultimate  fiber  of  flax  is  a  case  in  point.  This  project 
originated  in  England,  more  than  a  century  ago,  and,  strangely  enough, 
the  efibrt  to  revive  it  has  generally  been  prompted  by  purely  social 
considerations.  It  requires  but  little  knowledge  of  the  respective 
structure  of  the  two  substances  to  understand  that  it  is  at  least  un- 
profitable to  spoil  good  flax  in  order  to  make  a  poor  imitation  of 
cotton. 

Again,  many  kinds  of  fiber  might  advantageously  be  used  in  cord- 
age or  in  textile  fabrics,  and  it  must  be  evident  that  there  would  be  no 
economy  in  breaking  up  such  material  at  once  to  j)aper  stuff,  which  might 
be  made  more  readily  and  cheaply  from  the  worn-out  cordage  or  rags 


VEGETABLE    FIBER.  373 

from  the  same  fiber.  It  is  needless  to  multiply  instances  of  this  kind 
of  misapplication.  The  true  policy  seems  to  be  this:  to  introduce  new 
materials  to  supply  a  demand  for  which  they  are  directly  fitted,  and  to 
leave  existing  materials  to  be  used  as  before. 

As  questions  which  may  be  usefully  considered,  we  will  cite  the  fol- 
lowing : 

It  is  desirable  to  ascertain  what  fibers  may  be  obtained  from  the  dry 
regions  of  the  Western  plains,  which,  while  favorable  to  such  plants, 
are  incapable  of  yielding  any  other  profitable  product  of  the  soil. 

Again,  in  some  instances  it  may  be  found  advantageous  to  increase 
the  variety  of  fibrous  substances  produced  in  any  given  region,  for  cir- 
cumstances which  might  prove  disastrous  to  one  crop  might  prove 
beneficial  to  another,  and  with  this  security  the  fortunes  of  whole  dis- 
tricts would  not  be  risked,  as  it  were,  upon  the  cast  of  a  single  die. 

Another  matter  of  great  consequence  in  the  economical  consideration 
of  fiber,  is  the  difference  between  the  supply  from  plants  of  spontaneous 
growth  and  from  those  which  must  be  cultivated.  Fibrous  materials 
of  spontaneous  growth,  for  the  most  part,  can  only  be  brought  to  us  from 
abroad;  for,  although  the  amount  of  uncultivated  land  in  the  United 
States  may  be  large,  it  is  not  often' that  such  lands  abound  in  fibrous 
plants.  The  great  plains  of  the  West  and  the  salt  marshes  of  the  sea- 
coast  will  probably  be  found  the  only  parts  of  our  territory  from  which 
a  spontaneous  growth  of  fibrous  material  of  any  kind  can  be  obtained 
in  great  quantity.  Every  now  and  then  we  hear  that  some  one  of  our 
common  weeds  has  been  found  to  furnish  a  good  material  for  paper 
stuff ;  but  if  we  stop  to  estimate  the  quantity  furnished  by  each  plant, 
it  will  often  appear  that  the  product  of  a  whole  State  would  be  re- 
quired for  one  issue  of  our  large  daily  or  weekly  papers.  When  we 
come  to  the  cultivation  of  fibrous  plants,  the  character  and  q uantity  of 
the  product  at  once  decide  the  question  of  profit.  It  is  not  every  plant 
which  is  capable  of  regular  cultivation,  or  of  attaining,  in  a  cultivated 
state,  the  luxuriance  of  its  spontaneous  growth.  Many  of  our  weeds 
owe  their  great  abundance,  in  certain  localities,  to  some  peculiar  in- 
gredient or  condition  of  the  soil,  which  cannot  be  easily  or  economically 
produced  at  pleasure. 

Such  are  some  of  the  points  of  view  from  which  the  economical  con- 
siderations in  regard  to  fiber  should  be  made. 

THE   VEGETABLE   CELL. 

Cellulose. — We  now  proceed  to  the  examination  of  the  structure  of 
vegetable  fiber,  which,  like  every  other  part  of  the  plant,  is  made  up 
of  cells,  and  upon  the  shape  of  these  cells  and  their  mode  of  attachment 
to  each  other,  the  character  of  the  fiber  depends.  Of  common  fibers, 
cotton  is  the  only  one  formed  of  a  single  cell.  As  the  cell  is  the  ulti- 
mate organic  element  of  all  fibers,  the  study  of  its  nature  becomes  the 
foundation  of  all  real  knowledge  of  this  subject. 

Every  living  cell  is  an  entirely  closed  bag,  or  vesicle,  whose  external 
wall  is  formed  of  a  substance  called  cellulose,  identical  in  composition 
with  starch. 

Test  for  cellulose. — Starch  is  readily  recognized  by  the  blue  color 
produced  with  a  solution  of  iodine.    This  color,  however,  is  not  formed 


574  AGEICULTURAL    REPORT. 

in  cellulose  by  iodine  alone,  but  the  addition  of  sulphuric  acid  or  of 
chloride  of  zinc  readily  brings  it  out.  An  exception  to  this  reaction 
is  found  in  the  cells  of  some  of  the  lower  plants,  which  cannot,  by  any 
means,  be  made  to  give  the  blue  color;  nevertheless,  analysis  has 
shown  that  their  chemical  composition  is  identical  with  that  of  ordi- 
nary cellulose. 

Chemical  properties  of  cellulose. — The  study  of  the  chemical  proper- 
ties of  the  material  of  the  cell  wall  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to 
the  arts.  On  the  present  occasion  Y\^e  must  restrict  ourselves  to  a  few 
of  the  most  striking,  which,  however,  are  those  most  often  brought 
into  use.  For  the  demonstration  of  these  properties  we  may  employ 
clean  cotton  wool,  old  well-washed  rags,  of  cotton  or  linen,  or  white 
paper  made  of  cotton  or  linen,  without  the  addition  of  mineral  matter; 
materials  which  are  so  nearly  pure  cellulose  that  we  may  safely  experi- 
ment upon  them,  instead  of  the  substance  more  carefully  prepared. 

Although  the  more  powerful  chemical  reagents  have  more  or  less  action 
upon  cellulose,  one  of  its  most  remarkable  properties  is  the  resistance 
offered  to  the  action  of  substances  commonly  considered  as  "corrosive." 

Action  of  sulphuric  acid. — The  action  of  sulphuric  acid  (oil  of 
vitriol)  is  remarkable,  producing  a  series  of  changes  of  a  very  curious 
character.  The  first  of  these  changes  has  already  been  referred  to,  as 
that  which  enables  cellulose  to  give  a  blue  color,  with  a  solution  of 
iodine,  just  as  starch  does.  This  change,  however,  is  apparently  but 
a  mere  transition  to  another  condition,  and  the  peculiar  property  only 
continues  in  the  presence  of  the  acid,  for  on  the  addition  of  water  the 
blue  color  disappears,  and  cannot  again  be  produced  without  a  second 
treatment  with  acid. 

If  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  is  used  in  these  experiments,  the 
action  becomes  too  violent  to  be  observed  in  its  successive  stages ;  and 
if  large  quantities  of  material  are  employed,  without  the  projjer  pre- 
cautions, heat  is  produced,  the  cellulose  is  charred,  and  a  new  and 
different  series  of  reactions  commences. 

When  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  to  which  about  one  half  its  bulk 
of  water  has  been  added,  is  used,  the  cellulose  swells,  and  is  changed 
into  a  somewhat  gelatinous  mass,  so  that  the  individual  cells  become 
cemented  or  fused  together.  If  the  action  is  then  arrested  by  the 
addition  of  water  and  some  alkaline  substance  to  neutralize  the  re- 
maining acid,  the  cellulose  is  still  found  wdth  the  same  chemical  com- 
position as  before,  although  its  physical  properties  are  quite  changed. 
Unsized  paper  subjected  to  such  a  treatment  assumes,  when  dried,  a 
parchment-like  appearance,  contracts  in  a  remarkable  degree,  and  no 
longer  absorbs  moisture,  as  the  original  paper  did;  in  fact,  except 
where  holes  occur,  it  has  become  water-proof.  There  will  probably 
be  many  useful  applications  of  this  process,  and  it  is  to  be  regretted 
that  the  credit  has  been  taken  from  the  original  discoverers,  who  long 
ago  published  the  process  and  their  investigations  upon  it,  by  those 
who  have  more  recently  chosen  to  re-discover  what  must  have  been 
knov^rn  to  every  well-read  chemist. 

The  prolonged  action  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  converts  cellulose  into 
dextrine,  a  substance  soluble  in  water,  and  which  is  also  obtained  from 
starch.  If  water  is  added  to  the  product,  and  the  whole  is  boiled  for 
6ome  time,  the  dextrine  is  changed,  by  the  further  action  of  the  acid, 


VEGETABLE    FIBER.  375 

into  grape  sugar,  which  can  be  obtained  pure  when  the  acid  is  precipi- 
tated by  lime.  As  the  whole  change  from  cellulose  to  grape  sugar 
involves  merely  the  taking  up  of  the  elements  of  water,  clean  linen  or 
cotton  rags,  by  such  a  process,  yield  more  than  their  own  weight  of 
sugar.  The  economy  of  this  mode  of  manufacturing  grape  sugar  is,  at 
least,  doubtful,  although  it  has  recently  received  much  attention  in 
Europe.  Owing  to  the  low  sweetening  power  of  this  sugar,  its  chief 
use  is  for  fermentation  into  spirit  for  distillation.  Even  the  most  com- 
mon waste  material,  such  as  saw  dust,  can  probably  be  more  profitably 
Avorked  up  into  certain  kinds  of  paper,  than  converted  into  spirit. 

Action  of  nitric  acid. — Strong  nitric  acid,  applied  with  proper  pre- 
cautions, does  not  decompose  cellulose,  but  enters  into  combination 
Avith  it  in  various  proportions,  in  one  of  which  it  forms  the  now  well- 
known  gun-cotton,  in  which  the  original  structure  of  the  fiber  is  not 
visibly  altered.  This  substance,  from  its  solubility  in  a  mixture  of 
alcohol  and  ether,  (coUodium,)  is  highly  valuable,  affording  on  its 
evaporation  a  very  thin  and  continuous  water-proof  film.  The  appli- 
cations of  this  useful  property  are  nov/  numerous,  in  photography,  in 
surgery,  &c. 

Nitric  acid,  by  removing  other  substances  which  may  be  present, 
enables  us  often  to  bring  out  the  ultimate  structure  of  the  cell  wall, 
which  would  not  otherwise  be  visible. 

Action  of  caustic  2^otash,  or  soda,  dtc. — Dilute  solutions  of  caustic 
potash,  or  soda,  do  not  materially  alter  pure  cellulose,  while  they 
possess  the  valuable  property  of  dissolving  nearly  all  of  the  substances 
which  are  attached  to  or  contained  in  the  cell  wall,  excepting  only 
the  cellulose  itself.  In  general,  all  solutions  of  salts  having  an  alka- 
line reaction  have  more  or  less  of  this  property.  We  shall  show, 
further  on,  that  the  solvent  power  of  alkaline  solutions  renders  them 
almost  indispensable  in  making  paper  from  other  material  than  rags. 

Nitrogenous  matter  contained  in  the  cell. — We  have  hitherto  treated 
of  the  properties  of  pure  cellulose,  but  it  must  not  be  imagined  that 
the  wall  of  the  cell  is  wholly  made  up  of  this  substance.  Every  living 
vegetable  cell  is  lined  with  a  coating  (partly  solid  and  partly  soft,  or 
even  fluid)  of  a  compound  containing  nitrogen,  and  liable,  under  the 
influence  of  heat  and  moisture,  to  enter  into  decomposition,  which  in 
turn  changes  the  cellulose  itself.  As  the  parts  containing  the  cells 
"ripen,"  and  cease  to  grow,  this  substance  disappears,  wholly  or  in 
part.  The  heart  wood  of  trees,  the  hairs  on  ripe  seeds,  &c.,  contain 
less  of  this  matter  than  the  sap-wood  or  the  fibers  of  a  plant  taken  at 
the  time  of  active  growth.  The  presence  of  such  a  fe'rment  in  freshly 
gathered  fiber  is  not  to  be  disregarded,  although  it  has  been  scarcely 
noticed  in  technical  works  on  the  subject.  The  terms  ''gluten"  and 
"  mucilage"  have  been  used  very  vaguely  and  inaccurately,  to  denote 
both  the  nitrogenous  matter  and  other  substances  having  quite  differ- 
ent properties.  The  processes  usually  prescribed  for  the  preparation 
of  various  common  fibers,  such  as  hemp  and  flax,  being  derived  from 
long  established  experience,  do,  in  fact,  though  not  distinctively, 
refer  to  the  presence  of  such  a  substance.  But,  when  these  methods 
are  to  be  transferred  to  new  materials,  under  quite  different  conditions, 
it  becomes  necessary  that  we  should  understand  the  reason  why  such, 
processes  have  been  introduced,  and  if  these,  as  in  the  present  instance, 


376  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

are  not  generally  known,  it  becomes  the  more  important  that  they 
should  be  examined,  in  order  that  correct  principles  may  guide  new- 
applications. 

The  presence  of  a  ferment  in  fresh  fiber  is  not  without  its  use,  for  it 
aids  in  producing  a  partial  decomposition  in  substances  which  it  is  desir- 
able to  remove,  and  which  offer  less  resistance  to  such  action  than  the 
cellulose  itself.  But  an  excess  of  this  ferment  Avill,  unless  it  is  removed 
or  rendered  inactive,  endanger  the  strength  of  the  product.  With 
fibers  drawn  from  plants  in  full  activity  of  growth,  in  hot  climates, 
this  danger  becomes  serious,  for  under  such  circumstances,  a  few  hours 
may  do  damage  which  elsewhere  might  require  many  days  for  its  course. 
It  must  be  remarked,  too,  that  many,  if  not,  indeed,  most  fibers,  re- 
quire for  the  attainment  of  the  proper  degree  of  softness  and  delicacy, 
to  be  gathered  before  the  full  maturity  of  the  parts  to  which  they 
belong.  In  proportion  as  this  period  is  anticipated,  will  the  nitro- 
genous or  fermentiscible  matter  be  present  in  greater  quantity. 

There  are  two  different  modes  of  dealing  vrith  this  material.  In  the 
first  place,  it  may  be  temporarily  rendered  inert  by  rapid  drying. 
This  plan  is  adopted  in  the  milder  climates,  where  such  plants  as  flax 
and  hemp,  not  very  juicy  at  the  time  of  maturity,  are  the  usual  fibrous 
products.  The  after  treatment  may  then  be  commenced  at  pleasure, 
provided  that  the  crop,  in  the  meanwhile,  is  well  guarded  from  mois- 
ture. 

In  the  second  place,  this  material  may  be  removed,  and  at  the  same 
time  produce  the  desired  degree  of  fermentation,  by  the  action  of  water, 
either  while  exposed  to  the  air,  as  in  the  process  of  "  dew-rotting,"  or 
when  wholly  immersed  in  water,  as  in  "water-rotting."  This  latter 
process  may  be  modified  by  using  warm  water,  which  hastens  the 
desired  action,  leaving  it,  however,  under  the  complete  control  of  the 
operator.  In  this  case,  a  thorough  subsequent  washing  seems  neces- 
sary to  carry  every  vestige  of  the  ferment.  We  need  not  dwell  upon 
the  merits  claimed,  respectively,  for  these  difierent  methods,  our  object 
simply  being  to  point  out  the  common  principal  upon  which  they 
depend  with  reference  to  the  modifications  required  by  new  materials 
under  new  circumstances.  We  may  remark^  however,  that  very  hot 
water  would  not  answer,  as  it  would,  in  great  part,  coagulate  instead 
of  dissolving  the  nitrogenous  matter,  and  at  the  same  time  prevent  the 
fermentation. 

It  is  important  to  observe  that  we  may  entirely  avoid  the  necessity 
for  fermentation  of  any  kind  by  a  different  mode  of  proceeding,  the 
treatment  with  alkaline  solutions,  which  we  shall  presently  notice. 

Incrusting  matter. — The  cell  w^all,  besides  being  lined  with  the  ma- 
terial just  described,  is  also  sometimes  interpenetrated  with  another 
substance,  called  the  incrusting  or  lignifying  matter,  and  best  seen  in 
the  "heart-wood"  of  trees,  which  differs  from  the  "sap-vfood"  by  the 
presence  of  this  substance.  It  is  this  which  gives  the  peculiar  rigidity 
to  the  heart-wood,  and  which  must  be  removed  before  the  cells  can  be 
made  pliable;  but  forming,  as  it  does,  a  large  percentage  of  such  cells, 
we  can  easily  understand  the  uneconomical  nature  of  the  processes 
which  would  attempt  to  convert  hard-wood  into  useful  fibre.  The 
proper  solvent  for  the  incrusting  matter  is  caustic  alkali.    A  brown  or 


VEGETABLE   FIBER.  377 

yellow  color  is,  however,  imparted  by  this  reagent,  and  hence  the 
bleaching  action  of  chlorine  must  be  superadded  to  remove  traces  of 
color  caused  by  small  remaining  portions  of  the  substance,  which  would 
not  otherwise  affect  the  useful  properties  of  the  fiber.  Paper  made 
from  wood  may  frequently  be  detected  by  the  yellow  color  caused  by 
the  action  of  alkaline  substances. 

To  describe  the  properties  of  the  matter  in  the  cork-cells,  and  in  the 
external  coating  of  plants^  would  carry  us  far  beyond  the  limits  as- 
signed to  this  article.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  these  can  also  be 
dissolved  and  removed  by  alkaline  solutions. 

Intercellular  substance. — There  is,  however,  one  substance  found  in 
connection  with  most  fibers,  whose  reactions  are  of  the  utmost  import- 
ance ;  we  refer  to  what  is  called  the  intercellular  substance,  or  that 
which  exists  between  the  individual  cells,  and  holds  them  together. 
Vegetable  anatomists  have  not  yet  agreed  as  to  its  origin,  although 
the  most  commonly  received  opinion  is  that  this  substance  is  derived 
from  the  altered  remains  of  the  original,  or  "  mother"  cells,  in  which 
the  existing  cells  have  been  formed  by  subdivision.  But,  although 
there  may  be  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  origin  of  the  intercellular 
substance,  there  can  be  none  as  to  its  chemical  properties.  In  general, 
it  is  readily  attacked  by  the  more  powerful  chemical  agents,  which 
have  but  little  effect,  or  act  but  slowly,  upon  pure  cellulose.  But  the 
most  suitable  solvent  for  this  substance,  in  the  case  of  nearly  all  fibers 
likely  to  prove  useful,  is  an  alkaline  solution,  which  we  have  so  often 
mentioned  already  as  a  solvent  for  nearly  all  matters  found  in  fiber, 
except  pure  cellulose.  The  nature  of  the  alkaline  substance  may  be 
varied  to  suit  the  circumstances  of  the  case — caustic  potash,  or  soda, 
their  carbonates,  the  lye  from  the  ashes  of  plants,  lime-water  alone, 
or  mixed  with  potash  or  soda,  as  well  as  other  salts  with  an  alkaline 
reaction,  have  all  been  used  for  the  same  end.  The  cost  of  these 
articles  will,  in  general,  determine  which  is  to  be  employed,  it  being 
remembered,  however,  that  caustic  solutions  have  the  most  energetic 
action,  and  are  therefore  most  economical  when  rapid  and  powerful 
effects  are  desired. 

In  every  case  where  it  is  intended  to  separate  the  individual  cells, 
whether  for  the  purpose  of  imitating  cotton  by  the  long  cells  from 
certain  fibers,  such  as  flax,  or  for  making  paper  from  parts  of  plants 
having  cells  too  short  for  textile  purposes,  some  process  embracing  a 
treatment  with  an  alkaline  solution  must  be  employed  if  economy  is  to 
be  considered.  Even  in  the  case  of  fibrous  bundles  which  are  to  be 
merely  divided  for  textile  purposes,  and  not  decomposed  into  the  ulti- 
mate cells,  a  treatment  with  a  dilute  alkaline  solution  may  be  advant- 
ageous. The  processes  of  fermentation  and  of  bleaching  by  chlorine 
contribute  to  the  same  end,  but  neither  of  these  can  be  employed  alone 
for  that  purpose  without  detriment  to  the  strength  of  the  product. 

There  is  no  part  of  the  history  of  fibers  which  more  strikingly  illus- 
trates the  general  want  of  knowledge  of  the  subject  than  that  which 
relates  to  the  very  process  which  we  have  been  considering.  A  few 
years  ago,  the  announcement  that  flax  could  be  converted  into  a  matter 
resembling  cotton,  was  deemed  by  many  the  most  remarkable  novelty 
of  the  age,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  much  money  was  invested 


378  agricultueAl  report. 

in  the  proposed  new  manufacture.  But  Lady  Moira,  in  the  year  1775, 
treated  flax  by  a  method  essentially  the  same  as  that  just  referred  to, 
and  specimens  of  the  product  are  still  in  existence.  .  The  process  itself, 
however,  was  not  original  with  this  lady,  hut  dates  back  at  least  as  far 
as  1747.  So,  too,  with  the  similar  use  of  alkaline  solutions  for  the 
purpose  of  separating  the  cells  of  vegetable  substances  for  paper 
making.  We  are  informed  that  the  attempt  to  use  this  process  in  the 
United  States,  in  1830,  v/as  stopped  on  the  ground  of  the  infringement 
of  a  patent  granted  in  1828.  But  the  same  thing  had  been  patented 
in  England,  in  -1801  ;  and  it  is  well  known  that  the  same  method  has 
been  in  use  in  China  for  centuries,  accounts  of  it  having  been  published 
by  travelers  at  various  times.  The  published  list  of  English  patents 
for  paper  making  shows  at  least  50  which  depend  upon  this  method, 
either  alone,  or  combined  with  bleaching. 

Form  of  the  cell. — Having  examined  the  chemical  properties  of  the 
material  of  the  cell  wall,  and  of  the  substances  connected  with  it,  we 
next  proceed  to  the  consideration  of  the  form  of  the  cell.  A  great 
variety  of  forms  ma}^  be  found  even  in  a  single  plant,  but  it  is  only  the 
elongated  cell  which  is  of  much  importance  for  fiber,  whether  it  is  used 
in  bundles  of  a  number  combined  together,  as  in  flax,  or  singly,  as  in 
cotton,  or  broken  up,  as  in  paper  stuff". 

"We  may  best  represent  to  ourselves  the  form  of  such  cells  as  they 
are  found  in  the  plant,  by  imagining  a  number  of  cylinders,  v/ith  more 
or  less  pointed  ends,  placed  together  so  as  to  ''break  joint,'"  and  then 
compressed,  until  the  walls  of  adjoining  cells  are  brought  into  com- 
plete contact,  converting  each  cell  from  a  cylinder  into  an  irregular 
prism,  with  a  cross  section,  showing  a  somewhat  polygonal  outline. 
Hairs,  such  as  cotton,  the  down  of  the  poplar,  &c.,  not  belonging  to 
the  solid  parts  of  plants,  are  not  always  angular  in  their  cross  section. 

Unequal  thickening  of  the  cell  luall. — Spiral  arrangement. — Vegetable 
fibers,  however,  would  be  very  limited  in  their  applications,  if  each 
individual  cell  had  a  wall  of  equal  thickness  throughout;  they  would 
then  resemble  rods,  or  bundles  of  rods,  which  would  tend  to  untwist 
when  twisted,  and  which,  having  no  hold  upon  each  other,  could  not 
easily  be  submitted  to  the  operation  of  spinning.  In  fact,  the  hairs 
of  many  seeds,  such  as  the  ''silk  cotton"  of  South  America,  and  the 
"down"  or  "silk"  of  many  of  our  native  plants,  although  apparently 
of  great  value,  from  the  length  of  the  staple  and  from  their  soft  and 
silky  character,  have  proved  useless  for  all  ordinary  purposes,  on  ac- 
count of  their  imperfectly  cylindrical  shape  and  the  uniform  thickness 
of  their  walls. 

But,  in  reality,  the  growth  in  thickness  of  the  cellulose  is  in  very 
few  cases  quite  uniform,  the  additions  which  are  made  on  the  inside  of 
the  cell  being  confined,  mainly,  to  certain  determined  lines,  or  spaces 
The  figures  produced  by  these  unequal  depositions  generally  enable  us 
to  recognize,  under  the  microscope,  each  particular  kind  of  fibre,  even 
in  the  most  minute  fragments.  But  the  remarkable  peculiarity  of 
most  vegetable  fibers  is,  that  the  unequal  depositions  tend  to  take  a 
spiral  direction,  and  consequently,  when  dried  and  somewhat  shrunken, 
the  cells,  from  rods,  become  transformed  into  screws,  often,  indeed,  of 
very  few  turns  and  very  fine  threads,  but  still  having  sufficient  ine- 
quality of  surface  to  adapt  them  to  the  operation  of  spinning.     If  the 


VEGETABLE    FIBER.  379 

cross  section  of  the  cell  is  angular,  or  if,  as  is  sometimes  the  case, 
these  angles  are  produced  so  as  to  form  longitudinal  ribs,  it  can  easily 
be  understood  that,  from  the  action  above  described,  the  result  will  be 
a  screw  of  very  sharp  thread.  An  instance  of  this  kind  has  occurred 
to  us,  in  examining  a  very  remarkable  Japanese  paper.  The  fragments, 
or  even  entire  cells  in  this  paper,  were  of  unusual  length,  and  evi- 
dently contributed  to  the  great  strength  of  the  paper  by  their  angular 
and  somewhat  spiral  ribs. 

Even  in  fibers  which  do  not  in  their  ordinary  condition  show  this 
spiral  arrangement,  it  may  often  be  made  manifest  by  the  application 
of  chemical  reagents.  In  the  early  delineations  of  fiber,  as  seen  under 
the  microscope,  the  point  of  which  we  are  treating  seems  to  have  been 
almost  entirely  overlooked,  but  its  importance  is  undoubted,  not  only 
as  a  means  of  recognizing  different  kinds  of  fiber,  but  as  affording  a 
good  general  idea  of  the  peculiar  properties  of  any  one  kind. 

Pitli  cells. — We  have  hitherto  treated  only  of  elongated  ceils  ;  but 
there  are  others  quite  different  in  shape,  being  nearly  as  broad  as  they 
are  long,  or,  if  elongated,  still  not  pointed.  In  these,  too,  the  contact 
of  the  cells  generally  produces  planes,  so  that  each  one  has  as  many 
facets  as  it  has  points  of  contact  with  neighboring  cells.  This  kind 
of  tissue  has  its  walls,  in  mdst  cases,  but  little  thickened,  and  from  the 
great  number  of  joints  has  but  little  strength  in  any  direction.  Such 
cells  form  the  substance  which  we  call  "pith,''  and,  for  convenience 
sake,  will  hereafter  be  designated  as  pith  cells. 

The  well-known  Chinese  pith  paper  is  almost  the  only  instance  of 
the  application  of  such  a  tissue  to  what  might  be  called  fibrous  uses. 
By  a  spiral  cut  the  pith  is  unrolled,  from  the  circumference  inward, 
into  a  sheet,  which,  by  a  pressure  slightly  crushing  its  cells,  is  made 
permanently  flat.  The  extreme  fragility  of  pith  paper  is  a  proof  of 
the  general  inajjplicability  of  this  tissue  to  the  purposes  of  which  we 
are  treating.  But,  though  of  itself  useless,  the  relations  of  pith  to 
fibers  is  of  some  importance,  for  in  many  cases  it  surrounds  and  iso- 
lates from  other  structures  that  which  we  call  fiber,  and  by  the  por- 
tions of  it  which  remain  adhering  we  may  often  be  able  to  determine 
the  precise  origin  of  a  given  specimen.  Paper  made  from  the  grasses, 
straw,  &c.,  can  always  be  recognized  in  this  way. 

The  removal  of  pith  cells  is  one  of  the  principal  objects  to  be  accom- 
plished by  fermentation,  treatment  v/ith  alkaline  solutions,  or  the  me- 
chanical processes  used  in  the  preparation  of  fibrous  material. 

Ducts. — There  is  also  another  kind  of  cells,  which,  contributing  little 
or  nothing  to  the  strength  of  fiber,  by  their  relative  position  to  the 
elongated  cells,  materially  influence  the  character  of  the  compound 
fibers  in  which  they  are  found.  These  are  the  ducts,  which  are  formed 
originally  of  round  or  prismatic  cells,  of  some  length,  placed  one  over 
the  other,  and  separated  by  end  ppa'titions,  which  are  not  exactly  trans- 
verse, but  slightly  inclined  from  the  horizontal.  As  the  cells  atta,in 
a  certain  degree  of  maturity,  these  partitions  become  perforated,  and 
each  series  is  then  formed  into  a  continuous  tube. 

The  walls  of  the  ducts  are  variously  marked :  sometimes  the  deposit 
inside  is  in  the  form  of  separate  rings,  sometimes  in  that  of  spirals, 
and  in  other  cases  again  pits,  arranged  in  spirals,  are  found  in  the 
otherwise  uniformly  thickened  cell  wall.     The  diameter  of  the  ducts 


380  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  form  of  cell,  a  matter  of  no  little  in- 
fluence in  certain  compound  iibers. 

The  characteristic  markings  of  the  ducts,  and  their  mode  of  arrange- 
ment, are  of  service  in  enabling  us  to  determine  the  plant  from  which 
they  are  obtained. 

GROUPING   OF   CELLS   IN   FIBER. 

Position  of  fibers  in  the  plant. — The  peculiar  mode  of  grouping  of  the 
cells  which  constitute  fiber,  and  their  position  in  the  plant,  must  next 
receive  our  attention. 

*  There  are  two  great  divisions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  marked  both 
by  internal  and  external  chara-cters,  which  enable  the  botanist  to  de- 
cide, with  the  utmost  readiness,  upon  the  proper  position  of  any  plant ; 
but  as  these  characters  depend  upon  essential  differences  in  the  mode 
of  growth,  the  two  divisions  are  found  to  differ  widely  in  the  kind  of 
fiber  produced,  and  in  its  position  in  the  plant. 

Position  of  fiber  in  endogens. — The  first  division  is  formed  by  what 
botanists  call  endogens,  or  inside-growers.  This  division  is  best  known 
to  us  in  its  herbaceous  forms,  such  as  the  grasses,  including  the  cereals, 
sugar-cane,  and  the  common  cane  ;  also,  the  lily,  the  cat-brier,  and^ 
in  short,  all  plants  whose  leaves  have  parallel  veins.  In  the  south,  it 
is  represented  by  the  yucca,  or  thread-and-needle  plant,  the  agave,  or 
false  aloe,  and  by  the  palmetto,  which,  like  the  palms  of  the  tropics,  is 
furnished  with  a  more  or  less  hard  or  woody  stem.  These  plants  do 
not  form  a  regular  bark,  show  no  rings  of  annual  growth^,  and  do  not 
increase  by  continued  additions  on  the  outside  of  the  stem,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  woods  common  in  our  climate.  Such  plants  show,  on  a 
cross  section,  no  lines,  but  a  multitude  of  dots,  without  any  definite 
arrangement.  In  a  longitudinal  section,  it  is  found  that  these  dots 
are  the  sections  of  long  bundles  of  cells,  running  lengthwise  through 
the  plant.  The  substance  in  which  the  bundles  are  imbedded  is  en- 
tirely made  up  of  short  pith  cells,  and  the  whole  growth  of  the  fiber, 
which  represents  the  wood  of  other  plants,,  is  made  either  by  their  in- 
crease in  length  or  by  the  introduction  of  new  branches  of  the  bundles 
among  those  already  formed.  As  the  stems  of  such  plants  grow  old, 
not  being  jDrovided  with  the  means  of  increasing  on  their  circumfer- 
ence, they  become  more  and  more  dense  from  the  pressure  of  the  bun- 
dles in  the  interior.  In  this  condition,  the  trunks  of  endogens  resem- 
ble our  ordinary  woods  in  solidity,  but  are  not  well  adapted  to  furnish 
fiber,  which  is  generally  obtained  from  the  herbaceous  stalks  and  the 
leaves  of  plants  in  this  division. 

Structure  of  the  fibrous  bundles  of  endogens. — The  structure  of  the 
fiber  of  endogens,  as  developed  under  the  microscope,  is  worthy  of  a 
somewhat  extended  description.  The  cross  section  of  the  bundles  is 
sometimes  nearly  circular  in  outline,  more  commonly  oval,  but  often 
rather  egg-shaped,  or  even  heart-shaped;  and  in  some  cases  it  is  angu- 
lar, rather  than  rounded.  Near  the  center  of  the  figure,  but  on  one 
side  of  it,  large  openings  will  be  noticed ;  these  are  the  sections  of  the 
ducts,  which  we  have  described  above.  Very  commonly,  there  are  three 
of  these,  but  the  number  may  vary  ;  the  arrangement,  however,  in 
most  cases,  being  such  as  to  approach  the  form  of  a  crescent.     Besides 


VEGETABLE   FIBER.  381 

tlie  large  ducts,  there  are  smaller  ones,  the  peculiarities  of  whose  struc- 
ture we  need  not  stop  to  describe.  Within  the  crescent  thus  forme i 
will  be  found  a  group  of  small  cells  concerned  in  the  active  growth  of 
the  plant,  and  representing  those  cells  which,  in  ordinary  woods,  are 
found  between  the  sap-wood  and  the  bark,  and  which  form  the  tissue 
called  by  botanists  the  cambium.  This  is  generally  too  delicate  in  its 
structure  to  resist  the  ordinary  treatment  to  which  fibers  are  subjected, 
and  moreover  contains  a  large  portion  of  nitrogenous  or  fermentiscible 
matter.  It  therefore  not  only  disappears  itself  in  the  usual  treatment, 
but  also  furnishes  a  material  which  favors  the  separation  of  the  re- 
maining cells  of  the  bundle. 

Surrounding  the  different  kinds  of  cell  which  have  been  enumerated, 
we  iind  the  true  elongated  cells,  which  form  the  essential  constituents 
of  all  useful  fiber.  In  some  cases  these  are  found  in  greatest  number 
at  the  opposite  ends  of  the  section,  especially  when  its  outline  is  much 
elongated ;  but  in  a  state  of  maturity,  the  whole  of  the  bundle  is  in- 
closed by  thickened  cells  of  this  kind. 

Although  the  most  common  forms  of  the  fibrous  bundles  of  endogens 
are  such  as  we  have  just  described,  there  are  many  deviations  from 
them,  some  of  which  have  no  little  influence  upon  the  character  of  the 
fiber.  In  the  case  of  thin  leaves  of  plants  in  this  division,  we  have 
found  that  those  bundles  which  come  up  to  the  surface  depart  from  the 
ordinary  mode  of  structure,  being,  in  general,  more  ribbon-shaped  and 
round  in  outline. 

Changes  produced  in  the  preparation  of  fiber  from  endogens. — We 
have  sought  in  vain  for  any  account  of  the  character  of  the  fiber  which 
ordinary  processes  produce  from  such  bundles.  Our  own  examination 
of  a  large  collection  of  specimens  leads  to  the  following  views :  The 
ducts,  large  and  small,  and  the  cambium,  disappear,  while  only  the 
elongated  cells  remain .  Two  different  conditions  may  then  be  attained . 
In  one,  the  hardened,  elongated  cells  form  a  continuous  boundary  to 
the  other  tissues.  In  this  case  the  result  will  be  a  collapsed  tube, 
nearly  round,  when  the  outer  cells  are  much  hardened,  as  in  some  of 
the  palms,  or  more  or  less  flattened,  when  the  external  rows  of  cells 
are  softer,  and  the  ducts,  and  other  evanescent  tissues  on  the  inside, 
form  a  large  portion  of  the  section  of  the  bundle.  The  twist,  or  wind^ 
of  such  fibers  will  depend  partly  upon  the  spiral  structure  in  each  cell, 
but  still  more  upon  the  mode  of  arrangement  of  the  individual  cells  in 
the  bundle.  In  the  other  case,  the  exterior  row  of  cells  is  not  suffi- 
ciently hardened,  or  does  not  form  a  continuous  boundary  to  the  bun- 
dle, and  then,  when  the  interior  portions  give  way,  the  groups  of 
elongated  cells  open  into  a  ribbon,  which  often  has  a  tendency  to  sep- 
arate into  two  parts. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  round  or  collapsed  tubes  are  derived  from  the 
older  portions  of  the  trunks,  or  thick  leaves — the  ribbons  from  the  thin 
leaves  of  endogenous  plants.  The  respective  diameters  of  such  bundles 
of  fiber  will  have  their  influence  upon  the  processes  to  which  they  may 
be  subjected,  and  in  most  cases,  from  their  length,  measured  by  feet 
and  inches,  they  are  best  adapted  to  manufacture  of  cordage,  unless 
divided  by  a  further  treatment  into  portions,  which  are,  when  spun, 
fitted  for  the  finer  textile  purposes. 


382  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

Structure  of  strips  from  the  leaves  and  stalks  of  endogens. — There  is 
one  case  in  whicli  the  structure  of  the  fibers  from  endogens  is  more 
complex  than  that  before  described.  We  refer  to  the  palms,  grasses, 
&c.,  in  which  strips  from  the  leaves  or  stalks  are  used,  when,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  proper  fibrous  bundles,  we  have  also  the  external  cells,  or 
cuticle,  which,  with  its  indurated  and  glazed  surface,  adds. to  the 
strength,  while  it  detracts  from  the  fineness  and  pliability  of  the  fiber 
produced.  Material  of  this  kind  is  best  adapted  to  the  uses  about  to  be 
noticed. 

Textile  fabrics  from  untwisted  fiber  of  endogens. — While  the  great 
length  of  the  individual  bundles  of  fibers  of  endogens  best  fits  them 
for  spinning,  or  twisting  into  cordage,  it  also  permits  of  a  textile  use 
without  twisting,  which  has  numerous  useful  applications.  Straw,  or 
its  substitutes,  furnish  the  best  instance  of  untwisted  endogenous  fiber, 
made  into  useful  fabrics  by  plaiting.  Again,  in  some  kinds  of  eastern 
matting,  we  find  the  "filling"  made  up  of  the  untwisted  parts  of  leaves 
or  stalks,  while  the  "chain"  is  formed  from  a  twisted  fiber  of  a 
diiferent  character.  On  the  other  hand  we  find,  in  a  remarkably  strong 
fabric  from  Madagascar,  strips,  apparently  from  the  leaf  of  a  palm, 
woven  into  cloth,  in  which  both  the  chain  and  the  filling  are  formed 
from  the  same  material,  the  continuity  of  each  being  made  by  knotting 
or  tying  the  ends  of  the  long  strips  as  originally  obtained  from  the 
palm  ;  the  evidence  of  the  mode  of  union  being  the  knots  appearing  at 
intervals  upon  the  surface  of  the  cloth. 

The  fabric  above  described  was  contributed,  through  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  by  a  merchant  well  known  for  his  devotion  to  science  in 
all  departments,  and  is  highly  interesting  even  in  a  purely  commercial 
point  of  ViQX'f.  There  were  two  different  specimens,  one  quite  coarse 
and  the  other  of  a  finer  texture,  seeming  to  differ  only  by  the  degree 
of  subdivision  of  the  leaf.  Both  of  the  specimens,  but  more  especially 
the  finer  of  the  two,  seemed  admirably  fitted,  by  their  peculiar  stiffness, 
to  fill  all  the  requisites  of  the  material  known  as  "crinoline."  If  the 
actual  commercial  wants  of  the  day  had  been  thoroughly  understood 
and  acted  upon,  we  should  have  had,  but  not  for  the  first  time,  the 
demands  of  the  fashions  of  an  advanced  civilization  best  answered  by  a 
supply  of  material  from  barbarous  nations.  Kecent  developments  in 
the  world  of  fashion  show  that,  in  a  transition  state,  this  kind  of 
fabric  may  yet  be  of  universal  prevalence.  We  dwell  upon  this  point 
for  the  purpose  of  shoAving  that  the  varying  and  apparent!}^  arbitrary 
demands  of  commerce  may  often  be  supplied  in  the  most  unexpected 
manner,  and  from  the  most  distant  sources. 

But  by  far  the  most  curious  fabric  of  this  kind  is  the  piiia,  (pro- 
nounced "pinya,")  which,  although  made  in  the  East,  is  produced 
from  the  fiber  of  the  pine-apple,  indigenous  to  the  New  YVorld.  Under 
the  microscope  this  remarkable  cloth,  fine  in  texture,  and  unrivaled 
by  any  similar  product  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  shows  woven  but 
untwisted  filaments  of  the  finest  character ;  and  the  wonder  is  how 
such  a  fabric  could  be  formed.  But  this  difficulty  disappears  when  we 
are  informed  that  the  fibers  produced  by  the  usual  treatment  of  the 
pine-apple  fibers  are  glued  together  by  their  ends,  so  as  to  form  a  con- 


VEGETABLE    FIBER.  383 

tinuous  line.  Instead  of  visible  knots,  we  have  here  what  are  called 
invisible  knots,  which  give  to  the  piiia  its  peculiarly  even  character. 

We  have  dwelt  at  length  upon  the  fabrics  above  described  for  the 
purpose  of  showing  that,  in  a  country  where  labor  is  cheap,  productions 
may  be  afforded  at  moderate  cost,  which  could  not  possibly  be  made 
under  other  circumstances  at  a  price  which  v/ould  not  prove  at  all 
remunerative.  We  must,  therefore,  learn  that  the  cheap  products  of 
the  dense  i^opulation  of  the  East  cannot  be  economically  imitated  on 
our  own  soil,  unless  machinery  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  manual 
labor,  which,  in  the  cases  last  named,  cannot  be  done,  in  so  far  as  we 
are  now  informed. 

Treatment  of  endogenous  fibers. — The  treatment  to  which  endogenous 
fibers  must  be  subjected  will  at  once  be  evident  from  what  has  been 
said  above.  The  bundles  lie  isolated  in  a  mass  of  short  and  generally 
tender  pith  cells.  In  some  cases  a  purely  mechanical  process  is  suffi- 
cient to  remove  the  useless  short  cells  from  the  fiber.  Mere  scraping, 
In  some  instances,  answers  the  desired  end;  sometimes  the  action  of 
rollers  is  best  adapted  to  the  purpose.  But  a  complete  separation  of 
the  adhering  remains  of  short  cells  cannot  be  attained  by  merely  me- 
chanical treatment ;  maceration  in  water,  or  some  degree  of  fermenta- 
tion, is  needed  when  we  wish  to  obtain  a  neat  and  clean  fiber.  After 
this,  some  mechanical  process  will  be  found  most  eiiectual  in  removing 
the  partially  detached  fragments  of  tissues  which  do  not  add  to  the 
strength  of  the  fibre. 

Endogenous  fibers  of  the  United  States. — Within  the  bounds  of  the 
United  States  there  are  few  native  endogenous  plants  capable  of  afford- 
ing long  fiber  except  in  the  South  and  Southwest.  The  grasses  and 
sedges,  the  most  abundant  representatives  of  this  division  of  the  vege- 
table kingdom,  are,  unless  in  the  case  of  plaits  for  straw  or  "Leghorn," 
seldom  worth  much  as  materials  for  long  fiber,  although  they  may  be 
useful  for  the  manufacture  of  paper.  But  the  yuccas  and  palmetto  of 
the  South,  and  the  agaves  of  the  Southwest,  are  capable  of  furnishing 
long  fiber  of  excellent  quality.  In  fact,  the  arid,  plains  of  the  south- 
western portion  of  the  United  States  seem  capable  of  no  vegetable  pro- 
duction more  valuable  tha,n  fibers  of  this  class.  From  private  informa- 
tion we  learn  that  much  material  of  this  kind  is  carried  into  Mexico, 
while  little  is  known  in  the  United  States  of  plants  which,  even  in 
their  spontaneous  growth,  might  contribute  largely  to  our  industrial 
resources. 

Value  of  microscopic  examination  of  endogens. — The  j^oint  upon  which 
we  are  most  anxious  to  insist,  in  this  direction,  is,  that  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  chemical  properties  and  of  the  structure  of  endoge- 
nous fibres,  as  developed  by  the  microscope,  will  enable  us  to  determine, 
in  the  most  expeditious  manner,  the  nature  of  the  process  by  which 
the  best  kinds  of  product  may  be  obtained  from  any  given  plant.  For 
instance,  from  a  microscopic  examination  we  may  be  able  at  once  to 
show  what  kind  of  treatment  vv^ill  resolve  the  bundles  of  fiber  into 
slightly  collapsed  tubes,  or  into  ribbons.  In  fact,  the  peculiar  con- 
ditions required  by  the  manufacturer  are  not  yet  sufficiently  well 
known:  and  it  is  only  by  the  light  afforded  by  accurate  scientific 


384  AGRICULTUHAL   REPORT. 

determinations   tliat  the  consumer   and  producer  can   be  mutually 
benefited. 

Fiber  of  exogens — hast  cells  and  their  mode  of  growth. — In  the  second 
grand  division  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  the  mode  of  growth  is  totally 
different  from  that  last  described.  Here  the  wood  cells,  tolerably  short, 
intermixed  with  ducts,  (except  in  the  case  of  the  pine  family,)  and 
with  pith  cellS;,  form  the  mass  of  the  stem  or  trunk,  which  increases 
only  by  new  growth  on  its  outside,  and  hence  such  plants  are  called 
exogens  or  outside  growers.  None  of  the  tissues  of  the  trunk  afford 
long  fibers,  which  are  only  found  in  the  bark,  and  are  commonly 
known  as  bast  cells.  They  are  often  of  great  length,  but  little  hard- 
ened, and  form,  wdth  the  exception  of  cotton,  the  most  valuable  fibers 
of  commerce  produced  in  temperate  climates. 

The  mere  indication  however  that  exogens  increase  by  growth  on  their 
circumference  gives  no  idea  of  the  way  in  which  the  long  fibers  increase, 
and  we  must  go  somewhat  into  detail  to  make  this  subject  clear.  If  we 
examine  the  l)ranch  of  a  linden,  of  the  present  year's  growth,  we  will 
find  a  central  pith,  and  rows  of  pith  cells  diverging  from  this,  (medul- 
lary rays,)  which  are  continued  into  the  bark.  These  divergent  rays 
are  not  continuous  in  a  vertical  direction,,  and  it  is  readily  seen  that, 
if  they  were,  woods  of  all  kinds  would  easily  be  separated  into  wedges, 
meeting  at  the  center  of  the  trunk.  Longitudinal,  or  rather  tangential 
sections  show  that  the  medullary  rays  are  merely  bundles  of  no  very 
great  depth  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  plants,  and  that  they  . 
alternate  or  break  joint  with  each  other,  so  that  the  wood  cells,  in  spite 
of  such  interruption,  give  a  continuous  support  to  any  end  pressure, 
even  when  not  exactly  perpendicular. 

The  ''  cambium,"  or  tissue,  which  is  directly  concerned  in  the  mul- 
tiplication of  cells,  lies  on  the  outside  of  the  wood  and  inside  of  the 
bark.  The  new  wood  cells  are  added  on  a  constantly  increasing  circum- 
ference, but  the  bast  cells  are  formed  in  the  same  place ;  so  that,  while 
the  wood  increases  on  the  end  of  wedges  pointing  to  the  center -of  the 
plant,  the  bast  cells  are  increased  at  the  same  place,  and  therefore  in 
wedges  in  the  bark,  which  are  increasing  inwardly.  If  the  wood,  there- 
fore, is  exogenous,  and  grows  outwardly,  the  bast  cells  are  endogenous, 
or  increase  inwardly.  This  distinction  between  the  mode  of  growth  of 
the  wood  and  of  the  bark  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  and,  as  far  as 
fibres  are  concerned,  is  the  clue  to  their  whole  history  in  this  branch  of 
the  vegetable  kingdom. 

It  would  carry  us  far  beyond  our  limits  if  we  should  describe  the 
peculiarities  of  the  mode  of  growth  of  the  bast  in  different  plants.  It 
will  be  sufficient  to  say  that  the  medullary  rays  are  prolonged  into  the 
bark  in  all  cases,  and  that  the  bast  is  formed  between  their  ends,  con- 
forming exactly  to  them,  so  that  its  fibers,  winding  first  to  one  side  and 
then  to  the  other,  seem  to  interlace,  while  in  reality  they  merely  leave 
a  space  for  the  ends  of  the  medullary  rays.  This  structure  may  be 
readily  demonstrated  in  the  "lace  bark"  which  is  sometimes  used  to 
tie  bundles  of  cigars.  Although  apparently  interlacing,  vfe  can  easily 
show  that  the  fibres  only  approach  and  recede  from  each  other.  •  It 
is  true  that  the  rows  of  bast  cells  are  not  always  continuous  from 
the  wood  toward  the  outside  of  the  bark,  and  that  pith  cells  intervene 


VEGETABLE   FIBER.  385 

■between  them ;  but  the  effect  of  this  is,  simply  to  produce  successive 
layers  of  the  hast,  all  having  the  same  character. 

In  harks  of  great  age,  it  must  be  evident  that  the  hast  cells  constantly 
increasing  on  the  inside,  and  therefore,  forming  wedge-shaped  bundles, 
with  the  bases  inward,  must  in  time  produce  a  disturbance  and  even  a 
rupture  of  the  outside  of  the  compound,  structure  known  as  bark.  This 
is  generally  the  case:  the  bark  gradually  splits  on  the  outside,  and, 
in  some  plants,  the  dead  bast  cells  even  hang  in  strips  from  the  trunk. 
But  it  is  only  in  a  few  cases  that  this  evident  separation  of  the  long 
bast  cells  takes  place  in  plants  which  furnish  useful  long  fiber.  If  the 
external  portion  of  the  bark,  which  constitutes  an  air  and  water-tight 
covering  to  the  tissues  beneath,  has  disappeared,  the  bast  cells  are  ex- 
posed to  the  atmospheric  agents,  and  undergota  change  by  oxydation, 
which  not  only  impairs  their  original  softness,  but  darkens  their  color 
to  a  hue  wliich  is  with  difficulty  reinoved  by  bleaching  agents,  pro- 
ducing, in  this  respect,  the  same  effect  which  always  follows  an  imper- 
fect preparation  of  fiber  when  its  exposure  to  the  air  has  been  unduly 
prolonged. 

We  cannot,  therefore,  except  for  coarse  cordage  or  for  paper,  employ 
the  external,  weather-stained  bast ;  it  is  only  the  inner  and  unaltered 
.layers  which  can  be  used  for  the  finest  purposes  ;  and  it  then  becomes 
a  question  of  the  rapidity  of  growth  of  the  bast,  in  each  particular  plant, 
to  determine  how  long  it  should  be  allowed  to  stand  before  taking  the 
crop.  In  trees  which  attain  a  great  size,  the  cutting  down  of  the  tree 
and  stripping  of  the  bark  would  involve  so  much  labor  that  a  limit 
would  soon  be  reached  beyond  which  the  economical  production  of  fiber 
would  be  impossible.  It  is  true  that  in  semi-civilized  countries,  where 
labor  is  cheap,  materials  may  be  obtained  at  a  low  price,  which  could 
not  in  other  hands  pay  for  the  cost  of  the  labor  expended  upon  them. 
But  it  must  also  be  remembered  that  unless  the  population  is  dense, 
as  in  India  or  in  China,  the  supply  cannot  be  kept  up,  even  at  a  cheap 
rate  of  labor.  Many  disappointments,  caused  by  undue  hopes  excited 
by  plants  which  really  do  yield  an  abundance  of  fiber,  can  be  traced  to 
the  simple  neglect  of  the  economical  question  just  mentioned. 

But,  in  fact,  the  chief  product  of  bast,  of  any  consequence  in  com- 
merce, from  trees  of  any  size,  is  that  known  by  the  name  of  "bass," 
or  ' '  bast,"  obtained  from  the  bark  of  the  linden,  in  Prussia ;  and,  in  this 
case,  the  strips,  of  a  convenient  size,  are  directly  interwoven,  and.  do  not 
undergo  any  process  like  that  of  spinning.  The  bast-mats  thus  made 
are  well  known  to  the  gardener,  both  as  a  cheap  and  excellent  covering 
for  many  purposes,  and  as  affording  a  substitute  for  twine — remarkably 
well  adapted  to  horticultural  use.  It  is  not  at  all  likely  that,  for  many 
years,  the  conditions  of  labor  in  the  United  States  will  permit  anything 
like  a  profitable  employment  of  our  own  species  of  linden  in  a  like 
manner. 

The  cost  of  stripping  the  bark  from  exogens  will,  therefore,  at  once 
set  a  limit  to  the  production  of  fiber  from  such  plants  ;  and'  this  limit 
alone  would  long  since  have  diminished  our  supplies  but  for  other 
conditions  which  we  next  propose  to  develop. 

Bast  of  herhaceous  plants. — Many  plants  of  this  great  division    of 
the  vegetable  kingdom  are  herbaceous :  that  is,  grow  with  but  little 
25 A 


386  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

strength  to  the  stem  for  one  year,  and  tlien  die  down  to  the  ground, 
or  altogether.  Even  perennial  plants  of  warmer  climates  may,  in  the 
milder  regions  of  the  temperate  zones,  become  annuals.  In  the  case 
of  true  annuals,  there  is  no  need  for  any  great  hardening  of  the 
woody  tissues  of  the  stem,  as  the  sole  end  to  be  attained  is  a  sufficient 
support  for  the  plant  until  it  flowers  and  the  seed  ripens.  Herba- 
ceous stems,  which  die  down  to  the  ground  each  year,  are  evidently 
designed  for  a  similar,  restricted  end.  In  the  case  of  perennials, 
which_,  in  other  climates  might  become,  at  length,  woody  shrubs,  a 
single  year's  growth  is  not  enough  to  allow  of  much  induration  of  the 
wood  cells ;  and  hence  they  approach  nearly  to  the  condition  of  true 
annuals,  although  the  tendency  to  produce  firm  wood  is  constantly 
shown.  If,  under  eith«r  of  these  three  heads,  a  plant  is  found  which 
furnishes  a  long  and  useful  bast,  a  common  and  well-known  mode  of 
treatment  can  be  economically  employed  for  the  separation  of  the 
fiber.  The  plant  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  air  and  moisture,  with 
more  or  less  of  fermentation,  until  the  different  tissues  become  sepa- 
rated, and  even  until  the  different  cells  are  loosened  in  their  adhesion. 
The  crude  product  is  then  subjected  to  the  operation  of  "breaking," 
by  which  the  harder  and  shorter  woody  fibers  are  broken,  and  in  part 
removed,  while  the  pliability  of  the  bast  allows  it  to  pass  through  the 
treatment  without  injury.  At  the  same  time,  the  short  and  more 
tender  cells  are  also  removed,  the  latter  stages  of  the  process  differing 
for  different  plants,  all  contribute  to  the  complete  separation  of  the 
remains  of  the  adherent  and  useless  tissues. 

Two  things,  then^  must  concur  to  make  a  useful  fibrous  plant,  for 
not  only  must  the  bast  be  long,  pliant,  and  in  bundles  of  the  proper 
size,  but  the  wood  v/hich  is  to  be  rejected  must  be  brittle,  with  short 
cells,  not  much  hardened  or  not  strongly  adhering  together.  Flax  and 
hemp  are,  in  our  own  country,  the  best  specimens  of  these  favorable 
conditions,  but  we  have  other  plants  nearly,  if  not  quite  as  well 
,  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  useful  fiber ;  and  other  countries  show 
that  nature  has  not  been  stinted  in  her  supply  of  materials  capable  of 
.meeting  one  of  the  first  wants  of  mankind. 

Influence  of  culture  upon  fibrous  exogens. — If  we  have  been  suc- 
cessful in  communicating  a  clear  idea  of  these  conditions,  the  ready 
conclusion  must  be  that  differences  in  degree,  even  in  the  same  plant, 
under  varying  circumstances,  must  frequently  occur ;  the  wood  may 
become  harder  and  greater  in  amount,  the  bast  weaker  and  less  in 
quantity,  and  the  necessary  inference  might  be  drawn  that  judgment 
and  skill  in  the  culture  of  the  plants  would  favorably  modify  these 
conditions.  Experience,  in  advance  of  anything  like  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  plant  structure,  has  shown  that  this  is  true,  at  least  for 
our  common  fibrous  crops.  Single  stalks  of  hemp  or  other  fibrous 
plants  allowed  to  grow  at  a  distance  from  each  other,  or  from  other 
plants,  would  furnish  but  sorry  specimens  of  fiber,  if,  when  collected, 
they  were  managed  as  the  results  of  an  ordinary  crop.  A  single  plant 
invariably  shows  a  hard  woody  stem,  and  a  coarse  fiber  in  the  bark. 
But  when  a  number  of  plants  are  grown  in  a  small  space,  every  one 
knows  that  they  grow  longer,  and  are  more  slender  than  when  left  to 
themselves.     In  this  way  the  strength  of  the  wood  is  much  dimin- 


VEGETABLE    FIBER.  387 

islied,  and  the  fiber  of  tlie  bark,  if  less  abundant,  is  finer  and  possibly 
longer.  If  the  plant  has  a  tendency  to  branch,  this  is  prevented,  and 
the  neat  preparation  of  fiber  from  a  branching  stem  is  no  easy  matter. 

The  close  cultivation  of  cotton,  okra,  and  other  plants,  which  we  are 
accustomed  to  see  separated  from  each  other,  would  probably  show  a 
fiber  in  the  bark  far  more  capable  of  treatment  by  the  ordinary  pro- 
cesses than  would  be  suspected  by  most  persons.  A  knowledge  of 
correct  principles  is  here  of  the  greatest  advantage,  when  new  mate- 
rials are  concerned.  The  influence  of  soils  and  the  details  of  the 
treatment  of  the  crop  are  beyond  the  bounds  of  this  article. 

Fiber  of  the  Mallow  family. — A  mere  enumeration  of  the  exogenous 
fibrous  plants  would  alone  form  a  small  volume.  We  can  here  only 
notice,  in  a  genera-l  way,  some  of  the  most  remarkable  families,  or 
individual  plants,  to  which  attention  might  profitably  be  directed. 
The  Mallow  family  is  noted  in  all  parts  of  the  world  for  the  production 
of  fine  fiber  in  the  bark.  A  great  number  of  malvaceous  plants  are 
natives  of  the  United  States;  many  of  these,  in  the  southwest,  are 
popularly  unkftown,  but  a  trial  of  their  capacities  will  be  a  great  public 
service.  Our  great  staple,  the  common  cotton,  is  obtained  from  the 
wool  upon  the  seed,  and  is  therefore  not  a  bark  fiber ;  but  as  the  cotton 
is  a  malvaceous  plant,  its  bark  might  be  supposed  to  be  a  good  fiber. 
This  has  been  verified,  as  shown  by  an  article  in  the  Patent  Office 
Keport  for  1854.  But  the  cotton,  in  other  regions,  grows  to  a  tree, 
and  if  we  allow  it  to  produce  seeds  abundantly,  as  it  must  do,  to 
afford  an  abundant  crop  of  the  wool  or  hair  which  clothes  the  seeds, 
the  .stem  will,  as  a  matter  of  course,  become  hard  and  woody.  No 
one  can  imagine  that  there  would  be  profit  in  cultivating  the  cotton 
for  the  fiber  of  thesbark,  at  the  sacrifice  of  the  more  manageable  and 
valuable  product  attached  to  its  fruit.  But  the  okra,  which  is  only 
raised  for  its  esculent,  immature  seed-vessels,  seems  much  better 
adapted  to  profitable  employment  in  this  direction.  The  fineness  and 
abundance  as  well  as  the  strength  of  the  fiber  are  such  as  to  render 
experiments  with  this  plant,  under  close  cultivation,  highly  desirable. 
From  specimens  in  our  own  collection,  it  would  seem  probable  that  the 
quantity  of  fiber  on  a  single  plant  might,  under  lavorable  circum- 
stances, be  sufiicient  to  pay  for  the  process  of  stripping  by  hand. 

Fibers  of  the  Nettle  family . — The  Nettle  family,  in  all  of  its  subdivi- 
sions, produces  plants  abounding  in  excellent  fiber.  One  division,  the 
Hemp  sub-family,  contains  not  only  the  well-known  hemp  itself,  but 
the  hop,  which,  although  not  cultivated  for  its  fiber,  has  been  tried 
for  paper  making.  The  Bread-fruit,  or  Mulberry  sub-family,- includes 
not  only  the  different  species  of  mulberry,  but  the  common  paper  mul- 
berry, and  this,  although  not  a  native  of  the  United  States^  grows  readily 
everywhere.  All  of  these  are  fibrous  plants,  but  the  last  is  the  most 
useful. 

Our  Osage  orange  of  the  South,  has  not,  as  far  as  we  are  aware,  been 
examined  for  its  fiber,  which,  however,  may  yet  be  found  useful. 

The  paper  mulberry  is  cultivated  over  so  large  a  portion  of  the 
earth's  surface  that  it  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  no  attempt  has 
ever  been  made  in  the  United  States  to  obtain  fiber  from  it.  In  the 
Pacific  islands  this  plant  furnishes  the  paper-like  cloth  known  as  tapa. 


388  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

In  Japan,  China,  and  elsewhere,  it  is  used  for  making  paper  of  supe- 
rior quality.  For  fibrous  purposes  the  paper  mulberry  should  be  cul- 
tivated so  as  to  give  long  and  slender  shoots,  after  the  manner  of  the 
osier  or  basket  willow.  Whether  the  bark  could  be  removed  by  break- 
ing instead  of  stripping,  is  a  point  upon  which  we  have  no  information. 

If  ever  the  culture  of  silk  should  be  extended  in  this  country,  the 
remains  of  the  ordinary  mulberry  shoots  might  be  used  in  the  same 
manner  just  described  as  applicable  to  the  paper  mulberry. 

The  Nettle  family  proper  is,  in  all  parts  of  the  vforld,  productive  of 
valuable  fibrous  plants.  The  most  remarkable  of  these,  the  far-famed 
"China  grass,"  has  been  described  by  us  in  the  Patent  Office  Report 
for  1855,  where  it  will  be  seen  that  the  individual  cells  of  the  fiber  ex- 
ceed in  length  those  known  in  any  other  plant.  We  have  an  indigenous 
species  of  Boehmeria,  the  genus  to  which  the  China  grass  belongs,  but 
this  seems  never  to  have  been  examined.  Of  our  species  of  true  nettle, 
(Urtica,)  one,  which  is  an  introduced  plant,  has  been  employed  in 
Europe.  In  the  Western  States,  before  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  for 
anything  bat  articles  of  food  had  been  commenced,  unties  of  sponta- 
neous growth  were  used  as  a  substitute  for  flax,  and  we  have  often  seen 
persons  who  remembered  the  time  when  shirts  were  made  from  nettles. 
We  cannot  learn  whether  any  attempts  have  ever  been  made  to  culti- 
vate these  plants^,  nor  do  we  know  even  the  particular  species  which 
have  been  used. 

Fibers  of  the  Dog-bane  family, — The  Dog-bane  family,  in  various 
parts  of  the  world,  is  represented  by  plants  remarkable  for  their  fiber. 
Two  species  of  Apocynium  in  the  United  States  are  rather  well  known, 
both  for  their  medicinal  properties  and  for  their  fiber.  One  of  these, 
the  A.  cannabinum,  or  "Indian  hemp,"  has  its  properties  represented 
both  by  its  botanical  and  its  common  name.  Experiments  on  the 
cultivation  of  this  plant  are  desirable. 

Fibers  of  the  Milkiveed  family. — Nearly  allied  to  this  last  is  the 
Milkweed  family,  best  known  by  the  different  species  of  milkweed,  or 
silkweed,  (Asclepias.)  The  commonest  and  best  known  of  these,  the 
A.  cornuti,  (the  A.  syriaca  of  Linnseus,)  often  attracts  attention  by 
the  abundant  and  beautiful  "silk"  upon  the  seed  contained  in  its  pods. 
This  substance,  however,  has  but  few  useful  applications,  for  the  cells 
are  cylindrical  and  perfectly  smooth  and  even  in  their  walls  ;  they  are 
therefore  incapable  of  taking  any  strong  hold  upon  each  other,  either 
in  paper  or  in  textile  fabrics.  We  do  not  mean  to  say  that  paper 
cannot  be  made  from  this  substance,  for  there  is  a  specimen  of  such 
paper  ia  the  curious  work  of  Dr.  J.  C.  Schaeffer,  published  in  1765, 
and  even  there  it  is  mentioned  as  having  been  made  a  few  years  before 
by  a  correspondent  of  the  author.  An  examination  of  this  specimen, 
and  the  care  which  has  been  taken  to  preserve  it  from  injury,  shows 
that  it  cannot  possess  any  great  strength.  It  is  barely  possible  that 
the  action  of  nitric  acid,  or  of  other  reagents  which  tend  to  develop 
the  spiral  structure  in  the  plant  cell,  might  improve  the  properties  of 
this  silk,  although  it  hardly  seems  probable  that  the  result  would  pay 
for  the  cost  and  trouble.  Used  as  wadding,  or  floss,  this  substance 
may  find  direct  employment,  for  articles  of  great  beauty  have  often 
been  made  from  it. 


VEGETABLE   FIBER.  389 

This  plant  has  been  made  the  subject  of  numerous  communications 
to  the  Patent  Office,  generally  hy  persons  Avho  have  been  actuated  by 
the  promising  appearance  of  the  silk.  Some  of  the  correspondents 
Lave  desired  to  obtain  a  monopoly  of  the  use  of  the  plant  for  fibrous 
purposes,  an  end,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say,  which  the  patent  laws 
of  the  United  States  cannot  accomplish.  In  some  cases,  however,  cor- 
respondents, with  a  laudable  desire  for  the  general  good,  have  called 
attention  to  it,  under  the  erroneous  impression  that  its  useful  proper- 
ties were  unknown.  In  fact,  there  is  no  one  of  our  native  plants  which 
more  curiously  illustrates  the  general  want  of  knowledge  of  our  own 
products,  which  are,  however,  much  better  known  and  appreciated 
elsewhere ;  and,  indeed,  it  can  hardlj^  be  possible  that  any  other  case 
can  be  found  of  a  similar  character. 

The  name  given  by  Linnteus  to  the  common  silkweed  implies  that 
it  is  a  native  of  S3a'ia,  but  according  to  our  best  botanists,  this  is  not 
correctj,  for  it  has  been  ascertained  to  be  "a  native  of  this  country  only," 
(Grray).  Yet  this  plant  is  cultivated  in  Europe;  directions  for  its 
treatment  can  be  found  in  German  works,  and  we  have  seen  specimens 
of  the  fiber  prepared  in  Kussia.  Still,  v/e  know  of  but  two  notices  of 
the  bast,  or  bark  fiber,  of  the  Asclepias  in  American  books.  One  of 
these  is  a  notice  of  a  patent  granted  in  1834,  to  Mrs.  Margaret 
Gerrish ;  the  other,  an  article  in  a  much  older  publication,  which 
shows  that  the  true  value  of  the  plant  was  well  understood  even  in  the 
last  century,  and  that  its  product  was  even  an  article  of  commerce. 
Unfortunately,  we  have  not  now  access  to  the  work  last  mentioned. 
It  is  plain,  however,  that  the  early  knowledge  of  the  fiber  of  the  silk- 
week  caused  its  introduction  into  Europe,  where  it  has  finally  become 
a  cultivated  plant,  while  in  its  native  country  but  little  is  known  of  its 
true  value. 

The  history  and  an  accurate  description  of  the  silkweed  as  a  fibrous 
plant  would  alone  form  a  highly  instructive  and  valuable  contribution 
to  the  knowledge  of  our  native  products. 

The  bast  of  the  Asclepias  furnishes  a  fine,  long,  and  glossy  fiber. 
We  have  verified  this  fact,  in  Kentucky,  comparing  the  silkweed  with 
the  hemp,  produced  under  the  best  system  of  culture.  In  this  case, 
however,  the  native  fiber  was  taken  in  winter  from  the  decayed  stalks, 
as  they  stood  upon  the  ground  where  they  grew  without  culture,  while 
the  hemp  had  not  only  been  cultivated  but  treated  afterward  with  the 
usual  care.  The  fiber  of  the  silkweek  was  nearly  if  not  quite  as 
strong  as  that  of  the  hemp,  but  apparently  finer  and  more  glossy, 
while  the  quantity  from  a  single  stalk  of  each  was  nearly  the  same. 

The  culture  of  this  plant  is  said  to  be  without  difficulty,  and  almost 
every  one  has  noticed  it  growing,  even  upon  poor  soils.  As  it  is  a 
perennial,  with  strong  roots,  successive  crops  might,  for  a  long  time, 
be  obtained  from  one  sowing  of  the  seeds  or  planting  of  the  roots. 

We  wish  it  to  be  understood  that  it  is  not  our  object  to  exaggerate 
the  value  of  the  milkweed,  but  merely  to  excite  an  interest  in  the  cul- 
ture of  a  neglected  native  plant,  which  has  in  other  countries  received 
more  attention  than  it  has  in  our  own.  The  fiber  may  be  ranked 
between  that  of  flax  and  of  hemp,  for  textile  purposes,  while,  if  the 


390  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

commercial  demand  for  sncli  uses  were  not  sufl&cient,  tlie  cultivation 
for  paper  stuff,  at  once,  might  prove  remunerative. 

Fih^ous  plants  not  necessarily  an  exhausting  crop. — In  this  connection 
we  must  mention  one  important  matter  relating  to  the  culture  of 
fibrous  plants,  many  of  which  are  supposed  to  exhaust  the  soil  in  a 
peculiar  manner.  It  is  true  that  such  plants  do  often  withdraw  from 
the  soil  a  large  portion  of  soluble  inorganic  matter,  which,  if  the  crop 
were  wholly  carried  off,  would  soon  leave  the  soil  incapable  of  sustain- 
ing a  future  crop  of  the  same  plant.  But  the  fiber  itself  contains  only 
a  small  percentage  of  these  ingredients,  which  are  directly  measured 
by  the  ash.  This  is  found  in  greatest  quantity  in  the  refuse  of  the 
crop.  If,  then,  the  rotting  is  done  upon  the  same  field  which  pro- 
duced the  plant,  many  of  the  soluble  matters'  are  at  once  restored  to 
the  soil  from  which  they  had  been  drawn.  The  leaves  fall  upon  the 
ground,  and  carry  back  other  mineral  ingredients,  and  finally  the 
refuse,  after  breaking,  restores  most  of  the  remainder.  Hence,  if  the 
ashes  of  the  refuse  are  returned  to  the  soil,  there  is  but  little  left 
which  must  artificially  be  added  to  restore  its  original  condition. 
These  relations  of  the  fiber  to  the  plant  from  which  it  is  drawn  are  too 
little  known,  and  yet  a  v/ant  of  such  knowledge  is  frequently  the 
cause  of  wholly  unnecessary  exhaustion  of  the  soil. 

Structure  of  hast  cells. — We  have  given  no  minute  account  of  the 
characters  of  bast,  as  the  varieties  are  almost  endless.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  cell-walls  are  rather  thick,  showing  the  spiral  structure, 
while  the  cells  are  longer  than  in  any  other  vegetable  tissue,  and, 
in  some  cases,  are  not  simple,  but  more  or  less  branching.  The 
thickened  walls  are  scarcely  ever  filled  with  the  rigid,  incrusting 
matter  found  in  the  wood-cells  of  the  stem;  hence  the  greater  pliability 
of  the  bast.  The  bundles  of  fiber  in  their  section,  although  commonly 
wedge-shaped,  are  sometimes  semi-cylindrical,  but  the  intervention  of 
rows  of  pith-cells,  which  disappear  in  preparing  the  fiber,  in  most  in- 
stances leaves  the  bast  in  flat  ribbons.  All  of  these  peculiarities  may, 
at  once,  be  readily  determined  by  a  microscopic  examination,  aided  by 
the  proper  chemical  tests. 

We  have  said  but  little  of  the  wood  of  exogens,  because  it  rarely 
furnishes  a  useful  fiber,  except  for  the  purpose  of  paper-making,  upon 
which  we  are  about  to  make  a  few  remarks. 

Cotton,  structure  of  the  cell. — Cotton  we  have  only  mentioned  inci- 
dentally, because  it  does  not  form  a  constituent  of  any  of  the  tissues 
which  we  have  described,  being  made  up,  as  has  been  stated,  of  the 
hairs,  each  one  a  single  cell  upon  the  seeds  of  the  plant.  The  great 
value  of  cotton,  and  that  which  distinguishes  it  from  all  known  hairs 
of  plants,  is  the  spiral  structure  of  the  cell-wall,  recognized  not  only 
in  the  finer  markings  upon  the  fiber,  but  by  the  form  of  the  entire 
cell,  which  may  best  be  represented  as  a  tube  flattened  until  the 
ojiposite  sides  nearly  or  quite  meet,  but  with  this  flattening  not  in  one 
place,  but  in  a  spiral  direction.  Every  degree  of  twist  may  be  found 
in  cotton,  some  fibers  being  scarcely  more  than  ribbons,  while  others 
are  very  well  described  as  screws.  Upon  this  character,  combined 
with  the  fineness  and  length  of  the  cells,  the  value  of  the  fiber  mainly 
depends.     In  previous  articles  in  the  Patent  Ofiice  Keports  we  have 


VEGETABLE   FIBER.  391 

furnisbed  information  upon  this  subject,  but  much  yet  remains  to  be 
determined,  which  can  only  be  done  after  a  more  careful  study  of  a 
great  variety  of  specimens,  and  under  favorable  circumstances,  which 
have  not  yet  occurred  to  any  one  capable  of  such  an  investigation. 

FIBROUS   MATERIALS   FOR   PAPER. 

Historical  notice. — The  complaint  that  rags  alone  were  not  sufficient 
to  supply  the  wants  of  the  paper-maker  dates  back  at  least  one  hun- 
dred years ;  and  that  this  complaint  has  not  been  without  foundation 
is  shown  by  the  constant  increase  in  the  price  of  rags.  Improvements 
in  the  process  of  manufacture,  and  the  introduction  of  new  material, 
have,  at  intervals,  delayed  this  increase  in  price,  but  only  for  a  short 
time.  The  demand  for  new  material  for  paper-making  has  led  to 
many  investigations,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  are  those  detailed 
in  the  work  of  Dr.  J.  0.  Schaeflfer,  before  mentioned.  This  book  is 
illustrated  by  a  large  number  of  specimens  of  paper  made  from  differ- 
ent substances  in  the  house  of  the  author.  In  making  his  paper  the 
old-fashioned  pounding  machine  was  used,  and  the  material  was  only 
reduced  to  the  condition  of  "  half  stuffy  the  specimens  are  therefore 
rather  coarse.  Chlorine,  our  great  modern  bleaching  agent,  being 
unknown  at  that  time,  the  paper  presents  the  natural  hue  of  the 
material.  In  many  of  the  specimens  there  is  a  mixture  with  rags,  but 
some  of  the  most  curious  have  no  such  addition.  The  leaves,  stems, 
and  hairs  of  various  plants,  moss,  algte,  shavings  and  saw-dust  oi 
woods  of  different  kinds,  wasp-nests,  old  shingles,  potato  peelings, 
and  apparently  every  accessible  source  of  vegetable  fiber,  were  experi- 
mented upon,  and  specimens  of  the  paper  furnished ;  in  one  case  the 
mineral  kingdom  is  made  to  contribute  paper  from  asbestus. 

The  publication  of  this  work  seems  to  have  given  some  stimulus  to 
this  new  branch  of  industry,  and  new  materials  have  gradually  come 
into  use.  The  process  of  bleaching  by  chlorine,  or  its  compounds, 
gave  a  new  impetus,  as  it  brought  into  use  serviceable  fibers  which, 
from  their  color,  had  previously  been  inapplicable  to  the  manufacture 
of  white  paper.  From  time  to  time  other  works  with  specimens  have 
appeared,  but  the  modes  of  treatment  were  essentially  the  same  as 
those  introduced  about  the  end  of  the  last  century,  and  these,  \fQ  have 
already  shown,  with  the  exception  of  bleaching  by  chlorine,  had  been 
known  for  centuries  in  the  East.  The  latest  work  of  consequence,  with 
actual  specimens,  was  published  by  L.  Piette  in  1838. 

Piette  mainly  confines  himself  to  straw ;  but,  making  use  of  chemi- 
cal agents,  he  has  produced  paper  of  superior  quality.  The  specimens 
are  particularly  valuable,  as  they  show,  not  only  paper  from  each 
material  unmixed,  but  from  various  intermixtures  of  the  materials 
with  each  other  and  with  rags.  A  very  slight  examination  of  Piette's 
specimens  will  be  enough  to  satisfy  any  one  that  good,  strong,  white, 
and  smooth  paper  may  be  made  of  straw,  the  productions  of  the  differ- 
ent kinds,  however,  having  peculiarities.  The  author  does  not  seem  to 
have  a  very  high  opinion  of  paper  made  from  wood,  and  gives,  as  a 
specimen  of  the  best  mode  of  using  this  material,  a  very  neat  sliaving 
which,  at  first  sight,  looks  like  a  delicately  tinted  paper.     Strange  as 


392  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Piette's  suggestions  may  appear,  we  have  in  our  collection  a  very 
elegant  visiting  caTcl,  printed  in  Paris,  not  upon  paper,  but  upon  a 
tliin  and  uniform  shaving  of  wood.  This  use  of  wood  seems  destined 
to  extend  the  meaning  of  the  word  ''shingle,"  from  the  sign  to  the 
card.* 

As  an  evidence  of  the  supply  of  paper  stuff  from  other  substances 
than  rags,  as  far  as  Europe  is  concerned,  we  may  state,  from  good 
authority,  that  single  establishm.ents  use  for  such  purpose  straw,  wood, 
or  even  stable  manures  to  the  extent  of  hundreds  of  tons  annually. 

The  manufacture  of  paper  from  straw,  wood,  &c.,  in  the  United 
States,  originated  between  1828  and  1830.  The  first  article  made,  in 
any  quantity,  was  a  coarse  and  rather  brittle  wrapping-paper,  from 
straw,  but  an  article  from  wood,  good  enough  to  use  for  newspapers, 
was  made  about  the  same  time.  This  branch  of  industry  has,  how- 
ever^  made  but  little  progress,  except  for  coarser  purposes,  although 
fair  white  paper  has  been  made  from  both  straw  and  wood.  It  is  to 
be  remarked  that  waste  rope  and  bagging,  and  fibers  of  all  kinds,  enter 
largely  into  the  manufacture  of  the  best  kinds  of  paper ;  the  modes  of 
treatment  in  all  cases  being  essentially  the  same^  the  source  of  supply 
being  determined  by  the  cost. 

Condition  of  fiber,  as  found  in  paper. — Although  the  manufacture 
of  paper  from  various  materials  has,  so  far  as  the  processes  are  con- 
cerned, attained  a  high  state  of  advancement,  the  minute  study  of  the 
condition  of  the  fiber  in  paper  seems  to  have  received  scarcely  any 
attention  until  a  quite  recent  date.  So  far  as  we  can  learn,  the  first 
investigation  on  this  subject  was  announced  by  Keissek,  in  a  commu- 
nication to  the  Koyal  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Vienna,  in  181:5,  but  not 
published  until  1852.  This  article  is  illustrated  by  several  figures, 
which  correctly  represent  fiber,  mainly  flax,  as  found  in  papers  of  dif- 
ferent qualities.  In  the  next  year  Schacht  published  a  work,  in  which 
the  fiber  from  paper  made  of  various  materials  is  well  illustrated. 
From  these  drawings,  and  from  the  descriptions  of  the  authors,  it  is 
easy  to  understand  the  condition  to  which  paper  stuff  must  be  reduced, 
and  if  our  previous  account  of  the  structure  of  the  vegetable  cell  is 
remembered,  we  may,  in  a  few  w^ords,  convey  a  correct  idea  of  the 
nature  and  condition  of  the  fiber  in  paper,  even  without  the  aid  of 
drawings. 

It  will  not  be  necessary,  in  this  place,  to  describe  the  engine  by 
which  rags,  &c.,  are  reduced  to  pulp  for  paper;  it  is  sufficient  to  say 
that  by  its  action  the  fiber  is  broken,  not  cut,  into  fragments,  the 
length  of  which  is  but  a  very  small  fraction  of  an  inch.  If  the  fiber 
could  be  divided  by  a  clean  cut,  no  paper  could  be  ma,de  from  the 
resulting  pulp,  for  it  is  the  rough  and  jagged  ends  of  the  fragments 
which  give  the  peculiar  felting  property  to  ordinary  paper  stuff.  In- 
stead of  "fiber,"  in  this  paragraph,  we  might  rather  have  said  "cells," 
for,  in  reality,  the  peculiar  kind  of  fracture  of  which  we  have  been 
speaking  depends  upon  the  breaking  up  of  the  cells;  a  mere  separation 
of  the  cells  from  each  other  would  give,  as  must  be  evident,  but  a  use- 

*  Since  this  was  written  we  have  learned  that  "chip  "  cards  have  been  introduced  into  the 
United  States,  and  arc  now  on  sale  at  the  stores. 


VEGETABLE   FIBER.  393 

less  product.  The  material  introduced  into  the  engine  is,  with  few 
exceptions,  a  compound  fiber,  and  as  there  is  not  a  perfect  separation 
of  the  cells  laterally,  however  much  they  may  be  broken  in  their 
length,  we  have  used  the  word  "fiber"  advisedly. 

If  the  walls  of  the  cell  were  of  uniform  thiclaiess,  there  would  be 
no  reason  why  they  should  break  with  any  other  than  an  even  and 
nearly  transverse  fracture ;  but  if  we  remember  the  constant  tendency 
to  a  spiral  direction  in  the  thickening  of  the  cell  wall,  we  can  readily 
understand  that  the  operation  of  the  paper  engine  will  be  to  fray  the 
broken  ends  of  the  ceils  into  strips,  which  will  take  a  more  or  less 
spiral  direction,  when  they  are  free  to  take  the  most  natural  position. 
The  paper  pulp  being  suspended  in  water,  having  nearly  its  own  spe- 
cific gravity,  these  frayed  ends  will  readily  resume  the  original  turn 
or  twist  which  they  had  as  thickened  portions  of  the  cell  wall.  Hence 
the  felting  property  of  paper  stuff,  v/hich,  by  the  intertwining  of  even 
the  smallest  fragments  of  a  cell,  allows  the  whole  mass,  on  drying,  to 
form  a  continuous  and  coherent  sheet.  The  introduction  of  size,  as  a 
matter  of  course,,  increases  the  cohesion,  but  a  consideration  of  this 
part  of  paper  manufacture,  and  its  further  consequences,  would  lead 
us  beyond  our  limits. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  cells  as  broken,  but  it  must  be  evident,  from 
the  variety  of  directions  in  which  they  are  presented  to  the  beating 
surfaces  in  the  engine,  that  they  are  often  split ;  but  this  does  not  alter 
the  condition  of  things,  for  the  direction  of  the  split  will  be  the  same 
with  that  of  the  frayed  ends.  The  interlacing  properties,  derived  from 
the  character  of  the  outside  surface  of  the  cell,  need  not  be  insisted 
upon  here,  since  we  have  already  said  enough  upon  this  point. 

The  fineness  and  smoothness  of  the  paper  from  any  given  material 
depends  upon  the  degree  of  comminution  of  the  fiber,  which  may  be 
carried  so  far  as  to  leave  nothing  but  split  and  frayed  fragments, 
scarcely  a  single  cell  retaining  its  original  diameter.  The  strength  of 
the  paper,  of  course,  diminishes  with  such  a  treatment,  a  fine  and  yet 
strong  fabric  being  only  produced  by  a  due  mixture  of  portions  of  fibre 
representing  the  two  extremes  of  subdivision.  The  best  condition 
would  be  attained  when  each  fragment,  as  far  as  possible,  exemplified 
the  two  extremes — that  is,  when  portions  of  cells,  retaining  their 
original  diameter,  would  be  furnished  with  a  long  and  abundant  fringe 
of  frayed  ends.  The  experience  and  skill  of  the  paper-maker  has,  in 
a  general  way,  led  to  the  attainment  of  desired  results,  with  old  and 
well-knov/n  material,  but  this  has  been  done  in  ignorance  of  the  pre- 
cise conditions  uj)on  which  these  results  depend,  and  for  any  new  mate- 
rial, time  and  expense  only  can  be  employed,  to  acquire  an  equally 
good  skill  and  experience.  But  by  a  knowledge  of  the  precise  char- 
acter of  the  material,  obtained  from  microscopic  examination,  and  by 
the  aid  of  a  few  reagents,  a  sound  basis  may  be  laid  for  intelligent 
experiment,  with  a  saving  of  both  time  and  trouble. 

Microscopic  examination  of  loood  for  paper  stuff. — As  an  illustration 
of  our  assertion,  let  us  suppose  that  a  certain  wood  is  proposed  as  a 
material  for  the  paper-maker.  The  thinnest  possible  cross  section  is 
examined  under  the  microscope,  and  the  figure  as  well  as  the  thickness 
©f  the  wood  cells,  noted.     The  specimen  is  next  treated  with  solution 


394  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

of  iodirie,  and  tlien  witli  chloride  of  zinc,  or  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and 
again  observed.  The  portions  colored  blue  will  show  how  much  of  the 
cell  wall  retains  its  original  character,  and  those  which  are  reddish- 
brown  show  the  infiltration  and  deposit  of  the  incrusting  matter.  A 
similar  section  is  next  to  be  treated  in  the  same  way,  after  having 
been  boiled  in  a  solution  of  caustic  potash,  or  soda.  The  increased 
portion  colored  blue  and  the  diminution  of  the  red  will  show  how  much 
•of  the  useless  incrusting  matter  has  been  removed,  and  by  repeating 
the  experiment  we  can  soon  obtain  an  approximate  estimation  of  the 
amount  of  and  the  cost  of  removing  the  useless  ingredients.  We  can 
also  obtain  a  correct  idea  of  the  outline  of  the  section  of  the  individual 
cells,  whether  angular,  rounded,  or  ribbed,  points  which  we  have 
before  shown  are  of  no  little  value.  A  small  portion  of  a  very  thin 
shaving  of  the  wood,  in  a  longitudinal  direction,  is,  after  boiling  in  an 
alkaline  solution,  again  examined.  If  the  cells  are  not  well  separated, 
we  may  resort  to  some  of  the  more  powerful  reagents,  or  if  the  shaving 
is,  microscopically  speaking,  thin  enough,  we  may  use  needles  to  tear 
the  cells  apart.  We  then  observe  the  length  of  the  individual  cells, 
and,  above  all,  the  markings  upon  them,  which  show  the  uniformity 
or  spiral  arrangement  of  the  thickened  portions.  We  are  then  pre- 
pared to  give,  in  accordance  with  what  has  been  said  above,  a  good 
approximate  estimate  of  the  value  of  the  wood  as  a  material  for  paper- 
making. 

We  have  selected  wood  as  an  illustration,  because  we  have  not,  as 
yet,  particularly  described  its  structure,  and  because  two  important 
points,  the  length  of  the  cells  and  the  quantity  of  incrusting  matter, 
are  brought  under  consideration.  Almost  any  substance,  otherwise 
useful  as  fiber,  may  be  converted  into  paper,  yet  the  relative  values  of 
different  materials  may  be  determined  by  the  methods  above  described. 

Structure  of  wood  cells. — As  a  general  rule,  the  cells  of  wood  are 
short,  with  pointed  ends,  and  may  sometimes  be  even  too  short  for 
paper  stuff.  Interspersed  among  the  true  wood  cells,  Ave  always  find 
the  ducts,  described  above,  with  the  single  exception  of  the  pine  family, 
which  may  always  be  recognized  by  the  "disks,"  with  a  "pore"  in 
their  center,  found  generally  on  the  radial  surface  of  the  cells.  In  the 
Coniferce,  or  pines,  we  often  find  an  abundance  of  resin ;  this,  like  the 
incrusting  matter,  must  be  removed  by  an  alkaline  solution. 

In  the  Pine  family,  which  most  largely  contributes  wood  for  the 
manufacture  of  paper,  we  find  notable  difi'erences  in  the  character  of 
the  cells,  and  are  thus  able,  even  in  fossil  woods,  to  determine  the  exact 
character  of  the  plant.  Without  any  trial,  we  can  say  that  the  yew 
(Taxus,)  and  its  ally  Torreya,  would  furnish  a  material  for  paper,  with 
peculiar  properties,  derived  from  the  remarkable  spiral  thickening  of 
the  cells.  Unfortunately,  trees  of  these  genera  are  not  abundant 
enough  to  warrant  even  an  experimental  examination. 

In  some  woods,  in  addition  to  the  medullary  rays,  made  up  of  what 
we  have  called  pith  cells,  there  is  another  tissue  of  similar  cells,  which 
cannot  be  expected  to  add  to  the  strength  of  paper  stuff. 

Economy  of  using  looodfor  'paper  stuff. — It  is,  therefore,  easy  to  deter- 
mine what  sort  of  wood  is  best  adapted  to  paper-makiag,  and  we  have 
in  our  collection  specimens  which  show  that  the  range  of  choice  is  bv 


SALT   IN    AGRICULTURE.  395 

no  means  limited.  But  another  question  of  economy  arises,  which 
has  excited  much  inquiry  and  invention,  namely,  the  most  advanta- 
geous method  of  reducing  solid  wood  to  the  requisite  degree  of  fineness, 
for  subsequent  treatment.  A  good  rule,  equally  applicable  to  the 
manures  of  the  farmer  and  to  the  supply  of  the  paper-making  material, 
we  would  give  in  a  few  words :  tise  luhat  others  ivaste.  If  the  thousands 
of  tons  of  saw-dust,  annually  v/asted  at  the  different  saw-mills  in 
the  country,  could  be  collected  in  one  place,  there  would  be  no  want 
of  material  for  paper  of  a  certain  quality.  But  as  this  cannot  be  done, 
we  may  fairly  suppose  that,  in  some  localities,  an  abundant  supply 
may  be  maintained ;  if  not,  resort  must  be  had,  provided  that  the  wood 
itself  is  cheap  enough,  to  mechanical  means  of  disintegration^  which 
are  beyond  the  bounds  of  our  present  inquiry. 

When  grass,  straw,  or  herbaceous  plants  are  used  for  making  paper, 
a  new  matter  for  consideration  arises.  The  great  abundance  of  pith 
cells  in  these  is  wholly,  or  in  part,  removed,  and  passes  off  as  waste, 
either  in  the  treatment  with  alkaline  solutions,  or  from  the  paper 
engine.  The  exact  weight  of  solid  matter  in  such  materials  cannot^, 
therefore,  be  reproduced  as  paper,  and  the  loss  must  be  accompanied 
by  a  corresponding  cost  in  the  process  which  causes  the  loss.  In  such 
cases,  again,  a  microscopical  examination  of  the  material  may  afford 
an  approximate  estimate  of  its  value. 

We  would  like,  in  this  connection,  to  refer  to  a  process  of  paper- 
making  in  some  respects  quite  different  from  that  which  is  used  among 
us,  yet  in  the  East  has  made  paper  a  substitute  for  cloth  and  for  other 
fabrics,  which  we  manufacture  at  a  great  cost.  But,  without  space  to 
describe  even  the  specimens  illustrative  of  this  point,  we  must,  for  the 
present,  abstain  from  entering  upon  new  matter. 

In  conclusion,  we  have  to  say  that  the  foregoing  is  to  be  regarded 
as  the  mere  outline  or  sketch  of  the  research  of  several  years^  which 
might,  if  expanded  into  details,  have  filled  a  goodly  volume.  Our 
endeavor  has  been  to  give  a  general  view  of  the  subject,  trusting  it 
may  prove  interesting,  and  even  profitable,  to  the  reader,  furnishing 
at  the  same  time  sufiicient  indications  of  the  course  to  be  pursued  if  he 
should  be  desirous  of  further  information. 

In  general,  we  have  abstained  from  quoting  authorities  as  out  of 
place  in  an  article  of  this  kind.  But  no  statement  has  been  made 
which  cannot  be  substantiated  by  sufiicient  authority,  or  by  our  own 
demonstration.  Considered  as  a  mere  sketch  of  what  might  have  been 
said,  we  mus^beg  those  who  are  well  informed  upon  any  one  particular 
point  to  remember  that,  if  we  had  noticed  everything  by  the  way, 
our  article  Avould  have  increased  to  a  volume,  and  to  believe  that  the 
omissions  which  may  be  criticised  by  them  are  regretted  by  us. 


IMPOETANCE  OP  SALT  IN  AGRICULTURE. 

If  we  should  ask  why  so  enormous  a  quantity  of  this  inestimable 
gift  of  salt  is  distributed  throughout  the  earth;  why  three  fourths  of 
the  surface  of  the  planet  designed  for  the  home  of  man  is  covered  with 


396  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

it?  tlie  answer  would  be :  In  order  to  preserve  tlie  work  of  Nature,  to  en- 
able man  the  more  readily  to  sustain  himself,  and  to  make  him  wealthier 
and  better.  It  has  become  an  indispensable  condition  for  the  exist- 
ence of  man,  and  his  civilization.  In  all  organic  beings  we  meetv^^ith 
two  processes — that  of  life  and  that  of  decomposition — the  latter  begin- 
ning its  full  activity  after  the  former  has  achieved  its  end,  at  the 
moment  when  organic  beings  are  dissolved  into  those  constituents 
from  which  the  plant  was  formed  and  nourished. 

If,  however,  we  intend  to  check,  or,  at  least,  delay  decomposition, 
we  must  employ  acids,  for  we  know  that  the  Creator  formed  of  the  sea- 
salt  a  mighty  barrier  against  the  immeasurable  mass  of  water  becoming 
putrid  ;  we  know  that  our  stocks  of  flesh,  grease,  &c.,  are  preserved 
by  the  application  of  salt ;  that  cabbage-water,  acids  in  general,  and 
kitchen-salt  are  the  means  employed  by  the  agriculturist  against  septic 
diseases  in  our  domestic  animals,  and  against  diseases  of  the  mouth 
and  feet.  The  separation  of  milk  and  deposit  of  meat  will  be  increased 
by  the  application  of  salt,  thus  forming  an  essential  means  for  the  pro- 
motion of  cattle-raising.  By  the  application  of  salt,  the  fruits,  espe- 
cially wine,  will  become  much  better ;  and  even  the  ancients  were  in 
the  habit  of  throwing  salt  on  their  grounds,  their  vineyards,  and  fruit 
trees.  Agricultural  chemistry  informs  us  that  the  simplest  combina- 
tions through  which  nourishment  is  conveyed  to  plants  consist  in  acids, 
alkalies,  and  alkaline  substances.  Animal  chemistry  shows  that  free 
muriatic  acid  and  kitchen-salt  form  the  principal  constituents  of  the 
contents  of  the  stomach. 

In  a  French  prize  paper,  by  Dr.  Desaive,  on  the  manifold  advantages 
of  the  use  of  salt  in  agriculture,  the  following  results  have  been  laid 
down  by  the  celebrated  French  veterinary  surgeon,  Grogniez: 

Common  salt  serves  as  a  preventive  of  the  fermentation  and  heating 
of  hay,  which  has  been  heaped  up  in  large  stacks  during  wet  weather. 
Forty  quintals  of  hay  require  fifteen  pounds  of  salt,  to  be  strewn 
among  it  in  alternate  layers. 

This  effect  is  much  better  shown  in  straw,  which,  if  intended  to  be 
used  as  fodder,  by  being  moistened  with  salt-water,  may  be  preserved 
for  a  long  time,  when  it  can  be  given  to  cattle  instead  of  hay — a 
method  in  use  among  the  ancients. 

Leaves  of  trees,  w^ien  put  in  ditches  with  salt,  may  be  prevented  for . 
a  long  time  from  putrefactive  fermentation,  and  will  even  make  good 
forage.     Intelligent  farmers  of  the  Mont  d'  Orlyonais  are  in  the  habit 
of  thus  preserving  their  vine  leaves  as  fodder  for  goats.    * 

Fodder  of  inferior  quality,  for  instance,  straw,  or  other  kinds,  soaked 
and  bleached  by  rain  and  sun,  cured  too  late,  or  become  woody,  may 
be  rendered  more  palatable  and  easy  of  digestion  by  being  salted.  A 
pound  of  salt  in  three  quarts  of  water  is  required  for  a  quintal  of  bad 
hay. 

The  sharp  taste  which  the  milk  of  cows  usually  assumes  m  conse- 
quence of  beets,  turnips,  and  white  cabbage  being  continually  fed  to 
them,  can  be  removed  by  salting  those  vegetables. 

In  Flanders,  common  salt  is  strewn  on  new  and  wet  oats,  to  be  fed 
to  horses,  and,  thus  prepared,  will  not  be  dangerous  to  the  animals. 
The  same  application  may  also  be  made  to  hay  newly  harvested,  to 


SOME    HINTS   UPON   FARM    HOUSES.  397 

prevent  injuries  when  it  may  become  necessary  to  feed  such  hay,  the 
moisture  of  which. has  not  been  fully  evaporated. 

Though  the  bad  qualities  of  dusty^  muddy,  or  moldy  fodder,  after 
having  been  washed  and  threshed,  are  not  entirely  removed,  yet,  by 
giving  a  sprinkling  of  salt-water,  they  will  be  diminished  to  a  consid- 
erable degree.  This  fact  will  be  of  advantage  to  the  farmer  whenever 
he  may  be  in  want  of  appropriate  fodder. 

By  means  of  salt,  such  water  as  otherwise  could  not  be  used  for 
cattle  for  drinking,  will  be  rendered  proper. 

The  great  advantages  to  be  derived  from  common  salt  with  regard 
to  the  health  of  cattle  have  been  clearly  shown  by  many  experiments 
made  by  that  learned  and  celebrated  agriculturist  of  Alsace,  M.  Bous- 
singault.  Cattle,  by  being  fed  with  salt,  receive  a  soft  and  glossy 
skin,  their  digestion  and  a,ppetite  are  in  good  order,  and  they  increase 
in  flesh  and  strength.  Cows  thus  fed  yield  much  m^lk,  while  thosQ 
treated  otherwise  have  dull  skins,  with  rough  hairs,  exhibit  less  appe- 
tite, produce  a  smaller  amount  of  flesh,  and  yield  not  only  an  inferior 
quantity,  but  also  quality,  of  milk. 

Manure  from  cattle  fed  with  salted  fodder  is  also,  of  a  better  quality. 

Finally,  manuring  with  salt  will  banish  mosses  and  hurtful  para- 
sitical plants  from  meadows. 


SOME  HINTS  UPON  EAEM  HOUSES. 


(by  SAlilUEL  D.  BACKUS,  ARCHITECT,  NEW  YORK.) 


An  intelligent  traveler,  in  passing  through  our  country,  will  observe 
among  neighboring  agriculturists,  a  great  similarity  in  the  modes  of 
cultivation  adopted,  in  the  cattle  reared,  the  horses  driven,  the  vehicles, 
and  farm  implements  used,  the  machines  employed,  the  crops  raised, 
the  barns  erected,  and  the  general  means  and  manner  of  pursuing 
their  avocations,  each  following  what  is  shown  to  be  a  good  example, 
and  all  agreeing  in  the  course  which  their  combined  experience  has 
shown  to  be  advantageous.  But  it  is  a  frequent  occasion  of  wonder 
that  a  class  so  quick  to  perceive,  so  shrewd  in  judging,  and  so  prompt 
to  adopt  any  improvement  which  may  lighten  their  labors,  increase 
their  profits,  or  permanently  benefit  their  lands,  should,  in  their  own 
dwellings,  exhibit  so  great  a  diversity  of  style,  construction,  and  real 
value.  There  is  not  merely  such  a  wholesome  variety  as  would  arise 
from  peculiarity  of  situation  or  disposition,  but  sometimes  a  diff'erence 
so  entire  as  to  show  that  neighboring  builders,  who,  upon  other  mat- 
ters seem  to  think  alike,  have  either  disagreed  radically  respecting 
the  purposes  for  which  their  dwellings  were  to  be  erected,  or  have 
failed  to  give  those  purposes  a  due  consideration. 

With  all  this  dissimilarity  of  design,  there  are  very  few  American 
dwellings,  except  some  of  the  log-houses  reared  for  temporary  use  by 


398  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

settlers  in  the  forests,  which  do  not  afford  more  of  physical  comfort 
than  the  residences  of  the  same  class  of  people  in  any  other  country. 

Within  a  few  years  past,  the  attention  of  the  higher  classes  in  Great 
Britain  has  been  turned  to  the  subject,  and  model  cottages  for  agricul- 
tural laborers  have  been  built,  under  the  auspices  of  committees  and 
societies,  in  various  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom,  the  descriptions  of 
which  show  that  vdiat  are  deemed  essential  conveniences  in  every 
house  here  are  there  regarded  as  rare  improvements.* 

But,  notwithstanding  this  superiority,  the  residences  of  American 
farmers  and  planters  are,  as  a  class,  far  less  valuable  than,  with  infor- 
mation and  facilities  of  construction,  they  might  be  made.  Some  of 
their  best  traits  have  been  inherited  from  former  generations,  and  little, 
if  any,  progress  in  the  right  direction  has  been  made  by  the  present. 
Indeed,  it  is  doubtful  whether,  in  view  of  the  available  means  and 
opportunities  ofithe  people,  the  earliest  houses  on  this  continent  were 
not  better  than  the  most  recent  ones.  The  men  of  our  day  have  been 
drawn  into  the  adoption  of  some  improvements  by  the  progress  of 
invention  and  the  arts,  but  in  the  exercise  of  a  sound  judgment,  and 
in  careful  adaptation  of  their  means  to  the  ends  desired,  they  cannot 
claim  to  be  in  advance  of  their  grandfathers. 

There  are  not  many  dwellings  of  the  last  century  remaining  without 
essential  modifications.  Occasionally,  on  some  New  England  hill,  far 
removed  from  the  changes  v/hich  railroads  bring,  a  venerable  farm- 
house may  be  found  which  tells  a  story  of  its  builders  well  worth  the 
reading.     There  is  the  kitchen,  where: 

"  "Warm  by  the  wide-mouthed  fire-place,  idly  the  farmer 
Sat  ill  liis  elbow-chair,  and  watched  how  the  flames  and  smoke  struggled  together." 

That  hearth  was  made  to  hold  no  compact  cooking-stove,  nor  is  the 
fire-place  designed  even  to  burn  wood  economically  cut  with  a  saw. 
Where  wood  is  plentiful  and  labor  scarce,  the  fire-place  must  be  large. 
The  room  is  capacious,  for  there  the  loom,  and  the  spinning-wheel, 
and  the  broad  settee  had  their  places;  there  the  family  meals  were 
taken ;  there  all  the  household-work  was  done ;  and  that  was  the  family 
gathering  place.  At  one  end  is  the  cheese-room,  or  buttery,  in  no 
danger  of  too  great  heat  from  proximity  to  the  kitchen  chimney ;  at 
the  other  was  the  "  old  folks"  bed-room,  in  a  position  commanding  all 
the  approaches  to  the  fortress ;  and  near  it  the  stair-case,  by  which  the 
rest  of  the  family  ascended  to  the  apartments  where  they  shivered 

*A  "premium"  row  of  twelve  cottages  was  built,  in  1848,  in  Berwickshire,  all  under  one 
roof,  each  house  having  two  small  rooms,  an  entry,  and  a  pantry,  on  tjie  first  floor,  and  a 
low  loft,  accessible  by  a  ladder,  above,  the  whole  space  inclosed  being  25  feet  by  17  feet. 
A  permanent  bedstead  was  built  into  a  recess  in  the  sitting  room,  which  it  entirely  filed, 
somewhat  like  a  ship's  berth.  There  was  a  small  out-building  for  each  tenement,  but  not  a 
porch,  or  shade,  or  shelter  of  any  sort,  outside  the  walls,  though  the  windows  were  dressed 
with  stone  Gothic  moldings.  These  cottages  were  specially  praised  for  having  brick  floors, 
"a  very  great  improvement  upon  the  clay  floors  usually  met  with,  and,  also,  that  they  were 
all  raised  a  step  above  the  exterior  level." 

The  same  meager  accommodation  is  shown  in  dwellings  of  a  higher  class.  In  some  farm 
establishments,  furnished  with  steam  engines,  mills,  feed  boilers,  and  the  most  complete 
accommodations  for  the  storage  and  preparation  of  provender,  the  housing  of  cattle,  the 
sheltering  of  carts,  and  the  protection  of  the  manure  heap,  the  farmer's  own  residence  has 
but  the  two  rooms  and  scullery  below,  and  one,  or  at  most  two,  low  sleeping  rooms  in  the 
jjarrct. 


SOME    HINTS   UPON   FARM    HOUSES.  399 

througli  the  winter  nights.  In  front  are  two  "  square  rooms,"  each 
with  its  fire-place  connected  with  the  great  central  chimney,  one  of 
which,  devoted  to  tea-drinldngs  and  other  solemn  occasions,  was  a 
sealed  apartment  on  other  days,  while  the  other  was  used  as  a  sleeping- 
room  for  guests,  or  an  occasional  sitting-room. 

With  some  modifications,  this,  in  its  arrangement,  was  the  type  of 
most  northern  farm-houses.  It  was  simple,  certainly,  neither  requiring 
nor  exhihiting  much  ingenuity  in  its  design.  The  wants  and  habits 
of  its  builders  were  even  rude,  but  it  met  them  and  did  it  well. 

In  outer  form  and  construction  the  earliest  houses  were  built  with 
strict  regard  to  the  resources  and  necessities  of  the  locality. 

In  New  England,  where  timber  was  always  abundant,  and  water- 
power  everywhere  available,  saw-mills  were  early  erected,  and  boards 
became  the  invariable  material  for  covering  the  frames,  formed  of  hewn 
timber,  put  together  in  all  its  huge  dimensions,  from  sheer  avoidance 
of  the  labor  of  reducing  it.  Men  skillful  in  this  mode  of  construction 
showed  to  less  advantage  when  attempting  to  form  the  refractory  granite 
into  their  clay-jointed  chimneys,  for  lime  was  scarce  and  bricks  were 
made  only  in  widely-scattered  localities. 

On  the  banks  of  the  Hudson,  vfell  supplied  with  clay  and  lime,  and 
easily-broken  stone,  we  find  the  walls  of  nearly  all  the  old  houses  built 
of  stone  or  brick,  or  both  combined, 

A  similar  construction  prevailed  on  Long  Island  and  Staten  Island, ' 
the  lime  used  being  made  from  shells.  Such  parts  of  walls  as  were 
covered  with  wood  were  mostly  shingled,  there  being  little  water-power 
for  sawing  boards  on  the  islands.  In  each  case  there  was  the  most 
judicious  regard  to  the  peculiar  resources  of  the  locality.  As  we  come 
south,  we  find  a  change  in  the  common  arrangement.  Heating  the 
house  in  winter  not  being  now  the  most  essential  consideration,  the 
central  chimney  is  dispensed  with,  and  in  its  place  an  open,  airy  hall 
extends  through  the  building.  At  each  end  of  the  house  there  is  a 
chimney,  sometimes  built  entirely  outside  the  walls.  Shelters  become 
more  common,  too,  the  roof  itself  sometimes  projecting  over  to  exterior 
posts,  forming  long  verandas. 

The  shape  of  the  house  was  also  adapted  to  its  materials.  The 
builders  in  stone  for  stability  kept  their  walls  low,  and  covered  them 
vs^ith  a  broad  roof,  of  moderate  elevation,  affording  lighted  rooms  only 
in  the  gables,  or  obtained  a  second  story  by  a  double  slope,  (in  what 
is  sometimes  called  the  '^gambrel"  form,)  lighting  it  with  dormer 
windows.  The  worker  in  wood  could  carry  up  his  frame  safely  as  high 
as  he  pleased,  and  thus  two  full  stories.  Frequently,  in  New  England, 
this  elevation  only  extended  over  the  front  rooms,  the  roof,  having 
exalted  itself  for  a  little  space,  rapidly  subsiding  until  it  reached  the 
rear,  and  modestly  spread  its  shelter  just  over  the  kitchen  door.  Such 
houses  certainly  exhibited  an  ostentatious  front,  little  consistent  with 
the  meagerness  of  their  every-day  appointments,  and  quite  at  variance 
with  the  stable,  modest,  hearty  aspect  of  those  which  attained  their 
highest  position  by  a  gradual  and  well-balanced  rise  upon  a  broad  and 
firmly  established  basis.  Whether  in  this  respect  any  of  them  betrayed 
characteristics  of  their  builders,  we  may  not  attempt  to  judge,  as  they 
have  all  passed  away  together.     This  is  certain,  that  in  all  of  them 


400  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

tlie  materials  most  suitable  were  selected,  and  used  witli  judgment  and 
thoughtfulness,  to  accomplisli  the  end  desired.  There  may  have  been 
an  imperfect  appreciation  of  the  advantages  to  be  sought  in  a  home ; 
and  the  mode  of  building  may  have  been  to  a  great  degree  the  result 
of  necessity,  or  to  some  extent  influenced  by  recollections  of  the  lands 
of  their  forefathers ;  but  it  was  adapted  as  fully  as  possible  to  the  pur- 
poses in  view  and  to  the  means  at  hand. 

While  the  general  model  was  nearly  the  same,  as  the  common  wants 
were  similar,  there  was  all  the  variety  called  for  by  diversity  of  situation 
and  circumstances.  In  this  respect,  the  change  to  our  times  has  been 
very  great.  With  some  noticeable  exceptions,  among  all  the  number- 
less forms  which  are  seen,  there  is  little  of  that  variety  which  is  the 
proper  result  of  peculiarities  of  location,  circumstances,  or  personal 
character.  With  greater  costliness,  there  is  less  care.  With  much 
less  of  uniformity,  there  is  more  of  imitation.  While  each  man  seems 
to  assert  his  freedom  from  antiquated  customs,  and  his  determination 
to  build  in  his  own  way,  as  every  American  should,  the  greater  number 
vindicate  their  privilege  by  adopting  the  way  of  some  one  else.  The 
ver}''  abundance  of  our  resources,  and  the  freedom  of  our  choice,  instead 
of  inciting  to  a  wise  discrimination,  seem  only  to  have  developed  an 
inconsiderate  lawlessness. 

We  cannot  in  this  connection  trace  the  causes  and  manner  of  the 
change  that  has  taken  place,  but  it  may  be  useful  to  consider  some  of 
the  influences  that  have  been,  and  still  are,  at  work  to  prevent  the 
improvement  which  we  ought  to  see. 

Chief  among  these  has  been  a  tendency  to  regard  the  mode  of  any 
novel  procedure,  rather  than  its  reasons ;  leading  to  careless  imitation 
of  inappropriate  patterns.  As  some  thinking  man  has  partially 
changed  his  mode  of  life,  introducing  new  refinements,  creating  new 
wants,  and  modifying  his  house  to  meet  them,  his  neighbors,  compelled 
to  acknowledge  the  improved  aspect  of  his  homestead,  have  copied  the 
form  of  his  house,  but  have  not  followed  the  new  habits  of  living  v^hich 
occasioned  its  adoption.  His  family  may  have  enjoyments  and  occu- 
pations not  confined  to  the  kitchen-hearth,  and  the  house  may  cheerfully 
make  the  fact  known  by  the  more  prominent  and  spacious  front  apart- 
ments. His  imitators  still  make  the  kitchen  their  habitation,  but  it 
is  smaller  than  their  old  one  and  less  comfortable,  and,  with  them,  tlie 
rest  of  the  structure  is  an  ostentatious,  superfluous,  dreary  waste. 

Domestic  habits  must  change  among  an  active  people.  Threshing 
machines  and  reapers  have  revolutionized  the  out-door  work  of  farming. 
The  sewing  machine  has  supplanted  the  spinning-wheel;  newspapers, 
district  libraries,  and  cheap  burning  fluids,  have  afforded  opportunities 
for  more  rational  occupation  than  smoking  long  pipes,  or  shelling  corn 
on  a  shovel. 

It  would  be  folly  not  to  meet  these  changes*  by  corresponding  modifi- 
tions  of  the  domicil,  and  it  is  no  less  so  to  adapt  our  houses  to  the 
habits  of  other  people,  in  disregard  of  our  own.  All  the  fashions  in 
building  which,  like  waves,  have  successively  swept  over  the  country, 
have  been  productive  of  erroneous  notions  and  false  tastes,  except  so 
far  as  they  have  coincided  with  real  changes  in  the  mode  of  lifO;,  or 
improvements  in  material  construction. 


SOME   HINTS  UPON   FARM   HOUSES.        _  401 

Tlie  departure  of  farm-liouses  from  the  simplicity  of  tlieir  true 
purpose  is,  in  great  part,  owing  to  the  attempt  to  make  them  "archi- 
tectural." The  rambling,  capacious,  and  home-like  residence,  huilt 
with  no  object  beyond  the  convenient,  economical,  and  comfortable 
accommodation  of  the  household,  has  often  given  place  to  some  formal 
and  pretentious  structure,  contributing  little  to  either  comfort  or 
convenience,  erected  in  fancied  conformity  to  some  ideal  model  of 
architectural  correctness,  with  columns  and  pediments,  capitals  and 
architraves,  frieze  and  cornice,  all  according  to  the  books,  as  though 
it  were  one  of  a  uniform  lot,  made  by  machinery,  like  Yankee  clocks, 
and  sold  to  make  room  for  a  new  stock  of  different  pattern.  As 
extremes  in  fashion  follow  one  another,  the  neighbor  who  builds  next 
afterwards  has,  perhaps,  a  "  G-othic"  model : 

"  All  up  and  down,  and  here  and  there, 
With  Lord-knows-what  of  round  and  square, 
Stuck  on  at  random  everywhere ; 
Indeed,  a  house  to  make  one  stare, 
All  corners  and  all  gables." 

Even  the  veterans  are  not  left  tt>  wear  out  their  days  in  peace, 
content  in  the  enjoyment  of  their  own  homeliness,  but  the  hand  of 
''improvement"  is  laid  upon  them  ;  they  are  stripped  of  their  little 
acquisitions  of  stoops  and  sheds,  and  similar  matters,  which  for  pure 
convenience  they  have  gathered  round  them,  cramped  and  tortured 
into  reluctant  regularity,  tricked  out  with  vergeboards  like  ruffles,  and 
then  passed  off  as  samples  of  a  reformation  effected  by  correct  rules 
of  art.  • 

It  is  not  strange  that  the  independent,  thinking  man,  accustomed 
to  judge  of  everything  by  a  reasonable  consideration  of  its  design  and 
its  results,  should  say:  "Architecture  may  be  very  good  in  churches 
and  court-houses,  but  it  is  out  of  place  on  a  farm.  We  want  houses 
to  live  in,  and  cannot  afford  to  sacrifice  our  pantries,  or  bed-rooms,  or 
the  chief  value  of  our  more  important  apartments,  for  the  sake  of 
regular  arrangement  of  windows,  or  an  exact  proportion  of  width, 
length,  and  height  of  the  whole  building.  I  have  my  own  notions 
about  my  house,  which  I  intend  to  carry  out." 

He  does  carry  them  out,  but  when  he  has  occupied  his  new  house 
awhile,  he  finds  that  new  notions  have  been  acquired  by  experience, 
which  it  would  have  been  well  if  he  possessed  earlier.  His  doors, 
perhaps,  are  just  where  they  ought  not  to  be,  or  his  stairs  are  not 
pleasant  to  climb,  or  in  some  other  of  the  thousand  things  which  ex- 
perience would  have  taught  him  to  provide  against  his  house  is  not 
so  desirable  as  it  might  have  been, 

Now,  both  of  these  classes  err  from  a  mistaken  idea  of  the  real 
meaning  of  architecture.  It  is  supposed  to  be  an  inflexible  set  of  rules, 
made  by  some  infallible  authority,  invariable  in  their  operation,  and 
to  be  applied  alike  to  all  buildings,  great  or  small,  allowing  a  certain 
degree  of  liberty  in  the  selection  of  the  special  order  or  style  to  be 
used,  but  beyond  that  giving  no  scope  to  ingenuity  or  originality.  If 
the  building  is  not  one  to  which  the  rules  seem  applicable,  that  is 
considered  the  fault  of  the  building,  and  the  remedy  is  not  in  changing 
the  architecture,  but  in  using  less  of  it.  To  builders  of  this  way  of 
26 A 


402  .  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

thinking,  tlie  classic  orders  are  as  well  defined,  and  their  limits  as 
accurately  marked,  as  the  separate  States  on  a  map ;  and  they  will 
tell  you  the  exact  outline  which  must  he  adhered  to  in  any  Gothic 
arch  or  molding  as  readily  as  describe  a  circle  with  the  compass. 

Now,  all  this  is  not  science,  but  conceited  ignorance.  No  two 
Grecian  buildings  have  been  found  to  be  alike.  No  one  of  those  which 
have  been  measured  and  delineated  agrees  with  what  are  considered 
the  established  proportions  of  Grecian  architecture.  Each  separate 
edifice  was  designed  for  its  own  specific  purpose^  and  with  reference  to 
its  peculiar  location  and  circumstances.  So  far  as  those  purposes  and 
circumstances  coincide  with  ours,  the  buildings  are  as  suitable  for  us 
as  for  their  original  possessors,  and  no  further. 

In  the  best  Gothic,  of  all  its  many  styles  and  periods,  there  is  still 
greater  variety.  Not  only  do  the  buildings  possess  each  its  own 
character,  but  in  the  same  structure  the  minor  details  show  the 
peculiarities  of  the  different  artificers,  so  that,  in  some  instances, 
scores  of  capitals  in  the  same  ranges  of  columns,  all  harmonizing  in 
general  form,  show  each  a  new  design  in  the  detail  of  decoration. 

Says  Kuskin:*  "It  is  one  of  the  chief  virtues  of  the  Gothic  builders 
that  they  never  suffered  ideas  of  outside  symmetries  and  consistencies 
to  interfere  with  the  real  use  and  value  of  what  they  did.  If  they 
wanted  a  window,  they  opened  one;  a  room  they  added  one  ;  a  buttress 
they  built  one ;  utterly  regardless  of  any  established  conventionalities 
of  external  appearance,  knowing  (as  indeed  it  always  happened)  that 
^uch  daring  interruptions  of  the  formal  plan  would  rather  give  addi- 
tional interest  to  its  symmetry  than  injure  it." 

The  original  architecture  of  Egypt,  Greece,  Rome,  Venice,  and 
Northern  Europe,  differ  widely  from  each  other  in  regard  to  forms, 
materials,  scientific  construction,  perfection  of  finish,  and  harmony 
and  grandeur  of  effect.  But  they  are  all  true  to  the  one  principle  of 
faithfully  employing  all  the  means  and  skill  possible  for  the  very  pur- 
poses which,  in  each  single  instance,  were  to  be  accomplished.  This 
variety  and  adaptation,  so  far  from  being  inconsistent  with  noble  archi- 
tecture, is  its  very  life. 

Correct  architecture  is  not  inconsistent  with  true  .economy.  It 
demands  it,  as  essential  to  all  good  building,  although  it  condemns 
any  penny-wise  parsimony,  which  would  withhold  those  things  needed 
to  give  the  house  its  greatest  value,  as  well  as  the  spreading  of  a 
limited  amount  of  means  over  a  great  space  for  show,  instead  of  con- 
centrating it  for  utility.  Nor  is  architecture  proud,  even  in  its  noblest 
works,  it  modestly  keeps  itself  subordinate  to  the  great  purpose,  and 
without  condescention  it  takes  equal  delight  in  the  humblest  dwelling. 

What  is  it?  The  experience  of  others  gathered  for  our  use — thought. 
The  construction  of  our  buildings  so  as  best  to  suit  us,  with  the  very 
best  use  of  the  means  at  hand.  It  is,  in  fact,  doing  what  we  have  to 
do  in  building  just  as  judicious  men  do  any  other  important  business; 
first  determining  exactly  what  we  need,  and  the  means  and  obstacles 
to  its  accomplishment,  and  then  devising  the  best  way  to  make  our 
means  accomplish  our  desires. 

*Stones  of  Venice,  vol.  2,  p.  179. 


SOME   HINTS    UPON   FARM    HOUSES.  403 

One  great  cause  of  poor  building  is  the  careless  way  in  whicli  it  is 
undertaken.  Long  preparation  is  made  for  the  materials,  in  some 
cases,  and  plans  are  early  laid  for  meeting  its  cost,  but  to  the  purpose 
and  character  of  the  house  itself  no  adequate  care  is  given.  Thought, 
the  material  more  valuable  than  all  others  which  enter  into  the  struc- 
ture, is  scantily  bestowed.  How  few  enter  into  any  deliberate  study 
of  their  own  mode  of  domestic  life ;  what  it  is  from  month  to  month ; 
what  are  its  chief  enjoyments ;  and  what  its  inconveniences  and  annoy- 
ances, and  the  causes  whence  they  arise ;  how  it  is  affected  by  the  form 
and  peculiarities  of  their  dwelling,  and  how  its  pleasures  might  be 
enhanced,  or  its  labors  and  discomforts  lessened,  by  a  modification  of 
the  habitation!  A  still  smaller  number  ever  investigate  their  habits 
of  thinking,  the  origin  of  their  opinions  and  prejudices,  or  trace  the 
influence  of  material  objects,  and  especially  of  the  scenes  of  home,  in 
the  formation  of  the  characters  of  children.  Yet,  without  having  given 
this  thought  to  it,  no  man  can  intelligently  determine  the  first  point 
of  size,  form,  or  appearance  of  his  proposed  dwelling. 

The  farmer  says:  "I  can  spend  so  many  hundred  dollars.  I  guess 
that  will  build  me  as  good  a  house  as  Mr.  Smith's."  So  he  goes  to  a 
carpenter  and  bargains  for  his  home  as  he  would  for  a  cart  or  a  plow, 
though  often  with  less  deliberation.  If  anything  like  a  plan  is  drawn 
it  must  be  done  at  once,  so  that  the  work  can  be  begun  without  delay; 
and  crude  and  ill-digested,  with  little  examination,  and  seldom  any 
real  test  of  its  merits,  it  is  adopted,  and  the  household  put  to  constant 
inconvenience  for  their  whole  lives,  in  order  to  hasten  by  a  few  days 
the  erection  of  the  domicil.  The  importance  of  thoroughly  studied 
plans,  before  beginning  to  build,  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged. 
Economy  not  only  demands  that  the  intended  building  should  be  so 
fully  delineated  in  all  its  parts  before  its  commencement,  as  to  prevent 
mistakes,  misunderstandings,  or  omissions,  in  its  execution;  but  it 
also  requires  every  part  to  be  so  carefully  designed  that,  by  no  over- 
sight or  parsimony,  shall  there  be  an  unnecessary  debt  of  life-long 
labor  imposed  on  its  occupants.  Such  things  as  apartments  separated 
which  ought  to  be  close  together,  or' doors  and  pantries  badly  located, 
daily  causing  many  needless  steps  to  the  housekeeper,  year  after  year, 
in  effect  levy  a  perpetual  tax  upon  the  occupants  for  the  heedlessness 
of  the  designer.  If  it  is  the  time  of  servants  which  is  thus  consumed, 
the  tax  is  paid  in  money ;  if  of  his  own  family,  it  is  not  less  burden- 
some. But  the  case  is  worse  when  the  health  is  endangered,  or  cheer- 
fulness and  home  comfort  driven  off,  by  such  thoughtlessness. 

The  first  step  in  fixing  upon  a  design,  the  determination  of  one's 
own  wants,  is  the  most  difficult  of  all;  the  one  requiring  most  time  ; 
the  one  adding  most  value  to  the  house,  and  yet  the  one  most  neglected. 
Before  a  man  can  intelligently  decide  what  kind  of  house  he  will  build, 
he  must  know  what  he  needs,  why  he  needs  it,  and  what  of  his  neces- 
sities are  most  imperative ;  for  planning  of  houses  is  but  a  choice  of 
sacrifices.  No  one  ever  yet  comprised  all  the  advantages  which  were 
desired,  some  of  which  must,  in  any  case,  be  given  up.  The  owner 
ought  always  to  have  determined  in  what  order  they  shall  be  yielded, 
before  any  idea  of  exterior  size  or  form  shall  have  been  entertained  by 
him.     This  is  requisite  also  in  order  that  we  may  rigidly  exclude  from 


404  AGRICULTURAL   RERORT. 

our  plan  everything  that  does  not  meet  some  useful  purpose  of  our 
own,  for  whatever  is  superfluous  is  both  wasteful  and  positively  detri- 
mental. 

"  But,"  says  one,  'Hhat  is  too  strict  a  rule.  It  would  cut  off  every- 
thing that  makes  houses  pleasant,  or  gives  them  beauty,  and  leave 
them  bare,  unsightly  boxes."  Not  so,  unless  you  take  a  very  narrow 
view  of  the  purposes  consistent  with  the  most  perfect  domestic  enjoy- 
ment. Not  unless  all  is  superfluity  and  luxury  beyond  sustaining  an 
animal  subsistence  and  saving  money.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
enjoyment  of  thought  and  feeling,  the  cultivation  and  refinements  of 
the  intellect  and  tastes,  are  consistent  with  daily  duty,  then  the  house 
may  with  propriety  be  made  to  contribute  its  aid  to  those  ends. 

It  is  for  each  man  about  to  build  to  determine  for  himself  what  pur- 
poses it  is  most  desirable  to  accomplish.  A  few,  however,  of  those 
common  to  all  country  residences  may  be  profitably  examined  in  detail. 

All  efforts  to  make  a  pleasant  dwelling  will  be,  in  a  great  measure, 
thrown  away  unless  its  position  is  chosen  wisely,  and  even  then  care 
must  be  taken  to  overcome  whatever  may  be  its  natural  defects,  and  to 
make  all  its  advantages  available. 

It  must,  first,  have  a  wholesome  air.  Observation  shows  that  there 
are  few  large  tracts  of  ground  in  any  part  of  the  country  without  un- 
healthy portions,  and  that  the  distance  between  a  location  where  the 
residents  shall  enjoy  perfect  health  and  one  quite  the  reverse  is  often 
very  small.  It  may  not  be  practicable  to  determine  the  reason  of  this, 
nor  the  j^robability  of  the  existence  of  miasma  at  any  special  point, 
without  the  learning  and  skill  of  a  medical  man.  If  so,  his  counsel 
should  certainly  be  had,  for  it  is  not  prudent  to  fix  upon  a  site  until 
its  perfect  healthfulness  is  made  sure. 

To  secure  a  good  atmosphere,  even  where  are  no  miasmatic  influences, 
there  must  be  ground  near  the  house  lower  than  that  on  which  it 
stands,  where  the  heavy  vapors  may  gather  by  their  own  gravitation. 
Every  one  has  seen  the  fogs  filling  a  valley  like  a  lake  in  an  autumn 
night,  completely  enveloping  the  dwellings,  and  gradually  ascending 
till  they  are  dissipated  by  the  rising  sun,  while  the  residents  upon  the 
hill-sides  enjoy  their  customary  dry  and  invigorating  air.  The  same 
process  goes  on  at  all  seasons,  though  the  heavy  and  noxious  vapors 
are  only  visible  at  certain  times. 

A  site  on  rising  ground  is  also  desirable  to  secure  dryness  around 
the  house.  There  may  possibly  be  farms  on  which  there  is  no  spot 
that  can  be  made  dry  and  hard  at  all  times,  but  it  is  difiicult  to  believe 
that  such  a  farm  can  be  fit  to  live  on.  If  there  are  any  virtues  in  under- 
drainage,  it  certainly  will  pay  to  appropriate  them  in  the  fullest  man- 
ner rather  than  suffer  the  inconvenience  of  mud,  and  ice,  and  filfcli 
constantly  lying  in  the  path.  There  are  houses  where  the  labor 
imposed  on  the  housekeeper  by  muddy  paths,  in  a  single  season,  is 
more  than  would  suffice  to  make  them  thoroughly  and  permanently 
dry. 

The  site  for  the  homestead  should  be  so  chosen  as  to  facilitate,  as 
much  as  possible,  the  labors  of  the  farm.  Some  houses  seem  to  be 
located  for  the  convenience  of  pedlars,  so  near  the  public  highway  as 
to  receive  the  dust  thrown  up  by  every  passing  vehicle.     As  the  farm- 


SOME   HINTS   UPON   FARM   HOUSES.  405 

house  and  tlie  otlier  buildings  adjacent  are  tlie  center  of  the  farm 
operations,  it  would  seem  more  reasonable  to  locate  them  with  reference 
to  the  work  to  be  done  and  their  daily  use,  rather  than  their  occasional 
access  from  abroad.  A  house  standing  a  moderate  distance  from  the 
public  road  certainly  wears  the  appearance  of  independence  and  home- 
likeness,  and  indicates  a  family  living  comfortably  by  themselves, 
beyond  public  intrusion.  , 

Nor  should  the  builder  overlook  any  advantages  of  prospect,  or 
beauty  of  situation,  which  may  be  available,  either  to  make  his  house 
pleasant  to  its  occupants,  or  more  agreeable  to  observers.  There  are 
many  old  residences^,  and  not  a  few  new  ones,  located  in  some  low  and 
unpleasant  spot,  where  there  is  little  to  cheer  the  eye  from  within,  and 
less  to  render  the  place  attractive  from  without,  for  some  half-consid- 
ered and  mistaken  notion  of  money-saving,  when  near  by  a  site  offers 
the  advantages  of  beauty  which  the  other  lacks.  And  generally  it  will 
be  found  that  the  most  agreeable  site  will  be  the  most  economical  one. 

There  is  one  consideration,  in  connection  with  the  matter  of  prospect 
and  appearance,  that  seems  often  to  be  neglected.  If  a  railroad  hap- 
pens to  pass  in  sight,  its  trains,  as  they  flash  by,  showing  nothing  but 
the  same  black  engine  and  yellow  box-like  cars,  day  after  day,  people 
seem  to  think  that  because  they  see  no  passengers  there  are  none  to 
see  them,  and  so  put  the  unsightly  side  of  their  houses  toward  the 
the  track,  to  be  seen  by  hundreds,  and  the  best  front  toward  the  high- 
way, traveled  by  a  few  scattering  neighbors. 

One  of  the  first  and  most  important  things  to  be  regarded  in  the 
selection  of  a  situation,  is  the  supply  of  water  for  the  family  use.  To 
those  who  have  enjoyed  such  advantages,  it  is  unnecessary  to  suggest 
the  increased  value  given  to  any  plot  by  a  living  spring  of  pure  water, 
in  such  a  location  that  it  may  be  readily  conveyed  into  the  house,  or 
be  driven  there  by  the  tireless  energy  of  a  hydraulic  ram.  Men,  who 
have  never  known  this  comfort,  often  look  with  astonishment  upon 
what  they  consider  the  extravagant  expenditures  made  by  their  neigh- 
bors to  accomplish  this  object ;  but  a  proper  estimate  of  the  labor  wasted 
in  carrying  water  from  a  distant  spring  in  pails,  or  drawing  it  from 
wells  with  a  clumsy  sweep,  and  the  losses  resulting  from  the  want  of 
it  in  abundance,  would  show  that  their  own  course  is  less  thrifty.  If, 
bowever,  there  is  no  source  from  which  a  supply  can  be  drawn,  except 
by  manual  labor,  there  is  no  way  so  cheap  as  pumping ;  and  the  man 
who  cannot  have  running  water,  is  inexcusable  if  there  is  not  a  ser- 
viceable and  easy  iron  pump  by  the  side  of  his  kitchen  sink,  unless  the 
fountain  on  which  he  must  depend  is  too  distant  or  too  low  for  the 
successful  operation  of  a  pump.  The  case  is  then,  indeed,  unfortunate; 
but,  after  all,  not  so  bad  as  many  contrive  to  make  it. 

If  a  well  must  be  resorted  to,  it  is  worth  some  pains  to  make  it  a 
pleasant^  safe,  and  comparatively  easy  source  of  water  supply,  nor  is 
it  a  difficult  task  to  accomplish.  A  well-house  may  be  constructed  so 
as  not  to  be  very  burdensome  in  cost,  though  greatly  superior  to  the 
arrangement  of  most  wells.  Let  it  be  large  enough  to  afford  a  pro- 
tected space  on  the  floor  for  the  drawer.  Let  it  have  a  safe  curb,  and 
a  spout  opening  into  a  tray,  where  the  pail  may  be  placed,  so  arranged 
that  any  superfluous  water  shall  be  conducted  off  without  covering  a 


406  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

considerable  area  around  witli  mud  in  summer,  or  ice  in  winter.  For 
raising  the  water,  the  best  arrangement  is  a  counterweighted  windlass 
overhead,  or  a  swivel-pulley,  and  two  buckets.  If  not  too  far  removed 
from  the  house,  this  seems  to  reduce  the  inconvenience  of  an  open  well 
to  the  smallest  degree,  and  may  be  made  a  pleasing  and  ornamental 
feature  of  a  homestead. 

The  use  of  rain  water  for  all  the  purposes  of  a  family  is  becomino- 
more  common  throughout  the  country.  It  has  the  advantages  of  free- 
dom from  earthy  impurities,  and  a  supply  irrespective  of  location.  The 
roof  on  which  it  is  collected  must  be  of  such  material  as  not  to  injure 
the  water.  The  cistern  should  be  large  enough  to  hold  a  store  for 
times  of  drought,  and  the  water  should  be  filtered  as  it  enters  the 
cistern,  and  after  it  is  drawn  from  it,  though  the  latter  filtering  is  often 
dispensed  with.  *  Of  course,  with  a  rain-water  cistern,  it  would  be 
folly  not  to  have  a  cast-iron  kitchen  pump. 

The  supply  of  water  involves  the  necessity  of  drainage.  There  are 
hundreds  of  farm-houses  whose  back  doors  are  passed  in  winter  only  at 
the  risk  of  falls  and  bruises.  The  latest  ice  which  departs  in  the  spring 
is  the  solid  mass  formed  by  the  accumulated  waste  of  a  whole  season, 
poured  from  the  threshold.  In  summer,  instead  of  being  fragrant  with 
flowers,  the  place  is  redolent  of  evaporating  soapsuds. 

Now,  if  no  other  disposition  can  be  made  of  this  waste  water  than 
to  let  it  soak  into  the  earth,  it  is  better  that  it  should  do  so  elsewhere 
than  just  under  the  kitchen  windows,  or  before  the  entrance  door.  An 
underground  drain  can  be  formed  to  a  cess-pool  without  any  great  cost 
or  labor,  if  it  cannot  find  an  outlet  where  its  contents  shall  enrich  a 
hill-side.  Into  this  drain  should  lead  a  pipe  from  the  kitchen  sink, 
and  in  some  convenient  place  there  should  be  an  opening  for  emptying 
wash-tubs,  &c.,  both  protected  by  stench-traps,  which  are  only  such 
bends  in  a  pipe  that  water  sufficient  to  fill  it  shall  be  retained  for  a 
little  space,  preventing  the  passage  of  foul  air. 

Provision  is  also  to  be  made  for  carrying  off  the  rain  water  which 
falls  on  or  around  the  house,  so  that  it  shall  neither  form  gullies  nor 
stand  in  pools.  Except  in  rare  cases,  eave-gutters  seem  indispensable, 
even  where  the  rain  water  is  not  conveyed  to  a  cistern. 

In  many  locations,  the  natural  moisture  of  the  soil  is  such  that^ 
unless  otherwise  drawn  off,  it  will  descend  into  the  cellar,  which,  in 
that  case,  must  itself  be  drained  by  some  means  to  render  it  valuable. 
So  obvious  a  fact  it  would  be  almost  ridiculous  to  mention,  if  there  were 
not  so  many  cellars  unnecessarily  flooded  year  after  year. 

*The  filtering  cistern  may  be  made  with  a  partition  wall,  (a,)  pierced  at  the  bottom  with 
several  apertures.  A  wall,  (&,)  on  each  side  of  the  partition  affords  a  space  to  be  filled  with 
pure,  broken  charcoal,  alternating  with  clean  gravel.  The 
water  first  enters  one  compartment  of  the  cistern,  and  is 
pumped  out  of  the  other.  A  level  is,  of  course,  maintained  on 
both  sides,  without  a  violent  current  through  the  filter,  or  dan- 
ger of  overflow  in  heavy  showers.  But  it  is  difficult  to  change 
the  charcoal,  or  to  restore  it,  if  displaced,  except  when  the 
water  is  low.  A  plan,  better  on  some  accounts,  is  to  have  the 
rain  enter  the  cistern  through  a  cask  or  box,  sunk  in  the  ground, 
having  a  pipe  from  its  bottom,  the  orifice  of  which  is  covered 
by  wire  gauze,  or  a  course  sponge,  with  charcoal  kept  in  place 
by  gravel  over  it. 


SOME   HINTS   UPON   FARM    HOUSES. 


407 


Another  thing  for  which  provision  is  to  be  made  in  every  house  is, 
a  sure  and  constant  supply  of  pure  air  throughout  the  building.  The 
want  of  this  is  most  obvious  in  cellars,  where  are  natwally  collected 
the  heavy  gases  and  vapors  from  the  house,  to  which  are  added  many 
noxious  emanations  from  decaying  vegetable  matter,  giving  the  air  a 
peculiar  cellar-like  odor.  But,  though  the  air  of  the  cellar  is  commonly 
dense  and  heavy,  there  may  be  light  gases  generated  there,  which, 
ascending  through  the  house,  may  produce  sickness,  the  cause  of  which 
shall  not  be  understood.  It  is,  therefore,  important  that  every  such 
place  should  be  often  cleansed,  and  that  there  should  be  means  of  thor^ 
oughly  and  frequently  changing  its  atmosphere. 

Whenever  water  is  seen  to  stand  on  walls  or  windows,  either  as 
dampness  or  frost,  it  surely  indicates  a  moist  condition  of  the  air  of  the 
room.  With  perfect  ventilation,  this  evidence  of  vapors  should  never 
appear.  It  may  not  be  practicable  to  attain  to  entire  success,  but,  so 
far  as  possible,  the  air  of  every  room  should,  by  steady  changes,  be 
kept  as  pure  as  that  outside  the  walls. 

The  steams  of  the  kitchen  and  wash-room  should  be  at  once  conducted 
off,  and  never  allowed  to  penetrate  any  other  portion  of  the  house. 

Especially  is  pure  air  needed  in  sleeping  rooms.  It  is  important  for 
the  farmer  that  this  should  be  attended  to  in  all  the  dormitories  of  his 
establishment,  in  such  a  way  that  the  supply  shall  not  depend  on  the 
judgment  of  the  occupants.  K  he  doubts  this,  let  him  spend  a  sum- 
mer night  at  some  road-side  tavern,  and  when  he  wakes  in  the  morn- 
ing, dull  and  languid  from  sleeping  in  a  close,  hot  room,  let  him  say 
whether  it  pays  to  lodge  the  laborers  who  are  to  do  his  work  in  such 
places. 

It  is  important,  both  for  the  maintenance  of  pure  air  and  the  preser- 
vation of  the  timbers  from  rot,  that  there  should  be  a  considerable  space 
between  the  floor  and  the  earth,  under  the  whole  extent  of  a  house. 
Such  portion  of  this  area  as  is  requisite  will  be  used  for  a  cellar,  and 
the  rest,  in  cold  climates,  should  be  so  arranged  that  it  may  be  entirely 
inclosed,  or  opened  at  places  for  a  circulation  of  air  at  pleasure.  In 
the  Southern  States  it  is  found  advantageous  to  have  this  space  left 
as  open  as  possible,  by  supporting  the  house  on  scattered  piers,  allowing 


408  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

a  constant  draft  below  the  floors.     This  tends  both  to  cool  the  house 
and  to  carry  off  any  offensive  exhalations  from  the  ground  underneath. 

An  indispensable  requisite  of  every  good  dwelling  is  protection 
against  external  heat  and  cold.  The  walls,  floors,  and  roof,  must  be 
so  tight  as  to  exclude  the  winds  and  cut  off  all  unwelcome  drafts  of 
chilly  air.  They  must,  also,  be  so  constructed  as  to  retain  the  heat 
within  in  winter,  and  to  exclude  it  in  summer.  The  chimneys  and 
fireplaces  are  to  be  constructed  so  as  to  burn  economically  such  kinds 
of  fuel  as  the  circumstances  of  the  locality  render  most  expedient. 
Their  position  and  number  should  be  such  as  to  accommodate  all  the 
looms  where  fires  are  wanted. 

Too  little  light  is  admitted  to  our  dwellings.  Even  in  those  which 
are  brightest,  the  doctors  say  there  is  not  enough  of  direct  sunshine. 
To  prevent  the  fading  of  carpets,  or  for  other  reasons,  low  and  small 
windows,  green  blinds,  and  one  or  more  thicknesses  of  curtain,  are  all 
made  use  of  to  render  our  rooms  as  dim  and  dismal  as  possible. 

We  pity  the  palid  and  sickly  children  of  poverty  in  cities,  crowded 
into  overflowing  tenement  houses,  which  tower  high  beside  narrow 
alleys,  where  sunshine  never  penetrates,  or  sympathize  with  the  pris- 
oners sighing  in  dark  dungeons.  Why  is  the  darkness  worse  to  them 
than  to  those  delicate  young  ladies  who  are  always  thickly  veiled  when 
they  go  out  of  doors  by  day,  and  from  whose  rooms  the  bright  sunlight 
is  at  all  times  studiously  excluded?  Their  chalky  countenances  and 
imperfect  eyesight  attest  the  results  of  the  practice.  It  is  said  by  good 
authority  that  the  superior  healthfulness  of  the  English  women,  and 
the  retention  of  their  beauty  to  a  period  of  life  much  later  than  that  at 
which  nearly  all  American  ladies  fade,  is  owing  not  less  to  their  ex- 
posure to  sunlight  than  to  their  enjoyment  of  the  open  air.  Light  was 
the  first  day's  work  of  creation.  It  is  a  sin — a  sin  against  light — to  shun 
it  and  exclude  it.     Let  us  have  large  windows,  and  enough  of  them. 

But,  though  we  want  light  and  sunshine,  it  is  not  necessary  that  we 
should  endure  the  latter,  with  its  accompanying  heat,  at  all  times  of 
the  day  or  year,  and  on  every  side  of  our  dwellings.  In  those  direc- 
tions exposed  to  the  sun's  rays  in  the  hottest  part  of  the  day  there 
should  be  some  protection.  A  verandah  shading  the  walls  will  do 
much  toward  moderating  the  heat  within  the  house.  It  also  shelters 
the  windows  from  storms,  permitting  them  to  remain  open  through 
summer  showers,  and  affords  a  cool  and  pleasant  place  for  sitting  in 
the  evening,  unexposed  to  the  unwholesome  influences  of  the  falling 
dew.  Verandas  have  always  been  characteristic  features  of  southern 
houses.  In  more  northern  regions  they  are  to  be  used  more  sparingly; 
but  in  the  right  place,  and  to  a  proper  extent,  they  are  there  none  the 
less  useful  or  desirable. 

It  is  always  desirable  to  have  the  interior  division  and  arrangement 
such  that  each  apartment  shall  be  well  fitted  for  its  appropriate  uses, 
and  that  all  shall  be  so  connected  and  placed  as  to  bring  together  those 
between  which  passage  is  most  frequent.  It  ought  to  be  practicable  to 
pass  from  any  one  room  to  any  other  without  going  through  a  third, 
and  without  waste  of  room  in  passageways.  What  halls  are  needed, 
if  made  spacious,  contribute  much,  in  warm  weather,  to  the  coolness 
and  pleasantness  of  a  dwelling,  by  affording  through  currents  of  air. 


SOME   HINTS  UPON   FARM   HOUSES.  409 

Tliey  sliould,  however,  "be  made  so  that  these  currents  may  be  cut  off 
when  desired.  If  too  large,  they  add  to  the  labor  of  a  family,  and 
increase  the  trouble  of  warming  the  house. 

Contrary  to  a  too  common  practice,  the  kitchen  is  to  be  considered 
the  most  important  apartment  of  a  farm  house,  as  on  the  perfection 
of  its  arrangements  depends  much  of  the  comfort  of  a  family.  It 
ought  to  be  large  enough  for  the  easy  performance  of  all  the  work 
that  is  to  be  done  there,  without  unnecessary  magnitude.  All  its 
accessories  should  be  arranged  around  it  in  the  most  convenient  man- 
ner, and  the  whole  must  be  adapted  to  the  pursuits,  the  habits,  and 
the  peculiar  notions  of  the  housewife.  If  she  personally  superintends 
her  own  work,  or  does  a  large  share  of  it  with  her  own  hands,  as  most 
farmers  and  mechanics'  wives  do,  there  should  be  a  ready  communica- 
tion with  the  ordinary  sitting-room,  or  the  one  where  her  time  is 
mostly  spent,  that  neither  time  nor  steps  may  be  wasted  when  she  is 
suddenly  called  from  one  room  to  another  by  her  multifarious  labors. 
The  place  where  crockery  is  washed  should  be  near  the  closet  where  it 
is  kept,  and  not  far  from  the  entrance  to  the  eating-room  where  it  is 
used.  The  pantry  where  provisions  are  stored  ought  to  be  close  to  the 
table  where  they  are  prepared  for  cooking,  but  so  far  as  possible  cut 
off  from  the  kitchen  steams,  and  provided  with  its  own  means  of 
ventilation.  The  secret  of  the  ease  with  which  some  women  accom- 
plish so  much  more  than  their  neighbors  may,  in  part,  be  found  in 
such  little  plans  for  economizing  labor  as  these. 

If  servants  are  depended  upon  for  the  work,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
provide  a  storeroom,  where  provisions  may  be  kept  under  lock.  It  is 
better  to  have  an  entrance  other  than  from  the  kitchen,  with,  perhaps, 
a  small  window  for  the  serving  out  of  stores.  It  should  be  lighted 
and  ventilated,  and  capacious  enough  for  convenient  arrangement  of 
provisions,  and,  generally,  is  best  located  in  the  coolest  corner  of  the 
house.  In  such  a  household,  too,  it  is  better  to  separate  the  kitchen 
from  any  other  apartment  by  at  least  two  doors. 

The  supply  and  kind  of  fuel  will  control  the  form  of  the  kitchen 
fire-place.  Appliances  for  baking  and  boiling,  with  a  constant  supply 
of  hot  water,  are,  of  course,  essential  in  any  event.  Whether  to  these 
are  to  be  added  conveniences  for  roasting  meats,  and  other  operations 
by  an  open  fire,  for  boiling  clothes,  heating  irons,  &c.,  is  a  matter  to 
be  determined  before  building.  If  the  family  washing  is  to  be  done  in 
the  kitchen,  as  is  often  the  case,  not  only  the  fire-place,  but  the  whole 
kitchen  should  be  contrived  with  reference  to  it,  so  that  the  tubs,  the 
ironing-table,  and  the  drying-horse,  shall  interfere  as  little  as  possible 
with  the  every-day  operations  there  carried  on.  But  it  is  always 
better,  if  practicable,  even  in  the  smallest  dwellings,  and  frequently  is 
more  economical  in  the  first  instance,  to  have  a  distinct  room  for 
washing,  having  its  own  fire-place,  with  boiler  set  in  brick-work,  and 
its  own  drain.  This  will  be  found  very  convenient  for  many  other 
than  laundry  affairs,  which  otherwise  would  interfere  sadly  with  the 


410 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


daily  routine  of  tlie  kitclien.*  Such  a  room  need  be  neither  large  nor 
■expensively  furnished. 

On  a  dairy  farm,  unless  so  extensive  as  to  justify  an  entirely  dis- 
tinct establishment,  there  will  be  much  additional  work  to  be  done  in 
the  kitchen,  affecting  the  dimensions  proper  to  be  adopted,  and  the 
arrangement  of  its  appendages.  The  store-room  will  need  to  be  larger, 
or  there  must  be  another  room  specially  devoted  to  the  dairy,  in  a  cool 
position,  and  capable  of  being  at  the  same  time  darkened  and  ven- 
tilated. 

A  cellar  is  needed  for  the  storage  of  many  articles  which  must  have 
a  cool  or  moist  air  for  their  preservation.  Though  the  construction  of 
the  cellar  is  seldom  the  subject  of  much  care,  and  its  qualities  are 
looked  upon  as  matters  of  luck,  there  are  some  things  worth  attending 
to,  which  will  materially  affect  its  value.  Its  ventilation  and  drain- 
age have  been  already  mentioned.  In  the  cellar  is  oftenest  felt  the 
need  of  a  protection,  which  should  extend  throughout  the  building, 
against  the  inroads  of  rats  and  mice.  The  division  and  fitting  up  of 
this  part  of  a  house  should  be,  with  reference  to  convenience  of  getting 
in  provisions,  without  needless  or  dangerous  obstruction  to  those  who 
shall  have  occasion  to  explore  its  dark  recesses.  The  inside  stairs 
should  be  from  the  kitchen,  or  contiguous  to  it ;  and,  for  facility  of 
frequent  cleansing,  there  must  also  be  an  entrance  on  the  outside, 
or  from  a  wood-room. 

There  are  men  who,  year  after  year,  leave  their  fuel  scattered  around 
the  house,  to  be  wet  with  every  rain,  and  only  to  be  cut  up  as  wanted 
for  daily  use.  As  such  persons  will  not  be  likely  to  read  suggestions 
for  improving  their  mode  of  life,  there  is  no  occasion  here  to  urge  the 
importance  of  wood-houses ;  but  the  hint  may  be  in  place  that  the 
wood-house  should  have  a  covered  connection  with  the  kitchen,  and 
that  under  its  roof  may  be  located  the  tool  closet,  outer  cellar, 
stair-way,  and  other  conveniences,  to  the  increase  of  both  the  comfort 
and  health  of  the  family. 

The  eating-room  may  be  considered  a  place  where  the  necessary 
amount  of  food  may  be  swallowed  with  the  least  loss  of  time  ;  and,  in 


*  Figure  3  is  the  plan  of  a  kitchen-wing  of 
moderate  accommodations.  The  kitchen  itself 
is  perfectly  symmetrical,  and  connects  on  one 
side  with  a  closet,  hall,  cellarway,  and  one  of 
the  front  rooms.  On  the  other  side  are  a  dish 
pantry,  with  sink,  a  store  pantry  beyond,  and 
a  wash-room  behind  the  side  entry  and  back 
staircase,  with  oven  and  clothes-boiler.  In 
this  case  the  kitchen  is  relieved  of  much  of  its 
most  troublesome  work,  and  would  be  a  very 
pleasant  room. 


Fig.  3. 


SOME   HINTS   UPON   FARM   HOUSES.  411 

this  case,  tlie  table  is  very  likely  to  be  set,  not  in  a  distinct  room,  but 
as  near  where  the  food  is  cooked  as  possible  ;  or,  it  may  be  recognized 
as  the  gathering  place  of  the  family  where,  at  regular  seasons,  all  the 
members  come  together  to  enjoy,  not  alone  the  pleasures  of  appetite, 
but  the  higher  and  more  lasting  ones  of  social  intercourse.  From  the 
custom  of  the  family  in  this  respect  may  be  judged  much  of  their 
character.  If  the  anticipations  of  mealtime  are  connected  with  any 
other  enjoyment  than  such  as  the  cattle  may  have,  in  common  with 
their  keepers,  it  is  desirable  to  make  the  room  as  pleasant  as  prac- 
ticable, to  escape  the  effluvia  of  the  kitchen,  as  well  as  to  avoid  the 
necessity  of  hurrying  the  repast  to  make  room  for  kitchen-work. 

The  dwelling  is  to  furnish  proper  apartments  for  lodging  all  the 
members  of  the  household,  and  such  provision  for  the  accommodation 
of  occasional  guests  as  may  be  expedient.  The  amount  of  space  devoted 
to  sleeping-rooms  must  be  regulated  much  by  the  means  of  the  builder. 
There  is  a  wide  range,  in  this  respect,  from  the  house  where  each  indi- 
vidual occupies  a  separate  apartment  to  the  one  in  which  there  are  beds 
in  all  the  rooms.  It  needs  no  argument  to  show  the  undesirableness 
of  using,  at  night,  rooms  devoted  to  the  common  household  purposes 
during  the  day.  All  bed  rooms,  whether  occupied  by  one  or  more  per- 
sons, should  be  easily  and  safely  accessible,  airy,  well  lighted,  and  so 
finished  as  to  be  protected  from  external  heat  and  cold. 

To  none  more  than  to  those  engaged  in  agricultural  occupations  is 
the  frequent  use  of  the  bath  essential,  on  the  score  both  of  health  and 
comfort.  The  room  required  is  so  small,  and  the  expense  may  be  so  light, 
that  a  bath  room  in  a  farm-house  seems  hardly  to  be  a  matter  of  choice. 
Of  course,  the  extravagant  conveniences  of  city  mansions,  with  the 
luxury  of  cedar  and  marble,  carpets,  and  hot  air,  with  hot  and  cold 
water  running  at  the  touch,  from  silvered  pipes,  are  not  to  be  had 
without  proportionate  cost,  as  well  as  great  trouble  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  house^  and  some  danger  from  leaks.  But  a  plain  bath-tub,  to 
be  filled,  and  perhaps  emptied,  by  hand,  in  a  small  room  on  the  ground 
floor  of  the  house,  or  one  of  its  appendages,,  is  within  the  means  of 
a  house  builder.  If  once  put  in,  and  fairly  tried,  it  will  not  be  removed 
hy  advice  of  the  family  physician. 

The  first  demand  which  ladies  make,  when  they  begin  to  talk  about 
a  new  residence,  is  for  closets.  They  want  pantries  for  their  kitchen 
implements  and  stores,  of  course.  There  must  be  large  clothes-presses, 
in  connection  with  the  sleeping  rooms,  especially  those  of  the  feminine 
part  of  the  household,  for  their  wardrobe  is  expansive  in  these  times. 
Then^  there  are  the  blankets  and  quilts  to  be  stowed  in  the  summer, 
besides  a  thousand  things  which  have  to  be  kept,  but  are  seldom,  or 
never  used,  altogether  making  a  great  deal  of  room  for  such  purposes 
that  must  be  found  somewhere.  This  looks  like  a  little  matter,  but, 
as  usual,  the  ladies  are  right.  There  are  few  things  that  add  more  to 
the  comfort  of  a  residence  than  proper  conveniences  of  this  kind^  and 
the  skill  of  the  designer  is  exhibited  in  the  economical  provision  for  this 
want  as  often  as  in  the  magnificence  of  the  parlor,  or  the  symmetry  of 
the  exterior. 

So  far,  we  have  considered  only  such  things  as  pertain  to  physical  com- 
fort. All  these  features  would  be  desired  though  the  house  were  not  to  be 
occupied  by  a  single  individual  who  had  an  idea  or  an  aspiration  beyond 


412  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

his  mere  bodily  enjoyment,  or  knew  tliat  life  had  any  duties  or  pleasures 
higher  than  eating,  sleeping,  and  avoiding  pain,  and  overmuch  labor. 
But  there  are  duties  as  well  as  enjoyments  of  a  higher  nature  than 
these  clustering  around  a  family  home.  Here  is  the  center  of  all  the 
best  associations  of  life.  Here  the  education  of  the  rising  family  is  to 
be  mainly  conducted,  and  the  foundation  laid  of  the  character  which, 
for  good  or  ill,  is  to  continue  through  life.  It  is  important  that  obsta- 
cles to  its  best  development  should  be  removed,  and  whatever  of  assist- 
ance in  this  work  may  be  derived  from  the  objects  of  daily  familiarity 
should  be  secured.    * 

In  this  respect,  the  dwelling  has  a  double  function  to  perform — con- 
tributing to  the  enjoyment,  and  aiding  in  the  education  of  its  inmates. 

In  all  things  it  should  be  made  as  attractive  and  cheerful  as  possi- 
ble. Whatever  promotes  convenience,  also  tends  in  this  direction,  but 
much  may  be  secured  by  attention  to  the  apparently  minor  details  of 
arrangement. 

Every  point  and  portion  of  the  structure  should  be  consistent  with 
truthfulness.  The  art  which  obscures  unpleasant  features,  or  makes 
prominent  those  more  agreeable,  which  copies  a  natural  form  for  its 
beauty,  or  paints  a  surface  a  hue  pleasing  to  the  eye_,  which  would 
otherwise  be  harsh  and  objectionable,  is  never  out  of  place.  But  the 
deceitful  artifice  which  represents  any  object  to  be  that  which  it  is  not, 
or  which  in  any  way  violates  the  most  downright  sincerity,  ought  to 
be  offensive  to  the  adult,  and  is  always  dangerous  to  the  young.  It 
is  consistent  neither  with  good  taste  nor  good  morals — never  in  oppo- 
sition to  each  other. 

The  various  labors  and  occupations  carried  on  by  the  members  of 
the  household  should  have  apartments  and  accommodations  suitable 
to  each,  and  so  contrived  that  they  may  not  interfere  with  one  another. 
The  sewing  of  the  family  can  be  done  in  the  kitchen,  but  it  certainly 
is  not  the  best  arrangement,  if  a  light  and  pleasant  room  can  be  used 
elsewhere  without  the  necessity  of  entirely  removing  work  every  time 
it  is  laid  down  for  a  moment.  Such  a  room,  if  used  as  a  family  sitting 
room,  should  have  whatever  advantages  of  pleasant  prospect  the  site 
may  afford.  It  should  be  a  quiet  place,  undisturbed  by  any  of  the 
more  active  avocations  of  the  family.  In  many  families  there  is  but  one 
such  room,  and  in  it  those  who  read  and  those  who  work,  and  the  younger 
ones  who  try  to  study,  as  well  as  those  who  play,  all  are  grouped  to- 
gether, some  disturbed  and  confused  by  the  noise  around  them,  or  the 
rest  silent,  solemn,  and  stupid.     There  is  no  cheerfulness  in  this. 

There  was  a  low,  brown  house,  on  a  bleak  and  rocky  hill,  just  at  the 
outer  edge  of  a  Massachusetts  school  district.  Its  front  entrance  was 
pcT'petually  closed,  but  at  one  end  the  door  opened  directly  into  the 
large,  low,  dingy  kitchen,  dimly  lighted  by  a  single  small  window, 
opposite  to  which,  stretching  its  huge  dimensions  along  the  side,  was 
the  j^awning  fireplace,  roughly  built  of  stone,  with  a  blazing  fire  of 
green  wood  in  one  end.  Between  the  two  stood  the  tea  table,  spread 
with  all  imaginable  and  unimaginable  farm  dainties,  awaiting  the 
arrival  of  the  schoolmaster  at  his  temporary  home,  in  his  routine  of 
"boarding  round." 

When  the  table  had  been  removed,  a  stand  was  brought  for  his 
ppecial  service,  from  the  best  room,  to  hold  the  sputtering,  dripping, 


SOME    HINTS   UPON   FARM    HOUSES.  413 

dipped  tallow  candle,  hj  whose  feeble  light  he  painfully  perused  his 
book.  The  two  lads,  his  pupils,  not  allowed  to  profit  by  the  unusual 
extravagance  of  two  candles,  were  left  to  seek  their  illumination  from 
the  blaze  of  the  hickory  on  the  hearth  or  the  candle  on  the  high  shelf 
above.  By  the  same  light  the  father  whittled  out  rake-teeth,  and  the 
mother  patiently  worked  at  the  week's  mending,  only  occasionally 
stopping  to  try  to  still  the  cries  of  some  of  the  younger  children,  who 
rolled  and  tumbled  promiscuously  over  the  hearth,  and  in  and  out  of 
the  capacious  fireplace. 

Is  it  any  wonder  that  those  boys  dreaded  the  approach  of  evening ; 
that  they  preferred  the  sunny  side  of  the  barn  to  the  house,  and  the 
companionship  of  their  favorite  cattle  and  colts  to  that  found  around 
the  family  hearth  ;  or  that  they  ranked  at  school  among  the  dull 
scholars;  or  that  they  learned  no  lessons  at  home? 

They  did  learn  lessons  at  home,  however,  which  a  long  lifetime 
would  not  efiace  nor  wholly  counteract,  but  they  were  not  such  as 
were  read  in  their  books  by  those  who  taught  them. 

It  would  not  be  so  easy  to  draw  the  companion  picture  from  the  life. 
May  we  not  hope  that  fit  subjects  will  be  more  frequently  found  in  the 
future  than  in  the  past  ? 

A  mature  and  disciplined  mind  can  be  fixed  upon  a  study,  regard- 
less of  the  confusion  around  ;  but  it  is  not  so  with  children.  If  they 
are  to  learn  lessons  at  home,  they  should  have  facilities  for  doing  so 
without  confusion.  Generally,  too,  there  ought  to  be  a  place  where 
reading  or  study  may  be  pursued  by  the  older  members  of  a  family, 
without  being  disturbed  or  imposing  a  restraint  upon  the  conversa- 
tion or  even  the  hilarity  of  those  not  so  engaged.  The  room  need  not 
be  large.  It  might  serve,  generally,  as  the  office,  where  the  farmer 
should  keep  his  account  books,  his  maps  or  plans,  his  agricultural 
books  and  newspapers,  and  transact  business  with  his  neighbors. 
Would  not  such  a  room  be  remembered  pleasantly  in  later  years? 

A  most  important  object  is  the  durability  of  the  structure — a  perma- 
nence, if  possible,  that  may  allow  children's  children  to  visit  their 
ancestral  home — at  any  rate,,  a  construction  so  substantial  that  the 
expense  and  inconvenience  of  great  or  frequent  repairs  may  be  unne- 
cessary, and  the  evils  of  early  dilapidation  avoided.  Security  from  fire 
is  also  to  be  thought  of,  and  effected  to  the  greatest  practicable  extent. 

Thought  should  also  be  given  to  future  enlargement,  that,  as  habits 
change  or  condition  improves,  there  may  be  room  to  grow,  without 
bursting  and  discarding  the  shell  which  is  found  too  contracted. 

It  is  not  well  to  build  without  thought  for  the  times  when  sickness 
will  claim  a  room  for  its  accommodation,  nor  to  overlook  the  possible 
demands  of  social  parties,  occasional  meetings,  or  even  more  solemn 
occasions,  which  may  gather  a  concourse  within  the  walls. 

The  house  may  contribute  much  to  that  satisfaction  which  results 
from  the  love  of  order.  The  value  of  closets,  in  affording  "a  place  for 
everything,"  has  been  alluded  to.  As  this  is  different  from  "tucking 
away"  things,  to  put  them  out  of  sight,  it  is  important  that  the  closets 
should  be  lighted  and  well  fitted  with  shelves  and  hooks,  even  if  not 
large. 

But  this  is  not  all.  The  appreciation  and  enjoyment  of  regularity, 
in  form  or  arrangement,  is  one  of  the  first  of  the  faculties  of  taste 


414  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

•wliicli  exliibits  itself.  It  is  developed  in  different  degrees,  some  persons 
seeming  never  to  possess  it  all,  and  a  still  greater  number  never  getting 
beyond  it,  or  realizing  that  it  is  not  the  rule  or  measure  of  nature  or  art. 
A  person  of  the  former  class,  reared  in  a  house  in  whose  planning 
regularity  was  not  thought  of,  its  rooms  all  askew,  and  its  exterior 
one  inextricable  jumble,  may  not  be  disturbed  by  its  disorder;  but  one 
with  a  sensitive  disposition,  though  he  may  not  understand  the  cause, 
will  suffer  irritation  every  time  his  eye  falls  upon  an  object  of  which  the 
portions  on  either  side  of  its  center  are  unlike.  This  feeling  should 
be  respected,  both  in  consideration  of  the  comfort  of  those  whose  habits 
are  fixed,  and  the  unconscious  education  of  the  young.  It  has  its 
modifications  and  limitations,  as  we  shall  perhaps  see,  by  and  by. 
There  is  a  symmetry  higher  than  mere  regularity,  such  as  is  seen  in  a 
magnificent  elm,  true  in  outline,  but  with  no  apparent  correspondence 
or  similarity  of  form  in  its  branches. 

It  is  the  most  .perfect  symmetry,  combined  also  with  variety,  and 
this,  too,  it  is  desirable  to  accomplish  in  the  house.  There  are  houses 
with  rooms  all  alike,  in  size,  form,  and  relative  position,  and  on  a 
paper  plan  they  appear  very  regular  and  pretty ;  but  as  no  two  of  the 
rooms  are  to  be  seen  at  once,  the  advantage  of  their  uniformity  is 
imaginary  rather  than  real.  The  same  hint  applies  to  the  exterior. 
In  all  these  things  variety  is  to  be  welcomed,  when  introduced  by  con- 
venience, and  is  to  be  sought  for  its  own  sake.  Even  birds'  nests  are 
not  all  alike,  but  vary  with  materials  and  situation. 

Another  feeling,  which  all  experience,  to  some  extent,  but  some 
more  keenly  than  others,  is  an  appreciation  of  gracefulness ;  the  easy 
manner  by  which  some  persons  can  do  what  they  please,  in  the  first  trial, 
in  just  the  right  way,  without  a  superfluous  motion  or  a  hesitating  one. 
In  buildings,  this  feeling  is  gratified  by  those  means  by  which  the  eye 
is  pleasantly  led  along  from  one  part  to  another,  unoffended  by  harsh 
contrasts,  abrupt  changes  of  form,  or  obtrusive  features.  This  feeling, 
too,  is  to  be  gratified,  so  far  as  practicable,  but  not  at  the  expense  of 
decision — the  expression  of  purpose,  which  may  be  played  with,  but 
must  not  be  obstructed. 

And  this  is,  after  all,  the  chief  thing  to  be  kept  in  view,  that, 
throughout  the  house,  in  all  its  proportions,  arrangements,  and  minut- 
est detail,  everything  shall  be  done  for  a  well-considered,  appropriate, 
and  consistent  purpose.  Whatever  is  more  than  this  is  superfluous 
and  injurious.  The  house  being  made  for  the  purposes  which  have 
been  named,  and  others  of  like  nature,  the  whole  external  appearance 
should  express  them,  unmistakably. 

It  may  be  difficult  to  make  grown  men  comprehend  what  is  meant 
by  the  exjjression  of  a  house,  but  children  understand  it.  How  common 
is  it  to  hear  them,  when  traveling,  characterize  the  residences  they 
pass  as  ''staring,"  ''lonely,"  "wide-faced,"  &c.,  or  to  compare  them 
to  some  person  peculiar  in  feature  or  costume.  It  is  certain,  that  some 
of  the  greatest  faults  of  modern  houses  arise  froni  attempts  to  make 
them  express  what  is  not  true,  by  false  representation  of  their  compo- 
nent material,  or  fictitious  indications  of  the  habits  and  avocations  of 
the  inhabitants.  The  perfection  of  house-building  may  be  considered 
a  dwelling  that  meets  the  necessities  of  your  disposition  and  mode  of 
life,  and  proclaims  to  all  persons  what  that  disposition  and  mode  of 


SOME   HINTS   UPON   FARM   HOUSES.  415 

• 

life  are ;  that,  being  a  cherislied  and  cherisliing  home,  it  shall  appear 
so  to  all  who  see  it. 

But,  says  some  lady:  "In  owr  house  we  wish  to  consult  beauty,  and 
your  rules  would  restrict  us  to  simple  utility." 

Perhaps  it  is  best  not  to  talk  about  beauty,  until  we  understand 
what  we  each  mean  by  the  word.  But  if  everything  about  the  house 
is  satisfactory  to  your  own  settled  and  well-defined  feelings,  is  not  that 
beauty  enough?  If  it  is  not  satisfactory,  and  you  can  point  out  a 
good  reason  why^  then  you  have  shown  a  purpose  that  it  is  proper  to 
serve  and  to  express. 

Says  another  :  "You  have  made  no  provision  fot  any  ornament  or 
decoration.  You  would  make  our  houses  bleaker  than  our  barns." 
Look  again :  If  ornament  contributes  to  gracefulness,  or  decision,  or 
the  expression  of  any  other  purpose  or  feeling  consistent  with  your 
disposition  and  the  real  uses  of  the  house,  it  is  not  only  allowable  but 
desirable.  If,  without  any  design,  it  is  to  be  put  on,  it  had  better  be 
left  off.  It  is  worse  than  savage  finery.  If  in  any  design  there  is 
anything  that  can  be  taken  away  without  being  missed,  either  for  its 
own  effect  of  its  influence  on  some  other  member,  it  does  not  belong 
there,  is  in  the  way,  and  should  be  removed. 

"'But  what  if  I  am  one  of  that  kind  that  cannot  walk  between 
hedges,  but  must  make  occasional  leaps,  just  to  show  my  vivacity  and 
imiDatience  of  restraint?"  Certainly,  vivacity  and  exuberance  of  fancy 
are  things  very  proper  to  show  in  their  proper  places,  and  nothing  serves 
its  purpose  better  than  the  expression  of  such  things  in  the  decoration  of 
a  dwelling.  But  your  caprices  must  appear  as  such,  and  not  be  mono- 
tonously strung  around  a  whole  house.  A  really  witty  man  does  not 
copy  jokes  laboriously  out  of  old  almanacs. 

"If  we  adopt  this  principle  of  using  no  feature  of  utility  or  decora- 
tion but  for  the  execution  or  expression  of  a  recognized  and  well  de- 
fined purpose,  what  becomes  of  all  that  has  been  taught  about  congru- 
ity  of  styles  ?  Shall  we  let  all  the  past  experience  of  the  world  go 
unused?"  By  no  means.  In  house  building  as  in  making  your  farm 
machinery,  it  is  your  business  to  determine  what  you  want.  The 
mode  of  supplying  the  wants  is  a  matter  of  skill.  If  you  attempt  it 
yourself,  you  must  study  and  practice  long  and  patiently,  or  your 
work  will  be  very  improperly  done.  When  it  is  done,  it  will  be  found 
that  others  have  already  had  to  give  (in  part)  the  same  expression,  and 
to  produce  the  same  effects.  The  details  invented  by  them  are  suita- 
ble for  you,  so  far  as  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  invented  coin- 
cides with  yours.  As  the  original  purposes  of  each  recognized  style  of 
building  are  commonly  consistent  throughout,  and  at  variance  with 
the  purposes  of  other  styles,  so  these  details  are  generally  harmonious 
when  used  together,  and  incongruous  when  mixed.  It  does  not  follow 
that  if  we  adopt  one  feature  of  a  style,  we  must  copy  it  entire.  To 
select  and  adapt  judiciously  to  our  own  ends  the  work  of  those  who 
have  gone  before  us,  is  to  use  it  nobly  ;  to  follow  it  servilely,  without 
adaptation,  degrades  it  and  disgraces  us. 

We  need  not  understand  why  these  consistencies  and  incongruities 
exist  between  various  forms,  or  how  they  operate  on  the  mind  ;  but 
before  we  attempt  to  separate  or  combine  details,  we  ought  to  know 


416  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

that  they  do  exist,  and  what  they  are^  and  most  carefully  to  regard 
them  in  all  our  designs. 

But  here  comes  one  who  complains  that  he  does  not  like  the  idea  that 
his  house  must  show  how  he  lives,  and  what  his  business  is,  and  asks, 
"Why  cannot  I  properly  live  in  just  such  a  house  as  my  neighbor,  the 
lawyer?"  You  can,  if  you  live  in  the  same  way;  but  if,  while  you 
are  plowing  in  the  field  he  is  dining  with  his  guests,  and  while  he 
is  studying  his  cases  you  are  asleep,  what  propriety  is  there  in  your 
building  a  great  dining-room,  or  a  library  never  to  be  used  ?  If  your 
kitchen  is  to  be  used  for  butter-making,  and  cheese-making,  and  feed- 
ing a  half  score  of  farm  hands,  is  it  not  better  to  make  it  large  enough 
for  those  purposes  than  a  little  thing  like  his,  where  only  the  cooking 
is  to  be  done  ?  If,  however,  you  are  unwilling  the  world  should  see 
these  differences ;  if  you  are  ashamed  of  your  occupation,  or,  in  other 
words,  ashamed  of  yourself,  may  not  I,  too,  be  ashamed  of  you? 

There  is  one  more  quality  to  be  mentioned,  which  is,  in  most  cases, 
the  first  and  most  constantly  thought  of,  and  that  is,  economy.  But 
the  economy  of  construction  too  often  obscures  the  economy  of  occupa- 
tion, really  the  more  important  of  the  two,  though  neither  need  cause 
the  sacrifice  of  the  other.  Indeed,  some  men  seem  to  build,  not  so 
much  to  make  a  house,  as  to  avoid  the  expenditure  of  money. 

It  is  sometimes  thought  that  nothing  can  be  consistent  with  econ- 
omy that  does  not,  in  some  way,  tend  to  the  increase  of  wealth.  This 
is  not  true,  if  the  judicious  use  and  expenditure  of  money  is  as  im- 
portant as  its  accumulation.  The  cooking  of  meat  does  not  increase  a 
man's  income,  but  no  one  would,  therefore,  consider  its  cost  wasted. 
Neither  is  the  money  spent  in  what  is  sometimes  called  the  ornament 
of  a  house  wasted,  if  it  promotes  the  objects  for  which  a  man  lives, 
and  for  which  his  money  is  valuable  to  him.  The  question  is,  what, 
in  each  man's  case,  are  the  purposes  of  life? 

Men  often  hesitate  to  expend  money  for  any  feature  of  a  dwelling 
which  will  not  add  to  its  market  value,  if  it  should  be  sold.  It  is  very 
proper  to  consider  the  contingencies  which  may  render  the  sale  of  a 
homestead  necessary,  in  the  next  generation,  if  not  in  this ;  but,  at  the 
same  time,  it  is  to  be  recollected,  that  the  things  which  make  it  most 
desirable  for  the  original  possessor,  those  which  fit  it  to  him  like  a 
garment,  are  the  very  ones  which  will  not  suit  a  difierent  person,  and 
may  not,  willingly,  be  paid  for.  They  ought  to  be  provided  with  no 
expectation  that  they  will  ever  return  their  cost,  except  by  the  greater 
value  of  the  whole  house  to  the  builder  himself. 

After  considering  the  purposes  of  building,  we  come  to  the  investi- 
gation of  the  materials  and  methods  of  construction,  by  which  these 
desired  objects  are  to  be  secured. 

To  prevent  heat  from  passing  in  or  out  of  a  house^  the  most  effectual 
non-conductor  is  confined  air.  Of  solid  substances,  the  most  valuable 
for  this  purpose  are  generally  the  most  porous,  or  those  having  the 
greatest  proportion  of  air  confined  in  their  interstices,  and  the  worst 
are  the  heaviest  and  most  compact.  For  this  reason,  sawdust,  char- 
coal, tan-bark,  &c.,  are  used  for  filling  in  the  walls  of  ice-houses, 
though  often  rendered  inefficient  by  becoming  saturated  with  water, 
which  is  comparatively  a  good  conductor.  A  simple,  hollow  space  in 
which  air  is  confined  between  the  inner  and  outer  surfaces  of  a  wall_,  is 


SOME    HINTS   UPON    FARM    HOUSES.  417 

the  most  effectual  and  readiest  mode  of  rendering  it  impervious  to 
lieat,  and  it  makes  little  difference  how  wide  or  how  narrow  the 
space  is,  if  the  air  within  is  entirely  exit  off  from  escape  or  change. 
Whether  the  material  is  wood  or  masonry,  every  good  wall,  where  the 
retention  or  exclusion  of  heat  is  an  object,  should  he  built  in  this  way. 
It  is  as  essential  for  summer  as  for  winter ;  at  the  south  as  at  the  north. 
Care,  however,  must  be  taken  that  the  inner  portion  of  the  wall  is  not 
massive  enough  to  absorb  so  much  heat  as  sensibly  to  affect  the  tem- 
perature of  contiguous  rooms. 

A  warm  wall  will  almost  always  be  a  dry  one.  It  is  frequently, 
perhaps  generally,  thought  that  the  moisture  which  stands  on  base- 
ment, and  sometimes  other  exterior  walls,  is  caused  by  water  passing 
through  them  from  the  outside.  A  glance  at  a  water  pitcher,  in  a 
summer  day,  ought  to  correct  such  an  opinion.  If  a  wall  is  poorly 
built,  it  may  become  saturated  with  water,  which  shall  escape  by 
evaporation  from  the  inside,  and  affect  the  air ;  or,  in  a  severe  rain- 
storm, it  might,  in  rare  instances,  be  driven  through,  so  as  to  trickle 
down  the  inner  sur-face ;  but  in  neither  case  would  it  show  in  the  man- 
ner spoken  of.  If,  as  is  sometimes  said,  the  dampness  is  absorbed 
from  the  ground,  the  very  capillary  attraction  which  drew  it  into  the 
masonry  would  hold  it  there.  Moisture  collected  in  this  way  is  vapor 
from  the  air  of  the  room,  condensed  by  contact  with  a  cold  surface, 
and  indicates  both  a  bad  atmosphere  and  a  conducting  wall.  » 

Thick  and  solid  masonry,  of  course,  only  aggravates  the  evil.  The 
most  damp  and  unwholesome  rooms  are  found  in  buildings  of  the 
heaviest  construction,  where  the  substance  of  the  stritcture  acts  as  a 
great  reservoir  of  caloric,  receiving  or  giving  out  its  supplies  as  the 
contiguous  air,  at  different  points  or  hours,  may  be  warmer  or  colder 
than  its  own  average  temperature.  This  average  does  not  differ 
greatly  from  the  mean  temperature,  day  and  night,  of  the  different 
seasons,  and  is  considerably  lower  than  that  by  day  in  the  summer 
months. 

In  building  cellar  walls,  stone  will  generally  be  used,  where  stones 
are  found.  They  should,  if  practicable,  be  laid  with  a  flat  surface 
down,  and  made  so  solid  as  to  keep  out  water  and  rats.  Where  it  can 
be  obtained  readily,  it  will  always  pay  to  lay  cellar  walls  with  hy- 
draulic cement,  on  account  of  solidity  and  durability.  As  coolness  is 
desirable  in  a  cellar,  there  is  no  occasion  to  make  cellar  walls  other- 
wise than  solid  at  the  bottom.  They  will  then  always  be  just  as  warm 
as  the  earth  around  them.  So  far  down,  however,  as  they  are  exposed 
to  the  air,  or  in  contact  with  earth  liable  to  freeze,  they  may  be  so  cold 
as  to  endanger  the  contents  of  the  cellar,  and  should  be  protected  by  a 
coat  of  lathing  and  coarse  plastering,  formed  on  wooden  strips,  a  little 
way  from  the  stone  work. 

Brick  walls  for  cellar  purposes  ought,  whenever  practicable,  to  be 
laid  in  hydraulic  mortar,  and,  in  most  soils,  covered  with  a  perfect 
coating  of  cement  on  the  outside,  as  they  are  otherwise  liable  to  absorb 
so  much  water  as  to  affect  the  atmosphere  inside  and  to  impair  their 
durability.  The  foundation  should  be  level,  and  care  must  be  taken 
that  the  surface  of  the  trench  on  which  it  stands  shall  not  have  been 
broken  or  disturbed. 
21 A 


418  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

If  basement  rooms  are  to  be  used  for  other  tban  cellar  purposes,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  make  the  walls  double.  When  stone  is  used, 
this  is  to  be  done  by  "furring,"  with  small  wooden  strips  secured  to 
the  masonry  and  covered  by  lathing  and  plastering.  Brick  walls  may 
either  be  furred  in  the  same  way,  or  laid  as  two  separate  walls,  two  or 
more  inches  apart,  occasionally  bound  together  by  cross  bricks,  or, 
better,  by  small,  flat  iron  bars ;  and  then,  if  desired,  the  inner  wall 
may  be  plastered  directly  on  its  surface.  If  openings  are  left  into  the 
air  space,  it  greatly  hastens  the  drying  of  the  wall,  but  they  should 
all  be  tightly  closed  when  the  work  is  done. 

Such  spaces  are  sometimes  used  as  ventilating  flues,  with  a  total  ig- 
norance or  disregard  of  their  real  value.  Any  ventilating  or  hot-air 
pipes  which  may  be  needed  may  very  well  be  inserted  in  such  spaces, 
but  should  be  entirely  shut  off  from  the  air  cells.  Another  common 
mistake  in  building  hollow  walls,  is  making  occasional  vacancies, 
while  the  main  part  of  the  wall  is  solid,  as  though  there  were  some 
virtue  in  the  air,  which  would  be  diffused  over  the  whole  mass.  The 
solid  portions  must  be  just  as  small  as  may  be  consistent  with  strength, 
for  even  a  single  bond-brick  will  often  betray  its  position  by  a  damp 
spot  on  the  plastering. 

Wherever  hollow  walls  are  used,  whether  above  or  below  ground, 
the  builder  must  remember  that  their  purpose  is  not  to  save  materials 
or  cost,  but  to  increase  efficiency.  He  must  not,  as  some  do,  make 
the  entire  thickness  the  same  as  if  it  were  solid,  filching  the  material 
from  the  middle,  but  must,  for  safety,  add  all  the  thickness  of  the  air 
space,  and  spare  no  cost  in  the  bonding,  for  safety  is  of  prime  import- 
ance. If  properly  built,  a  hollow  wall  is  stronger  than  the  same  ma- 
terial laid  solidly.  There,  nevertheless,  are  some  things  in  the  way 
of  its  universal  adoption,  and,  except  for  the  greater  danger  in  case  of 
fire,  the  preferable  mode  of  securing  the  required  air  space  is  that  by 
furring. 

While  we  are  below  ground,  let  us  examine  the  cellar  bottom.  If 
the  ground  is  wet  and  springy,  it  will  be  necessary  to  cover  it  with  a 
coat  of  concrete,  made  of  coarse  gravel  and  hydraulic  cement  an  inch 
or  two  thick.  Where  the  soil  is  dry,  hard  gravel,,  or  even  sand,  will 
dO;,  if  the  occupants  are  careful  people ;  otherwise,  it  would  be  better 
concreted,  so  that  it  may  be  the  more  readily  cleansed'. 

Foundations,  other  than  cellar  walls,  ought  always  to  be  laid  on 
hard  ground,  and  below  the  deepest  frost,  according  to  soil  and  climate. 

The  choice  of  material  for  the  walls  of  the  superstructure  is  to  be 
governed  mainly  by  location.  Good  sense  and  good  taste,  never 
inconsistent,  both  say  it  should  be  the  most  substantial  which  can  be 
procured  with  economy.  Stone  is  undoubtedly  the  most  suitable  for 
any  permanent  building,  when  it,  and  the  requisite  lime,  can  be 
obtained  of  proper  quality  and  wrought  without  too  great  labor  and 
cost  in  comparison  with  other  substances.  Next  to  this  is  brick.  One 
great  obstacle  to  the  use  of  stone  has  been  the  supposition  that  it  must 
appear  smooth,  or  it  would  look  badly;  and  another,  the  difficulty  of 
i'orming  the  heads  and  jambs  of  doors  and  windows.  Both  of  these 
objections  are  obviated  by  using  bricks  in  combination  with  the  stone, 
where  much  accuracy  of  finish  is  required,  or  where  openings  are  to  be 


SOME    HINTS   UPON   FARM   HOUSES. 


419 


covered.  A  simple  surface  of  broken  stone,  sucli  as  can  Ibe  gathered 
from  the  vicinity,  suggests  an  unassuming  control  of  the  resources  of 
the  neighborhood,  which  no  far-fetched  material  can  show. 

Stone  walls  ought  always  to  be  furred,  and  brick  walls  either  furred 
or  built  hollow.  It  is  best  never  to  build  any  wooden  blocks  into  the 
masonry,  but,  for  nailing  to,  a  thin  strip  may  be  occasionally  laid  in 
the  mortar-joint,  not  more  than  two  inches  wide  and  less  than  half  an 
inch  thick.  This  will  hold  nails  and  will  not  weaken  the  walls.  The 
ends  of  floor  timbers  are  commonly  built  into  the  masonry,  just  as  so 
many  stones  would  be,  but  it  is  better,  for  the  durability  of  the  timber 
and  the  solidity  of  the  wall,  that,  except  on  the  bottom  where  they 
rest,  they  should  touch  nothing,  a  little  space  being  left  above  them, 
and  around  their  sides  and  ends. 

Bricks,  if  used  in  the  country,  ought  to  be  hard-burned,  so  that  they 
may  be  left  in  their  natural  state,  as  much  of  the  advantage  of  either 
brick  or  stone  is  lost  if  an  external  covering,  demanding  frequent 
renewal,  is  required  for  protection.  It  is  useless  to  give  any  attention 
to  outside  cements,  mastics,  and  plasterings  of  any  name,  since,  while 
they  are  most  objectionable  for  other  than  structural  reasons,  they  form 
neither  a  permanent  nor  a  cheap  surface  for  exposed  walls. 

Next  to  brick  in  value,  as  a  house  material,  is  wood.  Its  great  fault 
is  the  liability  of  burning.  Its  durability,  when  properly  used  and 
cared  for,  is  perhaps  as  great  as  stone,  in  ordinary  houses.  There  are 
many  old  buildings  composed  of  both  materials  together,  in  which  the 
wood  is  comparatively  sound,  while  the  stone  is  falling  apart.  It  has 
many  advantages,  among  which  are  warmth  of  walls,  thinness,  and 
lightness,  and  the  rapidity  with  which  it  may  be  wrought. 

There  are  many  ways  both  of  framing  and  covering  wooden  houses, 
each  having  its  peculiar  merits  and  defects.  The  earliest  method  was 
to  construct  the  frame  of  square  hewn  timber,  as  large  as  could  be 
handled  conveniently,  the  joints  being  secured  entirely  with  tenons 
and  wooden  pins.  The  braces  were  tenoned 
into  the  beams  and  posts,  and  were  short,  the 
strength  of  the  frame  depending  mostly  on 
the  stiffness  of  the  timber.  The  corner  of  a 
house  framed  in  this  style  is  represented  in 
fig.  4.  The  weakness  of  such  frames  results 
from  their  apparent  strength,  the  very  weight 
of  the  timbers  employed  breaking  them  down. 
In  such  frames  there  is  little  regard  paid  to 
the  direction  of  the  strain  which  each  piece  is 
required  to  resist.  Floor  timbers  are  often 
used  wider  than  their  vertical  thickness.  Such 
floors  sag  of  their  own  weight  and  vibrate 
with  every  step.  Houses  thus  made  are  also 
sometimes  blown  out  of  the  perpendicular,  and 
lean  in  a  seemingly  threatening  manner,  the 
weight  tending  to  increase  their  inclination. 
With  such  timbers,  however,  there  may  be 
considerable  distortion  without  danger  of  ac- 
tual breaking.     The  advantage  of  the  method  Fig.  4. 


420  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

is  chiefly  its  rudeness,  few  and  simple  tools  only  being  used^  and 
nothing  but  wood  required  for  fastenings.  It  is  cheap,  where  timber 
is  plenty,  but  wasteful  where  it  bears  a  market  value. 

The  other  extreme  is  the  balloon  frame,  'where  no  timber  is  used  in 
the  walls  but  vertical  studs,  of  the  smallest  size  that  will  answer  to 
nail  the  covering  to.  Eeliance  is  placed,  chiefly,  on  the  outside  board- 
ing, to  keep  the  frame  in  its  proper  shape.  Its  advantages  are  its 
small  cost,  the  ease  of  handling  small  timbers,  the  rapidity  of  its  form- 
ation, and  the  fact  that  it  does  not  need  a  mechanic  to  put  it  up.  Its 
most  prominent  fault  is  the  dependence  put  on  nails — the  most  unre- 
liable material  of  all  that  are  used,  even  when  new — and  its  liability 
to  get  out  of  place,  and  constantly  grow  weaker,  by  the  corrosion  of 
the  nails  and  the  wearing  of  the  nail-holes.  For  small  houses,  and 
other  buildings  of  light  uses,  it  is  a  very  suitable  and  valuable  mode 
of  construction. 

In  the  best  frames,  there  is  no  timber  used  beyond  what  is  required, 
and  each  stick  is  so  placed  that  its  most  effective  strength  is  made 
available,  the  special  use  of  every  piece  being  considered,  and  its  size 
and  form  adapted  to  it.  Cross  strains  upon  the  wood  are  avoided 
wherever  practicable,  each  piece  resisting  either  compression  or  exten- 
sion in  the  direction  of  its  length.  Where  stifi'ness  must  be  relied 
upon,  the  greatest  advantage  is  taken  of  the  edgewise  strength  of  the 
timber,  so  that  where,  by  the  first-described  plan,  there  would  be  floor 
timbers  seven  inches  deep  and  perhaps  ten  inches  broad,  once  in  two 
feet,  in  this  the  timber  would  be  ten  inches  deep,  only  two  or  three 
inches  wide,  and  not  more  than  sixteen  inches  apart.  The  weight  is 
thus  far  less,  and  the  strength  and  stiffness  far  greater.  To  keep  such 
thin  timbers  from  twisting  out  of  place,  there  are  bridging  pieces,  or 
braces,  spiked  between  them,  answering  a  much  better  purpose  than 
an  additional  thickness  of  timber. 

In  this  method,  the  timbers  may  all  be  mucli  smaller  than  those 
formerly  used,  and  still  be  stronger  than  the  heavy  frames.  Being 
kept  vertical  by  the  braces,  the  studs  may  carry  most  of  the  weight. 
As  the  timbers  on  different  sides  generally  meet  the  corner-posts  at  dif- 
ferent levels,  they  may  be  as  small  as  four  inches  by  eight  inches,  or 
four  inches  by  six  inches,  in  many  houses. 

It  is  important  that  timber  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  tie  the  frame 
as  often  as  possible,  and  always  to  have  a  lateral  pressure  counter- 
acted by  a  tie. 

The  most  common  thickness  of  wall  timbers  is  four  inches.  This, 
in  large  buildings,  is  hardly  enough  to  give  all  the  strength  of  joints 
which  is  desirable,  or  the  greater  thickness  for  sash  rendered  necessary 
by  the  increase  in  the  size  of  modern  windows.  Near  large  lumber 
markets,  it  is  always  cheaper  to  adopt  such  sizes  as  are  in  ordinary 
use  and  may  be  found  ready  prepared ;  but  where  timber  is  sawn  ex- 
pressly for  any  house,  at  least  five  inches  thickness  is  preferable.  In 
such  cases,  it  will  frequently  save  waste  if  all  the  framing  plans  are 
drawn  before  the  timber  is  cut.  Care  should  be  taken,  in  seasoning 
it,  to  keep  it  straight ;  and  the  drying  may  be  greatly  hastened  by 
frequent  turning,  &c. 

One  of  the  most  durable  coverings  for  a  wooden  house  is  boarding 


SOME   HINTS   UPON   FARM   HOUSES.  421 

vertically,  the  joints  being  protected  by  a  narrow  strip  of  batten.  If 
the  narrow  boards  are  used,  and  the  joints  are  tongued  and  grooved 
together,  this  is  also  one  of  the  tightest  and  warmest  coverings,  but  is 
not  the  cheapest,  and  has  the  disadvantage  that,  for  nailing  the 
boards,  there  must  be  horizontal  timbering,  additional  to  the  vertical 
studs  required  for  the  interior  lathing,  and  for  support  of  the  beams 
above.  A  modification  of  this  kind  of  covering,  very  different  in  its 
appearance,  is  made  by  using  quite  narrow  planks,  an  inch  and  a 
quarter  thick,  and  omitting  the  battens.  The  same  material  may  be 
used  horizontally,  but  is  better,  if  so  used,  with  rebated  joints,  the  outer 
lip  being  the  thicker  of  the  two,  and  the  edges  sloped  a  little  down- 
ward. 

Less  costly  than  either  of  these  is  the  common  horizontal  clap- 
boarding,  of  which  there  are  two  forms,  one  of  long  pieces,  uniform  in 
thickness,  except  a  shallow  rebate  at  the  lower  edge,  nailed  directly  on 
the  frame  ;  the  other,  of  thinner  boards,  wedge-shaped  in  their  section, 
laid  upon  a  lining  of  rough  boards.  In  cost  the  latter  somewhat  exceeds 
the  other,  but  adds  greatly  to  the  stiffness  of  the  frame,  and  produces 
a  much  tighter  barrier  to  the  weather,  especially  if  between  the  lining  and 
the  clapboards,  there  is  placed  a  sheathing  of  paper^  which  is  now  manu- 
factured for  that  purpose,  and  is  quite  as  efficient  to  exclude  either  wind 
or  heat  as  another  thickness  of  boards  would  be. 

There  is  no  more  durable  or  warmer  form  of  wooden  covering  than 
shingling  of  the  best  quality,  laid  on  boards.  If  proper  precaution  is 
taken  in  selecting  and  preparing  the  materials,  this  kind  of  walling 
does  not  deserve  the  neglect  and  prejudice  which  seems  to  have  befallen 
it^  in  late  years. 

Where  it  is  customary  to  lay  either  clapboards  or  shingles  on  lining 
boards,  walls  are  seldom  filled  in  with  bricks,  an  excellent  practice, 
very  prevalent  in  many  localities.  By  "filling  in,"  is  not  meant, 
however,  "filling  up,"  as  some  seem  to  suppose,  who,  in  their  incon- 
siderate desire  to  build  thoroughly,  use  hard  bricks,  and  lay  them 
solidly,  from  the  outer  covering  of  the  timber  to  the  inner  one,  thus 
destroying  the  non-conducting  air-space,  which  it  is  the  very  object  to 
secure,  and  making  the  walls  less  valuable  than  if  left  with  the  simple 
boarding. 

For  this  use,  the  best  bricks  are  the  softest  from  the  kiln,  only  par- 
tially burned,  and  unfit  for  any  other  use.  They  should  be  laid  on 
edge,  in  the  center  of  the  framing,  so  as  to  leave  a  space  on  each  side, 
and  must  be  secured  in  their  place  by  an  occasional  board  nailed  in 
between  the  studs. 

On  the  inside,  the  laths  ought  to  be  nailed  once  in  sixteen  inches — 
twelve  is  better — and  at  the  corners  those  from  both  directions  secured 
to  the  same  support,  so  that  there  may  be  none  of  the  angle  cracks, 
which  difigure  so  many  good  houses,  in  consequence  of  the  shrinking 
of  timber.  The  double  air  space  made  by  the  internal  course  of  brick- 
work is  useful  to  remedy  imperfections  in  the  outer  or  inner  coating  of 
the  wall.  The  same  purpose  is  sometimes  accomplished  by  plastering 
roughly  on  laths  fixed  between  the  studs.  A  better  way,  because  less 
likely  to  be  rendered  defective  by  shrinking,  while  affording  an  in- 
creased thickness  of  wall,  very  desirable  at  the  windows,  is  to  lath  and 


422  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

plaster  rouglily  on  the  studs,  in  the  usual  manner,  and  then  nail 
narrow  strips  of  inch  boards  upon  that  surface,  against  each  stud,  and 
lath  and  plaster  again. 

Where  neither  bricks  nor  sound  stones  can  be  obtained,  if  timber  is 
costly  and  lime  cheap,  a  wall,  answering  a  very  good  temporary  pur- 
pose, may  be  built  of  concrete,  which  is  a  composition  of  lime  and 
stones,  so  small  that  they  are  mixed  into  the  mortar,  and  used  without 
reference  to  their  shape  or  position^,  the  whole  being  formed  in  molds. 
Such  walls  need  furring,  as  much  as  those  made  of  bricks  or  stone,  to 
render  them  warm,  and  must  have,  besides,  a  plastered  surface  exposed 
to  the  weather.  They  are  inferior  in  every  respect  to  a  rough  stone 
wall,  and  are  said  to  be  no  cheaper,  unless  there  may  be  a  saving  in 
the  cartage  of  materials. 

But  exposed  plaster  surfaces  must  always  be  a  vexation,  until  some 
cement  is  invented  better  than  anything  which  all  the  centuries  past 
have  produced.  Such  devices  have  long  been  common,  promising 
great  things,  deluding  many,  greatly  corrupting  public  taste,  substi- 
tuting the  fictitious  and  the  flimsy  for  the  true  and  the  durable,  and 
each,  in  turn,  leaving  a  waste  of  dilapidation  behind  it,  as  it  has  gone 
out  in  disgrace,  to  be  followed  by  another  deceitful  pretender  of  the 
same  character. 

It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that  so  much  of  the  inventive  genius  of 
this  age,  both  here  and  abroad,  has  been  directed  to  the  cheapening 
rather  than  the  improvement  of  building.  One  half  the  thought  and 
time  and  experiment  which  has  been  devoted  to  the  production  of  im- 
itations of  stones,  whose  only  merit,  if  successful,  would  have  been 
that  of  appearing  to  be  something  better  than  they  really  were,  or 
than  those  who  used  them  were  willing  to  pay  for,  would  long  ago 
have  given  the  world  a  method  of  making  the  floors  of  ordinary  dwell- 
ings fire-proof,  and  so  little  more  expensive  than  wooden  ones  as  to  be 
within  the  means  of  every  builder. 

Let  the  workers  in  iron  and  cements,  instead  of  counterfeiting  with 
their  materials  more  valuable  substances  and  pushing  them  into  uses 
for  which  they  are  nowise  suitable,  devise  some  way  by  which  the  sup- 
ports of  floors  may  be  made  as  light  and  as  strong  of  iron  as  of  timber, 
and  covered  with  a  composition  as  elastic,  as  strong,  as  warm,  and  as 
durable  as  wood,  and  at  the  same  time  incombustible,  and  both  shall 
be  pronounced  benefactors  of  mankind,  and  receive  the  commendations 
of  all  lovers  of  good  architecture,  instead  of  their  execrations.  Until 
something  of  this  nature  is  devised,  in  common  houses  wood  must  be 
relied  upon  for  the  supports  and  surfaces  of  floors.  They  are  greatly 
improved,  but  seldom,  by  a  layer  of  clay  or  elastic  mortar  upon  boards 
placed  between  the  floor  beams.  This  makes  them  less  combustible. 
Similar  measures  may  advantageously  be  used  in  the  ceilings  of  upper 
rooms,  which  are  close  to  flat  roofs,  to  protect  them  from  heat  in  sum- 
mer. 

What  shall  the  roof  be  ?  If  the  object  is  solely  to  inclose  the  most 
cubic  space  with  the  smallest  amount  of  material,  the  flatter  the  roof, 
and  the  more  like  a  tea-chest  the  house  is  made,  the  better  the  object 
will  be  accomplished.  Happily,  however,  there  are  some  mechanical 
and  financial  obstacles  to  the  execution  of  such  an  object.     The  cheapest 


SOME    HINTS   UPON   FARM    HOUSES.  423 

and  most  available  roof-covering  for  isolated  houses  is  shingling,  or, 
in  soroe  favored  localities,  slating,  and  these  both  require  a  conspicuous 
elevation.  The  degree  of  slope  is  frequently  determined  by  the  car- 
penter for  the  ease  of  reckoning  the  length  of  rafters.  It  ought  to  be 
a  well-considered  matter^  for,  more  than  any  other  external  feature,  it 
defines  the  character  of  the  house. 

Upon  parts  of  roofs  it  is,  however,  often  desirable  to  have  a  much 
lower  pitch  than  is  suited  for  shingles,  if  good  tinning  work  can  be 
obtained.  For  such  work,  and  for  the  gutters  and  valleys  of  roofs,  the 
thinnest  tin  of  the  sort  called  "terne"  or  "leaded"  plate_,  is  consid- 
ered more  serviceable  than  the  more  costly  kinds. 

Of  all  the  many  cements  introduced  to  notice  within  the  last  few 
years  for  the  purpose  of  covering  roofs,  none  have  yet  had  a  sufficiently 
long  or  severe  trial  to  be  pronounced  perfectly  reliable,  and  some  have 
most  certainly  been  proved  worthless.  Probably  no  one  of  them  will 
accomplish  what  is  claimed  for  it  in  all  climates,  but  some  of  them 
may  be  found  valuable  for  particular  sections  of  the  country  when 
sufficiently  tested.  If  so,  they  will,  in  many  particulars,  simplify  the 
formation  of  roofs,  and  especially  of  their  water-courses.  Most  if  not 
all  of  them  give  an  unpleasant  character  to  rain-water,  rendering  them 
objectionable,  if  cisterns  are  to  be  relied  upon. 

The  stability  of  partitions  is  promoted  by  resting  those  in  the  upper 
story  directly  upon  the  lower  ones. 

The  warming  of  the  house  is  a  most  important  matter,  and  one  which 
generally  requires  as  much  consideration  in  a  southern  house  as  in  a 
northern  one.  The  occasions  for  artificial  heat  being  irregular  and 
infrequent,  are  none  the  less  imperative.  In  northern  houses  it  is  im- 
portant that  the  chimneys  should  be  in  the  interior  of  the  building, 
that  none  of  their  heat  may  be  lost.  Flues  are  to  be  brought  together, 
as  much  as  practicable,  in  order  that  the  heat  of  each  may  increase  the 
draft  in  the  others.  Sometimes,  too,  the  habits  of  the  family  and  ar- 
rangement of  the  rooms  are  such  that  a  part  of  the  summer  rooms  are 
unoccupied  in  the  winter  season,  at  least  for  purposes  requiring  them 
to  be  warmed.  But  it  is  different  where  a  sudden,  chilly  change  of 
the  weather,  at  any  season  of  the  year,  affects  people  in  every  part  of 
the  house  alike,  and  fires  are  demanded  in  each  room.  Their  use  being 
but  temporary,  the  chimneys  may  be  placed  wherever  they  are  most 
convenient,  and  open  fires,  on  such  occasions,  at  least,  seem  to  be  Jiiore 
effectual  than  any  plan  of  close  fire.  In  northern  regions  it  is  always 
easiest  to  warm  an  upper  room  from  below,  though,  for  special  reasons, 
it  may  not  always  be  expedient  to  do  so. 

Great  outcry  has  been  made  against  stoves,  and  they  are  undoubtedly 
liable  to  more  abuse  than  open  fires,  and  are  certainly  less  cheerful ; 
but  there  is  no  reason  why  we  should  not  have  the  advantage  of  their 
very  great  economy,  and  still  have  wholesome  and  pure  air  to  breathe. 

And  this  suggests  the  vexed  question  of  ventilation,  which  by  some 
seems  to  be  considered  the  cure  for  all  life's  ills.  We  all  suffer  too 
much  from  its  neglect.  Perhaps  -we  should  suiFer  less  if  it  were  less 
misunderstood.  In  the  first  place,  we  must  remember  that,  except  in  the 
single  matter  of  temperature,  no  system  of  ventilation,  however  perfect, 
can  give  us  any  better  air  than  that  which  surrounds  our  house.     If  it 


424 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


is  damp  or  smoky,  or  in  any  way  unpleasant  or  unwliolesome,  that 
within  the  walls  must  be  the  same.  The  most  we  can  do  is  to  warm 
it,  if  too  cold,  and  to  change  it  so  frequently  as  to  maintain  a  purity 
equal  to  that  out  of  doors.  These  changes  may  be  made  by  blowers 
and  other  mechanical  means,  out  of  the  question  in  a  country  house, 
by  the  force  of  the  wind,  or  by  the  ascending  power  of  heated  air. 

The  old  way,  so  much  favored  by  the  lovers  of  open  fires,  was  a 
combination  of  the  last  two  plans.  The  air  of  the  room,  as  fast  as  it 
as  heated,  ascended  the  great-throated  chimney,  and  its  place  was 
supplied  by  cold  winds  through  every  crack.  Nearly  all  the  chimney 
caps  and  ventilators  in  use  depend  upon  the  wind  for  their  efficiency. 
Blowing  against  inclined  surfaces,  the  air  is  diverted  upward,  and  thus 
produces  an  ascending  current  in  the  pipe  to  which  the  cap  is  attached. 
In  breezy  weather  some  of  these  devices  operate  excellently,  but  in  a 
calm,  of  course,  they  are  valueless.     Their  fault  is  similar  to  that 


Fig.  5. 
FIRST  STORY  PLAN 


SOME   HINTS   UPON   FARM   HOUSES.  425 

which  the  negro  found  with  the  moon,  that  it  only  shone  in  light  nights, 
when  it  was  not  needed. 

Doors  and  windows  for  summer  or  southern  localities,,  will,  in  suit- 
able weather,  always  he  made  use  of  as  the  most  simple  and  thorough 
means  of  ventilation.  Sometimes  houses  have  been  made,  in  the  South- 
ern States,  with  openings  opposite  to  each  other  on  all  sides,  through 
the  entire  building,  so  that  in  every  direction  there  might  be  through 
drafts  when  there  was  a  breeze.  Nothing  could  be  more  delightful  in 
pleasant  weather.  Figure  5  represents  the  principal  floor  plan  of  a 
house  of  this  kind,  built  in  Mississippi.* 

But  there  are  days  when  the  outer  air  is  too  cool  for  comfort.  Then 
our  fires  should,  if  possible,  be  so  arranged  that  the  external  air  shall 
be  properly  warmed  as  it  comes  in,  and  the  vitiated  air  consumed  or 
carried  off  in  a  regular  flow,  without  unpleasant  currents.  Its  ascend- 
ing power  must  be  made  use  to  draw  it  off.  It  is  not  necessary,  nor 
always  best,  to  give  outlets  for  air  at  the  top  of  the  room,  as  then  it 
would  be  comfortably  warmed  with  much  more  difficulty.  A  flue, 
formed  of  brick  or  metal,  by  the  side  of  the  kitchen  smoke-flue,  would 
always  have  an  upward  current  of  air,  which  would  abundantly  venti- 
late most  kitchens,  if  an  opening  to  it  were  made  just  higher  than 
the  doors.  A  similar  air  pipe  on  the  other  side  of  the  flue  might  also 
draw  off  the  foul  air  from  the  bottom  of  the  cellar,  though  less  rapidly. 
The  cellar,  indeed,  might  be  well  ventilated  by  a  pipe  from  near  the 
bottom,  through  which  the  kitchen  fire  should  receive  all  its  supply. 
What  special  arrangements  may  best  be  made  to  render  the  necessary 
fires  in  a  house  conducive  to  ventilation  it  is  not  appropriate  here  to 
consider.  They  are  such  as  will  make  use  of  vitiated  air  drawn  from 
just  the  proper  point  for  feeding  the  fire,  instead  of  taking  the  purest 
in  the  room,  as  at  present  is  often  the  case,  and  will  also  make  all  the 
surplus  heat  of  the  smoke  available  in  the  formation  of  currents  in 
contiguous  pipes  for  the  same  purpose.  Upon  the  same  principle  are 
the  effects  of  the  sun  upon  the  roof  and  walls  of  a  house  to  be  rendered 
useful.  The  steep  sides  of  the  roof,  receiving  the  sun's  rays  in  the 
afternoon,  absorb  and  radiate  an  amount  of  caloric  that,  if  not  properly 
disposed  of,  will  in  summer  time  render  upper  rooms  intolerable.  But, 
with  proper  arrangements,  the  air  so  heated  may  be  allowed  to  ascend 
between  the  roof  and  the  ceilings  to  the  highest  point,  and  there  escape, 
drawing  with  it,  to  occupy  the  place  it  vacates,  the  heated  air  from 
any  of  the  rooms  below  with  which  there  may  be  communication.  In 
this  way  the  chambers  under  steep  roofs  are  made  more  cool  and  pleasant 
than  those  next  to  flat  or  low  roofs,  though  more  exposed  to  the  sun 
and  less  tolerable  if  not  properly  guarded. 

*  In  southern  houses  it  is  almost  always  preferred  to  place  the  kitchen  and  servants '  rooms 
in  a  separate  building,  connected  with  the  house  by  a  short,  covered  passage-way,  which 
may  be  inclosed  or  opened  at  pleasure.  In  this  plan,  the  experiment  of  a  basement  kitchen 
was  tried.  It  occupied  the  corner  under  the  dining-room,  access  to  it  being  had  by  the  stairs 
in  the  rear  verandah.  An  outside  door  also  opened  to  an  area  under  the  nursery  wing.  A 
dumb  waiter,  which  rose  in  the  dining-room  closet,  also  opened  below  to  the  same  area,  so 
that  there  was  no  direct  connection  between  the  kitchen  and  any  other  part  of  the  house. 
For  additional  ventilation,  there  was  a  large  opening  in  the  kitchen  ceiling,  from  which  a 
wooden  conductor  led  up  between  the  chimney  and  dining-closet,  and  entered  a  flue  in  the 
chimney  near  the  roof.     (See  fig.  2  for  exterior.) 


426  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

But  all  of  these  means  of  construction  are  unavailable  without  one 
other,  and  with  that  any  of  them  maybe  used  as  desirable.  In  build- 
ing, as  much  as  in  almost  any  other  enterprise,  there  is  profit  in  the 
possession  of  ready  money  and  plenty  of  it.  Little.,  miserly  savings, 
which  do  not,  altogether,  make  a  perceptible  reduction  in  the  first  cost, 
are  the  very  things  that  take  away  most  from  the  real  value  of  a  house. 
Afterwards,  you  will  wish  you  had  obtained  this  true  value,  even  at 
many  times  the  original  expense. 

One  of  the  greatest  and  most  frequent  mistakes  in  building  is,  at- 
tempting to  accomplish  too  much  with  the  funds  provided.  It  will 
not  do  to  fix  on  the  size  and  quality  of  your  house,  and  also  to  limit 
your  expenditures,  with  ordinary  judgment  of  the  cost  of  building. 
Nor,  if  a  friend  capable  of  advising  you  in  the  matter,  tells  you  the 
money  is  too  little  for  the  house,  or  the  house  too  large  for  the  money, 
must  you  think  he  is  trying  to  persuade  you  into  extravagance. 
Probably  the  truth  is  just  the  reverse.  If  you  cannot  understand  why 
a  house  no  larger  than  the  one  you  want  should  cost  so  much,  do  not, 
for  that  reason,  disbelieve  the  fact,  if  those  who  assure  you  of  it  have 
better  opportunities  of  knowing  than  yourself.  It  is  better  to  be  in- 
formed before  the  money  is  spent,  than  to  find  it  out  afterwards. 
Probably  the  reason  is  that  you  desire  additions  or  alterations,  which 
seem  to  be  insignificant,  but  which  materially  change  the  plan  from 
that  which  you  have  adopted  as  a  standard  of  cost.  If  your  purse  is 
limited,  you  must  restrain  your  ambition.  It  is  not  wise  to  attempt  to 
get  more  for  your  money  than  it  is  worth,  in  ordinary  circumstances. 
If  you  try  to  drive  hard  bargains,  ten  to  one  you  will  be  the  one  cheated, 
and  the  occupants  of  your  house  will  suffer  for  it  as  long  as  it  stands, 
even  if  in  the  end  it  does  not  cost  you  more  money  than  it  would  if 
fairly  built  at  a  fair  price.  Build  well,  doing  what  is  done  so  that  it 
will  last,  curtailing  the  dimensions  of  the  house,  if  necessary,  to  fit  it 
to  the  money  to  be  spent,  trusting  to  the  future  for  enlargement, 
rather  than  spread  a  little  money  over  a  great  extent — none  of  which 
will  ever  be  worth  the  trouble  it  has  cost. 

Much  additional  value  may  be  given  to  any  structure  in  the  country, 
by  a  prudent  foresight  in  the  selection,  preparation,  and  preservation 
of  materials,  previous  to  the  commencement  of  the  actual  work.  In 
clearing  ground  of  stones,  there  may  be  encountered  many  better 
suited  for  peculiar  uses  in  foundations,  if  saved,  than  any  which  could 
be  found  if  specially  sought.  There  are  few  who  appreciate  another 
means  which  their  own  lands  afford  of  enriching  and  beautifying  their 
edifices,  without  expenditure  of  money,  in  a  way  which  money  alone 
cannot  imitate.  There  is  hardly  a  wood  that  grows  that  cannot  be 
used  advantageously  and  ornamentally  in  its  own  native  color  in 
housebuilding.  The  variety  of  these  is  very  great.  On  many  single 
farms  there  may  be  found  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  different  kinds 
of  wood,  all  suitable  for  parts  of  the  interior  finish.  The  balusters 
of  stair-railings,  for  instance,  might  be  not  only  more  striking  and 
more  appropriate,  but  more  beautiful  than  any  imported  wood,  if  they 
were  made  of  different  native  woods  in  their  own  natural  grain,  and 
arrans;ed  with  reference  to  the  contrast  of  colors,     A  log  saved  from  a 


SOME   HINTS   UPON   FARM    HOUSES.  427 

frnit  or  shade  tree,  when  one  is  sacrificed  for  any  reason,  will  occasion 
but  little  trouble  to  lay  up,  but  could  hardly  be  procured  on  demand. 

As  soon  as  the  plan  of  the  house  is  so  far  decided  on  as  to  warrant 
their  purchase,  the  lumber  and  timber  for  its  construction  should  be 
seasoning.  Too  much  haste  in  erecting  the  house  will  inevitably 
show  its  effects  in  cracks  and  twists  and  gaping  joints  when  too  late 
to  provide  an  entire  remedy. 

In  arranging  and  combining  the  means  at  command,  so  as  to  meet 
as  fully  as  possible  the  wants  of  the  family,  without  waste  of  material 
in  the  first  instance,  or  causing  an  unnecessary  expenditure  of  time 
and  labor  in  the  future,  there  is  much  occasion  for  both  study  and 
experience.  As  each  man  commonly  builds  but  one  house,  and  has  no 
opportunity  to  correct  his  errors,  he  is  liable  to  encounter  difficulties, 
or  fall  into  mistakes,  that  have  troubled  hundreds  before  him,  who 
have,  too  late,  learned  how  to  avoid  them.  The  number  and  uses  of 
the  apartments  being  determined,  they  are  to  be  combined  and  ar- 
ranged with  reference  to  convenience  of  communication  between  them, 
their  exposure  and  prospects,  and  the  exterior  shape  of  the  edifice,  in- 
volving the  form  of  the  roof,  spacing  of  windows,  &c.  It  will  be  seen 
that  there  are  many  diverse  and  sometimes  conflicting  purposes,  all 
to  be  kept  in  view,  and  difficulties  to  be  reconciled,  that  may  well  per- 
plex one  unaccustomed  to  the  work.  It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  rules 
for  designing  a  house,  but  some  points  to  be  regarded,  in  judging  of 
plans,  may  be  designated. 

The  rooms  should  be  compared  with  others,  of  nearly  the  same  size, 
devoted  to  similar  purposes,  and  furnished  in  nearly  the  same  manner. 
Every  one  understands  that  unfurnished  rooms  seem  to  be  of  very  dif- 
ferent dimensions  from  the  same  apartments  when  occupied  ;  and  the 
room  which,  as  a  bed-room,  may  seem  large,  will  look  very  small  as  a 
parlor. 

The  size  and  shape  of  many  rooms  must  be  regulated  by  the  furni- 
ture that  they  are  to  contain.  The  bed -room  must  have  space  for  the 
bedstead  to  be  placed  without  interfering  with  doors,  or  it  is  valueless. 
The  eating-room  must,  at  least,  have  width  enough  for  the  table,  with 
its  chairs,  and  passage-way  on  either  side.  If  a  piano  is  to  be  accom- 
modated in  the  ]3arlor,  the  requisite  space  must  be  provided  for  it, 
without  crowding  it  upon  the  hearth,  or  closing  up  an  important  door, 
or  a  window. 

The  height  of  stories  has  an  important  influence  in  determining  the 
apparent  size  of  the  apartments.  The  old  houses  were  uncomfortably 
low.  Following  the  fashion  set  in  cities,  there  is  a  tendency  to  the 
other  extreme,  and  rooms  are  often  rendered  cheerless  by  an  unreason- 
able height.  Besides  the  useless  cost  involved,  and  the  unfavorable 
effect  on  the  appearance  of  the  house,  it  causes  great  inconvenience  at 
stairways.  The  stairs  are  tedious  to  ascend,  and  occupy  so  much 
room  in  each  story  as  to  interfere  with  doors  and  passages.  For  any 
house  in  which  the  largest  rooms  are  not  more  than  sixteen  feet  wide, 
a  greater  height  of  story  than  eleven  feet  is  seldom,  if  ever,  advisable, 
while  smaller  houses,  and  upper  stories,  may  range  from  eight  or  nine 
feet  upward,  the  former  being  as  low  as  sleeping  rooms  ought  to  be 
made. 


428  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

When  men  sit  down  to  sketcli  an  arrangement  of  rooms,  &c, ,  the 
staircase  is  almost  always  treated  as  a  subordinate  feature,  which  may 
he  crowded  into  any  corner,  otherwise  unoccupied ;  and  too  often  the 
same  feeling  controls  its  actual  construction.  In  a  good  staircase,  the 
steps  will  he  broad  and  not  too  high,  and  there  will  be  room  enough 
for  the  tallest  person  to  pass  without  even  a  seeming  danger  of  hitting. 

The  ease  of  stairs  depends,  not  entirely  upon  the  height  of  the  step, 
but  on  the  proportion  which  the  rise  bears  to  the  breadth  of  the  tread. 
The  dimensions  which,  perhaps,  are  most  suitable  for  country  houses, 
are  seven  and  a  half  inches  rise,  and  ten  inches  width  of  tread.  If  the 
rise  is  increased,  the  breadth  may  be  diminished,  so  as  to  keep  the 
product  of  the  two  dimensions,  when  multiplied  together,  near  seventy- 
five.  These  sizes  must  be  often  varied  with  the  height  and  the  room 
which  may  be  occupied,  but,  in  good  stairways,  the  rise  ought  to  be 
less  than  eight  inches.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  room  occupied  is  more 
than  is  sometimes  thought  necessary.  If  the  story  is  ten  feet  high,  a 
straight  staircase  would  cover  a  space  of  the  lower  floor  more  than 
thirteen  feet  long,  and  require  a  well-hole  in  the  second  nearly  eleven 
feet  long.  To  bring  the  head  of  the  stairs  near  the  center  of  the  house, 
it  is  common  to  have  a  platform  a  few  steps  down  from  the  top.  In 
high  stories,  this  allows  more  available  room  below,  while  it  occupies 
more  of  the  room  of  the  second  story  than  if  there  is  but  one  ascent. 
To  accomplish  the  same  object,  and  to  save  room,  winding  stairs  are 
used,  but  are  always  to  be  avoided,  where  possible,  as  each  step  is 
reckoned  at  twice  the  cost  of  a  straight  one,  and  is  never  pleasant,  or 
safe,  after  it  is  up. 

The  stairs,,  forming  the  connection  between  the  upper  and  lower 
parts  of  the  dwelling,  may  contribute  much  to  its  cheerful  and  united 
appearance,  by  showing  themselves  to  be  easy,  capacious,  open  and 
inviting.  If  in  sight,  they  always  form  an  agreeable  feature,  unless 
the  story  to  which  they  lead  is  itself  so  uncomfortable  that  any  sugges- 
tion of  it  is  repulsive.  For  saving  labor,  and  for  the  protection  of 
carpets  and  furniture,  a  back  flight,  ascending  near  the  kitchen,  and 
shut  off  by  a  door  at  the  bottom,  is,  however,  required  in  most  country 
houses. 

The  arrangement  of  doors  is  often  such  that,  without  some  caution, 
two  or  more,  in  opening,  interfere  with  each  other.  But  care  in  regard 
to  the  hanging  of  them  will  prevent  much  of  the  annoyance.  This  is 
a  matter  generally  left  to  the  carpenter's  journeyman,  who  hangs  the 
doors  with  more  reference  to  the  right  or  left  hand  make  of  the  latches 
he  has,  than  to  any  other  consideration. 

Attention  has  so  often  been  directed  to  the  fact  that  the  solid  con- 
tents of  a  cube  are  greater  than  those  of  any  other  right-angled  figure 
of  equal  surface,  that  most  people,  following  Loudon,  and  those  who 
have  copied  from  him,  seem  to  consider  it  an  axiom,  that  any  depar- 
ture from  a  perfect  parallelogram,  in  the  form  of  a  house,  is  at  a  sacri- 
fice of  economy.  Some  have  carried  their  mathematics  still  further, 
and   urged  that  everything  should  be   formed  in  octagons.  As 

appendages  to  single  rooms,  octagonal  forms  are  sometimes  both  con- 
venient and  pleasing  to  the  sight,  especially  when  it  is  desirable  to 
obtain  light,  or  views  in  more  than  one  direction,  or  to  secure  entrances 


SOME    HINTS   UPON   FARM    HOUSES. 


429 


at  corners  of  rooms;  but  for  an  area  to  be  divided,  there  is  no  shape 
more  inconvenient  or  wasteful  than  this.  The  rooms  can  have  no 
regular  form,  without  the  sacrifice  of  many  triangular  spaces,  alike 
useless,  whether  inclosed  or  not.  There  is  little  chance  to  place  ordi- 
nary furniture,  the  connection  of  room  is  inconvenient,  the  house, 
externally,  is  as  unsightly  as  it  is  possible  to  make  it,  while  the 
greatly  increased  amount  of  partitions  usually  runs  its  cost  up  to  or 
above  that  of  a  rectangular  building  of  the  same  capacity.  People 
who  have  occasion  to  pack  square  goods,  do  not  choose  casks  for  the 
purpose. 

For  the  economy  of  building  and  economy  of  living,  the  general 
form  of  houses  must  be  rectangular,  but  it  need  not  be  a  square  nor  a 
regular  parallelogram;  because  ab  cis  just  as  long  as  ad  c, 
it  takes  no  more  wall  for  a  square  house  than  an  irregular 
one  of  the  same  extreme  dimensions,  the  floors  and  roof 
being  all  the  additional  expense.  It  is  therefore  said  that  the 
square  one  is  the  most  valuable  one  for  its  cost.  This  is 
not  true,  if  the  room  so  taken  in  is  not  needed  or  cannot  be 
used  to  advantage,  or  if  the  addition  materially  impairs  the  value  of 
the  original  structure. 

Irregularities  are  frequently  desirable  to  afford  light  to  special  parts 
of  the  interior.  The  construction  of  the  roof  sometimes  demands  a 
change  of  form,  and  sometimes  it  is  required  for  the  improvement  of 
the  general  proportion  and  outline  of  the  building.  In  the  little 
cottage  represented  in  figures  T  and  8  the  entry  communicates,  with- 
out waste  of  space,  with  each  of  the  three  rooms.     If  the  corner  in 


a 

i 

a 


Fig.  6. 


Fig.  7.    First  story. 


Fig.  8.    Second  story. 


front  of  it  were  filled  out,  it  would  still  be  necessary  to  carry  the 
hall  back  as  far  as  it  now  extends,  so  that  the  room  would  only  be 
useful  for  entrance  purposes.  The  side  window  of  the  sitting  room 
would  be  lost,  and  so  would  the  advantage  of  the  snug  corner  for  the 
entrance  and  veranda.  The  roof  would  require  an  entire  change,  and 
the  whole  arrangement  and  appearance  of  the  exterior  would  be  differ- 
ent. Look  at  the  perspective  view,  (figure  9,)  fancy  its  modifications, 
and  say  whether  it  would  be  better  to  make  them,  at  the  additional 
cost  of  floors  and  roof,  for  the  sake  of  the  greater  entry  which  would 
have  been  secured. 


430 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


Fig.  9. 

Tliat  there  sliall  be  the  best  expression  of  consistency  and  complete- 
ness, the  structure  must  be  centralized.  Some  one  prominent  feature 
must  be  above  or  before  the  rest,  and  first  fix  the  attention.  The 
whole  form  must  tend  toward  this,  so  that  it  shall  seem  one  united 
design,  grown  up  together.  In  the  best  of  the  old  rectangular  houses 
the  high  roof  and  central  chimneys  served  this  purpose.  In  the  best 
modern  ones,  not  only  the  roof,  but  the  different  parts  of  the  house, 
each  telling  of  its  own  purpose  and  use,  group  themselves  around 
some  central  point — central  in  influence  rather  than  position,  and  to 
the  charm  of  simplicity  and  unity,  add  the  greater  charm  of  variety. 
The  two  resemble  each  other  in  their  development  of  symmetry  very 
much  as  the  trim  evergreen  and  the  well-formed  oak. 

Every  feature  of  a  house  that  tells  of  a  use,  essential  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  home,  may  be  valuable  and  pleasing  in  its  exterior,  and  the 
higher  the  nature  of  the  enjoyment  secured  by  it  the  more  valuable 
the  indication.  All  such  things  are  to  be  so  arranged  and  exhibited 
as  not  to  interfere  with  each  other  in  their  effects.  For  this  reason  it 
is  proper  to  keep  in  view  the  exterior  expression,  as  well  as  material 
convenience,  in  arranging  the  interior. 

The  chief  expressive  features  of  dwellings  are  the  windows,  en- 
trances, roof,  and  chimneys,  to  which  may  be  added  the  verandas. 

The  windows  are  the  eyes  of  the  house,  not  only  giving  light  and 
cheerfulness,  but  telling,  more  than  any  other  feature,  what  is  going 
on  within.  Although  the  form  of  windows  is  infinitely  variable  in  the 
other  classes  of  architecture_.  there  can  seldom  be  much,  if  any,  devia- 
tion from  rectangular  outlines  in  houses  of  the  class  under  considera- 
tion. If  the  walls  are  built  of  bricks,  or  small  stones,  the  heads  may 
be  arched  with  advantage,  both  in  the  construction  and  appearance. 
But  the  requirement  of  light  as  high  as  possible  in  the  room  restricts 
us  to  the  low  segment,  as  the  only  available  form  of  arch,  and  this 
varies  so  little  from  a  straight  line  that,  though  the  opening  of  the 
masonry  is  curved,  the  sash  is  often  straight.  In  wooden  walls  curved 
forms  over  openings  are  manifestly  not  the  most  appropriate,  being 


SOME   HINTS   UPON   FARM   HOUSES.  431 

both  weaker  and  more  costly  than  straight  ones.  But  there  is  oppor- 
tunity for  much  variety  even  with  rectangular  windows. 

In  houses,  such  as  all  have  seen,  with  five  windows  on  the  front,  up 
stairs,  all  placed  at  equal  distances,  and  four  windows  and  a  central 
door  below,  we  have  what  is  by  many  considered  the  perfection  of 
regularity  and  order.  Such  regularity  is  of  the  lowest  kind.  The 
door  betokens  some  entrance  way,  but,  besides  that,  there  is  nothing 
to  indicate  the  internal  divisions  or  uses  of  the  house,  or,  when  look- 
ing at  the  upper  part,  to  fix  the  attention  on  any  of  the  uniform 
windows.  A  very  little  alteration  will  at  once  change  the  whole 
front,  and,  without  impairing  its  symmetry,  give  it  a  new  character. 
Let  the  two  windows  on  each  side  of  the  middle  be  placed  nearer 
to  each  other,  so  that  they  shall  always  be  looked  on  as  a  pair,  and 
the  house  at  once  is  seen  to  have  a  room  at  each  end.  If  the  middle 
window  has  a  size  or  form  peculiar  to  itself,  it  may  also  give  dignity  to 
the  center,  and  thus,  without  extra  cost^  and  without  change  of  the 
walls  or  roof,  a  very  important  expression  may  be  obtained. 

The  gathering  of  the  windows  together  has  also  served  another  pur- 
pose. Before,  the  walls  were  broken  up  by  numerous  0]3enings,  so  that 
they  had  a  scattered  and  restless  look.  Now,  the  breadth  of  the  un- 
broken wall-spaces  is  increased,  and  the  apparent  weight  and  solidity 
of  the  structure,  and  we  have  contributed  much  to  the  feeling  of  sta- 
bility and  repose,  which  is  essential  to  domestic  quiet.  The  windows 
may  be  brought  close  to  each  other,  forming  one  double  window,  or 
separated  by  a  wider  or  narrower  pier^  according  to  the  circumstances 
and  the  judgment  of  the  designer,  the  center  of  the  two  being,  if  prac- 
ticable, in  the  center  of  the  apartment,  and  those  of  the  upper  story 
above  those  of  the  lower. 

Difference  in  the  size  and  shape  of  windows  on  the  same  front  is  not 
only  allowable,  but  pleasing,  when  there  is  a  good  and  evident  reason 
for  the  diversity,  as,  for  instance,  against  stairways,  the  location  of 
which  may,  very  properly,  be  shown  in  that  way,  instead  of  hidden  by 
false  or  useless  openings,  uniform  with  the  rest  in  size  and  situation. 
Windows  in  the  different  parts  of  the  house  may  be  almost  any  size, 
and  grouped  in  a  thousand  ways,  giving  great  variety  and  expression 
to  the  house,  and  at  the  same  time  contributing  to  variety  and  interior 
convenience,  if  the  whole  proportion  of -opening  to  wall-space  is  main- 
tained, and  the  central  points  of  the  groups  are  so  placed  as  to  retain 
the  balance  of  the  parts  nearly  as  though  they  were  all  alike. 

There  is  nothing  that  gives  a  house  a  more  uncomfortable  look  than 
the  little,  low  holes  under  the  eaves,  which  are  sometimes  called  attic 
windows.  They  give  evidence  that  a  space,  too  contracted  even  to  be 
more  than  barely  endurable,  is,  nevertheless,  occupied  by  somebody, 
whose  light  comes  from  an  opening  close  to  the  floor,  rendered  inac- 
cessible by  the  lowness  of  the  roof.  A  window  in  the  gable,  on  the 
other  hand,  may  seem  very  pleasant,  as  it  gives  no  evidence  that  the 
room  from  which  it  looks  out  extends  on  either  side  so  far  as  to  be 
uncomfortably  low. 

Dormer  windows,  if  broad,  on  steep  roofs,  are  really  very  pleasant 
features  of  rooms  that  may  be  far  more  comfortable  and  cheerful  than 
many  lower  down  in  the  house,  but  if  the  roof  is  comparatively  flat, 


432 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


and  tlie  windows  are  narrow,  tliey  afford,  at  best,  but  a  sorry  avenue  for 
the  light  of  day;  and  in  either  case,  their  appearance  expresses  the 
truth  of  the  matter. 

Figures  10  and  11  representing  an  alteration  of  a  small  house,  illus- 
trate Ihese  suggestions  respecting  windows,  and  some  other  matters, 
soon  to  be  alluded  to. 


Fig.  10. 


People  whose  knowledge  of  French  windows,  or  those  whose  sashes 
are  hinged  like  doors,  is  derived  from  seeing  them  on  an  occasional  visit 
to  a  neighbor's,  are  often  very  anxious  to  have  them  on  their  own 
houses,  and  it  is  with  difficulty  they  are  persuaded  that  they  are  in 
anywise  objectionable.  Unless  made  very  heavy,  and  with  at  least  twice 
the  work  and  cost  required  by  an  ordinary  sash-window,  they  cannot  be 
rendered  even  tolerably  tight  against  storms  under  verandas.      In  ex- 


".•^MVC'--'"'' .  ? 


Fig.  11. 


posed  situations  rain  will  drive  in,  notwithstanding  every  precaution. 
Such  sashes  cannot  safely  be  used  with  curtains,  as  many  housekeepers 
know,  by  vexatious  experience.  Another  serious  objection  to  them  is 
the  broad  bar  up  and  down  the  center,  where  unobstructed  light  is 
most  wanted;  but  in  its  apish  mimicry,  fashion  has   fastened   the 


SOME    HINTS   UPON   FARM    HOUSES.  433 

objectionaWe  feature  on  windows  of  other  construction,  where  it  is 
entirely  uncalled  for  and  a  nuisance. 

Is  it  necessary  to  say  anything  of  those  most  inexcusable  lies  called 
sham  windows  ?  They  are  confessions  that  the  builder  thinks  he  ought 
to  have  placed  a  window  where  he  did  not ;  attempts  to  falsify  and  hide 
the  real  character  of  the  building  he  was  incompetent  to  manage. 

The  man  who  is  not  ingenious  enough  to  avoid  even  the  apparent 
occasion  for  sham  windows,  wooden  chimney  tops,  and  all  that  sort  of 
falsehood,  is  unqualified  to  design  a  house  for  human  habitation. 

The  warmth  of  windows  may  be  increased  by  doubling  the  glass. 
This  may  be  done  either  by  putting  two  thicknesses  in  one  sash,  or  by 
placing  an  extra  sash  outside  in  winter. 

As  the  windows  are  the  features  chiefly  tributary  to  the  internal 
cheerfulness,  so  the  doors  are  the  means  by  which  communication  is 
maintained  with  the  outside  world.  The  main  entrance  should  open 
into  a  hall,  or  passage,  communicating  directly  with  the  rooms  where 
visitors  would  be  received.  It  should  be  spacious  and  accessible  from 
the  front,  for  convenience,  and  should  be  sufficiently  prominent  to  be 
inviting,  and  appear  hospitable,  but  not  so  obtrusive  as  to  promise  more 
than  the  rest  of  the  house  will  warrant.  All  outside  doors  ought  to 
be  sheltered  by  porches  covering  the  steps,  so  that  a  person  awaiting 
entrance  may  not  be  exposed  to  storm  or  sun.  The  back  porches  may 
be  very  plain  and  inexpensive.  If  the  doors  are  not  otherwise  pro- 
tected within  the  building,  these  may  very  well  be  so  constructed  that, 
in  the  winter,  they  may  be  inclosed  with  movable  shutters,  inserted 
between  the  posts.  It  is  best,  however,  that  no  outside  doors  should 
open  directly  into  any  of  the  living  rooms  of  the  house,  and  in  cold 
climates  it  is  well  to  have  them  shut  off  by  an  extra  door  from  the 
passages  in  common  use.  If  no  better  provision  can  be  made,  a  tem- 
porary partition  and  door,  of  light  frame-work  covered  with  some 
woven  stuff,  to  be  placed  across  the  hall  a  few  feet  from  an  outside  door, 
in  the  winter,  will  contribute  greatly  to  the  warmth  of  the  house,  ancl 
need  not  be  unsightly. 

The  front  porch,  being  for  protection  against  storm,  should  be  as 
heavy  and  substantial  in  appearance  as  the  general  construction  of  the 
whole  building.  It  should  be  neither  flimsy  nor  disproportionately 
massive.  Upon  stone  and  brick  buildings  it  should  be  made  much 
heavier,  both  in  form  and  detail,  than  would  be  at  all  proper  upon 
wooden  ones.  It  may,  with  great  propriety,  receive  as  high  a  degree 
of  ornamentation  as  any  part  of  the  structure. 

Verandas,  on  the  other  hand,  being  simply  shades,  and  shelters  from- 
the  damps  of  evening,  ought  to  be  and  appear  as  light  as  is  consistent 
with  stability.  Very  unpleasant  effects  have  been  produced  by  con- 
structing them  as  modified  porticoes,  with  columns  and  cornices  of 
classic  type,  but  horribly  distorted  in  proportion.  They  are,  in  their 
uses,  unlike  anything  to  be  found  in  ancient  architecture,  resembling 
awnings  rather  than  roofs,  and  should  be  managed  as  a  peculiarity  of 
our  own  time,  Avithout  attempting  to  follow  an  inapplicable  model. 
Porticoes  carry  weight  of  roof  on  heavy  columns,  frequently  placed  so 
that  the  columns  and  the  mass  above  are  the  main  features.  Verandas 
carry  little  weight ;  their  supports  must  be  far  apart,  and  should  seem 
28— A 


434  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

light  and  fanciful,  the  part  above  being  a  mere  screen.  Tlie  chief  effect 
of  verandas,  architecturally  speaking,  is  the  dark  shadow  beneath 
them. 

The  English  seem  to  consider  these  features  mere  matters  of  orna- 
ment. They  may  be  so  in  that  climate,  but  in  ours  are  of  great  practi- 
cal utility.  Their  position  should  be  chosen  with  reference  to  their 
usefulness,  as  well  as  the  symmetry  of  the  building.  As  a  shade,  a 
veranda  is  useless  on  the  north  side  of  a  house,  but  its  roof  is  a  pro- 
tection against  the  effects  of  falling  dew  ;  and  in  the* afternoon,  when 
the  horizontal  rays  of  the  sun  render  the  south  or  west  side  untenable, 
the  north  may  be  a  desirable  resort.  Judgment  must  be  employed  that 
it  be  not  too  narrov/  for  free  use,  or  too  high  for  shade,  or  too  wide  or 
too  low  for  light.  An  agreeable  tone  may  be  given  to  the  light  by  a 
delicate  tint  on  the  veranda  ceiling. 

Sometimes  the  main  porch  is  combined  with  the  veranda,  or,  rather, 
the  entrance  is  from  a  veranda  without  any  distinct  porch.  Unless  the 
veranda  is  quite  small,  it  is  best  in  such  cases  that  some  change  in  its 
form  should  be  made,  so  as  to  render  the  entrance  more  prominent 
than  it  can  be  under  an  unbroken  line  of  roof. 

Any  attempt  to  give  expression  to  a  dwelling  will  be  nearly  useless 
if  it  have  a  characterless  roof.  This  is  the  head  of  the  house,  and, 
more  than  all  other  features,  gives  it  peculiarity.  Its  varieties  and 
effects  can  only  be  hinted  at. 

A  flat  roof,  or  one  so  low  as  to  be  invisible,  may  be  a  cover  to  the 
building,  but  is  not  a  roof,  to  outward  sight.  The  house  can  never  seem 
to  be  finished  which  is  apparently  lacking  this  most  imj)ortant  member. 
It  should  be  so  steep  as  to  be  seen  at  the  ordinary  distance  at  which 
the  house  will  be  looked  at,  but  the  slope  should  not  be  so  long  as  to 
make  the  entire  height  too  great  when  seen  from  further  off;  for  then 
the  roof  seems  to  crush  and  distort  the  building  below  it.  If  the  width 
of  the  house  be  very  great,  it  will  generally  be  necessary  to  have  two 
slopes  to  meet  these  two  requirements,  one  steep  near  the  walls  and  a 
lower  one  further  up.  The  upper  slope  may,  if  proper  materials  can 
be  obtained,  be  nearly  flat. 

The  gables^  or  the  pointed  walls  where  roofs  terminate,  are  very 
marked  objects,  and  the  roof  ought  to  be  so  formed  that  these  shall 
make  the  central  and  commanding  feature  in  the  principal  fronts. 
The  general  tendency  of  the  roof  lines  should  be  towards  the  center, 
uniting  the  whole  structure,  and  cqncentrating  the  attention.  Hipped 
roofs,  where  the  slopes  of  sides  at  right  angles  to  each  other  meet, 
contribute  greatly  to  this  effect ;  but  gables  are  generally  needed  in 
combination  with  them,  both  for  light  in  the  garret  and  for  satisfac- 
tory appearance.  The  form  commonly  built  a  few  years  ago,  with  a 
long,  unbroken  roof,  sloping  to  and  from  the  road,  with  enormous 
gables  at  each  end,  was  the  reverse  of  this,  scattering  rather  than 
concentrating  in  its  effect.  Gables  may  appropriately  surmount  the 
projecting  parts  of  the  house,  wherever  an  irregular  form  is  adopted. 
As  the  slope  of  the  roof  is  to  be  the  same  on  all  sides_,  the  width  and 
position  of  projections  and  the  form  of  the  roof  influence  each  other. 

The  cornice  may  be  considered  a  part  of  the  roof.  In  the  simplest 
and  rudest  construction,  where  thatch  or  rough  slabs  are  used  as  a  cov- 


SOME    HINTS   UPON   FARM    HOUSES. 


435 


ering,  tlie  roof  always  projects  beyond  the  walls,  both  at  the  ends  and 
sides,  as  the  most  ready  method  of  affording  protection  from  the 
weather.  Such  a  projection  is  essential  to  the  expression  of  the  full 
value  of  the  roof.  It  also  suggests  another  idea,  more  fanciful,  per- 
haps, but  one  which  influences  every  person  more  or  less,  that  of  shel- 
tering or  brooding  the  house.  As  our  experience  in  discerning  character 
is  mainly  derived  from  the  observation  of  the  human  face,  we  very 
early  learn  to  trace  resemblances  in  other  things,  and  it  may  be  that 
our  feeling  respecting  cornices  is  suggested  by  the  similarity  to  the 
hair  and  eyebrows,  which  are  so  essential  to  the  character  of  the  coun- 
tenance. 

A  flat-roofed  house  with  a  wide  cornice — a  form  ' '  fashionable ' '  of 
late — is  simply  a  box  with  a  cover  too  large  for  it;  the  two  have  no 
peculiar  relation  to  each  other,  and  no  apparent  union.  But  our  roof 
and  cornice  must  fit  our  house  only.  The  walls  must  be  finished  for 
it,  and  show  the  fact,  not  seeming  to  have  been  built  higher  and  cut 
down,  but  prepared  for  stopping,  by  belts,  &c.,  before  the  roof  was 
reached.  Then  the  projection  must  be  proportioned  to  the  height  and 
width  of  the  walls,  and  extent  and  thickness  of  roof,  so  that  while  it 
is  enough  for  a  shadow,  breaking  the  outline,  and  for  real  protection 
of  the  walls,  it  shall  not  seem  to  be  in  clanger  of  breaking  off",  nor 
entirely  stop  the  eye  of  the  observer,  in  running  up  to  the  summit  of 
the  house.  For  the  last  reason,  the  moldings  of  the  cornice  must  be 
easy,  and  the  square  surfaces  against  which  their  curved  lines  stop  not 
too  broad.     Brackets,  too,  though  not  essential,  are  serviceable  to  the 


Fig.  12. 


same  end,  and  they  also  serve  to  break  up  the  monotony  of  the  straight 
cornice  lines.  Unless  there  is  some  special  purpose  to  be  served  by 
grouping  them,  it  is  better  to  place  them  at  uniform  distances  apart, 
equally  distributing  their  apparent  and  real  load,  than  in  pairs,  as 
some  do,  for  reasons  unknown. 

Upon  small  and  steep  gables,  not  allowing  of  great  projection,  and 


436 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


in  certain  styles,  the  same  eiFects  are  produced  by  a  plank  liung  under 
the  cornice,  called  a  verge-board,  which  may  be  varied  indefinitely, 
either  in  its  outline  or  by  perforations.  The  faults  of  this  kind  of 
finish  are  the  liability  that,  instead  of  a  substantial  plank,  with  a  visible 
thickness,  some  thin,  flimsy  board  will  be  used,  of  which  only  the  front 
can  be  seen,  and  that  the  forms  chosen  will  not  be  such  as  to  aid  in  the 

desired  effect.  It  is  a  safe  rule 
for  those  who  are  not  artists,  in 
all  matters  of  this  kind^  where 
figures  are  to  be  represented 
by  flat  surfaces,  to  use  none  but 
simple  geometric  figures,  or  the 
graceful  outlines  of  leaves  and 
other  natural  objects  that  are 
themselves  flat. 

"Whatever  features  of  roofer 
cornice  are  adopted,  let  them 
be  real.  Mock  gables,  which 
are  not  the  actual  terminations 
of  rood's,  like  all  other  building 
fictions,  excite  disgust  with  the 
whole  structure. 

The  chimneys,  which  crown 
the  whole  edifice,  may  make  or 
mar  its  influence  most  serious- 
ly. Fortunately,  the  position 
which  produces  the  best  result 
externally  is  the  one  on  all  ac- 
counts most  suitable,  consid- 
ered solely  with  reference  to 
the  interior  economy ;  and  mod- 
ifications of  form  in  the  chim- 
ney tops,  sufficient  for  all  or- 
dinary embellishment,  need 
hardly  make  an  appreciable 
addition  to  the  cost,  and  may, 
at  the  same  time,  increase  their 
practical  utility. 


Fig.  13. 
FIRST    STORY. 


Figures  12. 


13,  and  14  illus- 


SECOND    STORY. 


trate  some  of  these  ideas.  They 
represent  a  design  for  a  small 
stone  dairy  farm-house,  where 
all  the  rooms  are  intended  for 
daily  use. 

The  sitting-room,  or  parlor, 
P  (Fig.  13),  and  the  kitchen, 
both  connect  with  the  front 
hall.  The  scullery  S.,  dairy 
D,,  and  store  room  P.,  are 
large,  and  so  is  the  kitchen. 
In  the  second  story  there  are 
five  chambers. 


SOME    HINTS   UPON   FARM   HOUSES.  437 

The  tops  may  sliow,  by  an  ingenious  disposition  of  the  bricks,  that 
care  is  bestowed  and  variety  sought  even  in  the  working  of  the  coarsest 
and  most  intractable  materials.  Placing  them  in  central  positions,  so 
that  they  shall  form  the  apex  of  the  general  pyramidal  outline,  they 
will  be  more  conveniently  located  for  collecting  several  flues  into  a 
single  stack,  more  economical  in  original  construction,  and  both  more 
efficient  and  economical  in  the  use  of  fuel  than  if  built  in  the  outer 
walls. 

When  so  situated,  they  seem  to  tell  of  families  gathered  together, 
rather  than  dispersed  to  the  four  corners  of  the  habitation,  as  always 
seems  to  be  the  case  in  those  houses,  which  are  often  seen,  with  lean, 
tall,  uncared-for  shafts  all  around  the  building,  rising  hardly  so  high 
as  the  ridge  of  the  roof.  The  favorite  phrase  of  orators,  '^  around  the 
family  hearth, '^  has  something  more  than  a  figurative  significance^ 
which  is  everywhere  recognized.  The  size  of  the  chimney  tops  may 
also  suggest  either  generous  fires  or  the  contrary.  A  small,  single 
flue  may  practically  serve  all  the  purposes  of  carrying  the  smoke  from 
a  stove-pipe^  but  it  will  always  indicate  its  fuel-saving,  rather  than  its 
heating  qualities.  Yet,  if  too  large,  chimneys  fail  again,  by  reminding 
of  the  overgrown  and  badly  constructed  fire-places,  that  carried  off 
immense  quantities  of  hot-air,  but  produced  little  effect  inside  the 
house,  except  in  the  way  of  cold  draughts  and  rheumatism. 

It  is  with  chimneys  as  with  all  other  parts  of  an  edifice,  if  they  are 
to  express  anything  it  must  be  in  a  language  understood  by  those  to 
whom  the  expression  is  to  be  conveyed.  So  much  regard  must  be  had 
to  common  customs  that  the  associations  of  those  who  are  to  see  the 
house  shall  aid  rather  than  counteract  your  efforts.  We  need  not, 
however,  yield  to  opinions  and  habits  of  judgment  founded  on  a  famil- 
iarity with  bad  models  of  buildings,  or  the  prevalence  of  a  thoughtless 
fashion. 

Neither  are  we  bound  to  make  the  reason  for  all  our  details,  and  the 
manner  by  which  they  produce  their  effects,  obvious.  Thev/orld  may' 
read  our  communications  without  knowing  how  their  characters  were 
impressed.  A  structure  which  has  received  the  study  of  its  builder  is 
worth  the  study  of  the  beholder,  and  it  is  not  our  business  to  encourage 
his  laziness. 

With  wooden  buildings,  an  important  question  always  arises, 
respecting  the  color  of  the  painting.  There  is  nothing  on  which  it  is 
more  difficult  to  communicate  definite  ideas,  as  no  one  in  words  can 
describe  a  color  so  that  another  shall  be  able  exactly  to  match  it,  even 
with  the  most  careful  cultivation.  The  difficulties  are  greatly  increased 
when  either  party  has  not  made  this  a  subject  of  study.  It  is  always 
presumptuous  to  attempt  the  statement  of  rules  on  a  matter  involving 
such  diversity  of  choice.  It  is  safe  to  say,  hoAvever,  that  a  clear  and 
glaring  white  is  not  so  desirable  for  ''house  paint"  as  some  softer  tint, 
unless  the  sole  purpose  is  to  make  the  building  conspicuous  ;  that  no 
somber  or  dismal  color  should  be  chosen  ;  that  it  should  be  one  not 
liable  to  fade  disagreeably;  that,  in  shaded  positions,  it  will  bear  to  be 
much  lighter  than  in  exposed;  and  that  the  different  parts  of  the 
building  should  not  be  painted  in  violent  contrast  to  each  other.  It  is 
quite  customary  to  heighten  the  effect  of  some  of  the  outside  details, 


438 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


by  giving  tliem  a  darker  shade  than  the  rest  of  the  surface.  This  is, 
indeed,  almost  necessary  on  a  clap-boarded  house^  to  counteract  the 
effect  of  the  horizontal  lines  of  shadow,  which,  like  the  parallel  tint 
lilies  of  engravings,  make  the  whole  clap-boarded  surface  seem  a  shade 


Fig,  15. 

darker,  from  a  little  distance,  than  the  plain  parts.  But  it  will  not  do 
to  rely  on  difference  of  color  for  the  effect  of  details*,  in  planning  them, 
as  all  portions  may  sometimes  be  painted  alike. 

On  the  interior  wood-work,  two  or  more  tints  of  the  same  color  may 
be  used,  about  cloors^  &c.,  with  very  pleasing  effects,  if  the  variation 
is  not  too  great  and  the  color  not  too  dark.  The  meanest  work  which 
ever  finds  its  way  into  decent  houses  is  what  is  called  graining.  The 
only  superiority  claimed  for  it  over  plain  painting,  is  the  greater  ease 
of  keeping  it  clean — due  not  to  the  graining,  but  the  varnish  on  the 
surface.  This  may  as  well  be  put  over  any  paint;  or,  if  the  color  of 
the  natural  wood  is  desired,  the  paint  may  be  left  off  altogether,  and 
the  real  article  presented,  without  the  disgrace  of  a  sham.  For  there 
is  no  incongruity,  but  a  manifest  propriety,  in  using  all  these  mate- 
rials in  the  same  structure,  if,  in  their  own  places,  they  each  serve  a 
better  purpose  than  any  other  could.  There  ought  to  be  no  attempt 
to  conceal  their  real  nature,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  each,  in  its  form 
and  finish,  should  be  wrought  in  its  own  most  appropriate  manner. 
If,  however,  stone  would  be  better  than  wood  for  the  purpose  to  be 
served,  and  the  latter  is  manifestly  a  substitution  of  a  cheap  and  imper- 
fect material  for  the  better  one,  it  ought  not  to  be  used  at  all. 

If  none  of  the  harder  v/oods  can  be  conveniently  emj)loyed,  common 
pine,  if  left  unpainted,  would  be  superior  in  beauty  to  the  most  perfect 
imitation  of  oak  or  walnut  ever  attempted. 

The  colors  of  stone  and  brick,  when  used  together,  should  be  con- 
sidered in  their  arrangement  so  as  to  produce  harmonious  variety  or 
pleasant  contrasts,  and  such  parts  as  are  of  wood  be  painted  different 
from  both,  that  no  one  may  imagine  there  is  any  attempt  to  imitate 
either. 


SOME    HINTS   UPON    FARM    HOUSES. 


439 


It  is  not  intended  "here  to  enter  into  any  general  examination  of  tlie 
buildings  of  a  farm,  except  the  farmer's  own  residence.  But  the  in- 
fluence of  these  structures  upon  the  home  occupations  and  home  com- 
forts of  a  farmer's  family  is  so  great,  that  in  some  respects  their  arrange- 


Fis  16. 


ments  a're  not  less  important  in  this  view  than  those  of  the  house  itself. 
Aside  from  all  questions  of  personal  convenience^  there  is  nothing  in 
the  whole  system  and  policy  of  agriculture  that  can  he  made  to  con- 
tribute more  to  the  facility  and  profit  of  the  labor  to  be  performed  than 
the  barns  and  other  outbuildings.  Their  number  and  extent  is  gener- 
ally not  so  great  in  this  country  as  is  deemed  requisite  upon  the  same 
amount  of  land  in  Europe,  although  in  some  sections  hay  is  housed, 
and  seldom  so  abroad.  But  a  most  common  sight  here  is  a  disorderly 
collection  of  carts,  plows,  harrows,  sleds,  and  other  appliances  for  farm- 
work,  exposedby  the  road-side  or  in  the  stable-yard  to  all  the  vicissitudes 
of  the  weather,  while  such  things  are  carefully  housed  in  sheds  specially 
built  for  them  in  the  improved  English  farmsteads.  Although  the 
machinery  which  in  English  establishments  is  provided  for  grinding 
grain  and  preparing  food  for  cattle  is  generally  not  needed  by  Ameri- 
can farmers,  there  are  many  things  in  which  they  might  profit  hj  the 
example  set  on  the  other  side  of  the  water  ;  but  in  nothing  more  than 
in  respect  to  neatness  and  orderly  management,  there  regarded  as  a 
matter  of  profit,  and  which  here,  also,  would  bring  great  accessions  to 
the  enjoyments  of  country  life.  The  same  principles  of  design  and 
construction  apply  to  these  buildings  that  are  to  be  observed  in  the 
dwelling-house,  and  in  very  many  respects  their  application  will  be  the 
same,  while  in  other  matters  it  will  be  modified  by  the  difference  of 
circumstances  and  the  peculiar  demands  of  the  structure.  We  cannot 
refer  to  details,  but  must  content  ourselves  with  a  simple  indication  of 
some  of  the  ends  to  be  sought,  rather  than  the  means  of  obtaining  them. 
Whatever  may  be  the  preference  respecting  the  use  of  stone  for  farm 
dwellings,  there  can  be  no  question  that  it  is  the  best  material  for 
many  of  the  outbuildings.  Many  times  it  can  be  collected  without 
any  expense  beyond  what  would  be  incurred  in  clearing  the  stones 
from  the  fields.      The  labor  of  laying  walls  is  such  as  may  in  a 


440  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

great  measure  be  done  by  farm  bands  wben  not  otberwise  occupied. 
"Tbe  wbole  cost  may  be  more  tban  tbat  of  a  frail  wooden  structure,  but 
it  will  be  vastly  more  durable  tban  tbe  generality  of  sucb  buildings. 
If  basements  are  used,  wbich  are  required  to  be  dry  or  warm,  the  same 
precautions  are  to  be  taken  as  in  tbe  bouse,  only  tbat  boards  may  be 
employed  instead  of  plastering. 

If  barns  are  constructed  of  wood,  tbe  framing  must  be  in  some  re- 
spects different  from  tbe  bouse,  because  strains  are  unequal  at  differ- 
ent times  in  sucb  buildings.  The  tbin  timbers,  wbicb  answer  perfectly 
for  tbe  walls  of  a  bouse,  would  not  be  sufficient  to  resist  tbe  outward 
pressure  of  bay.  Sometimes,  too,  there  are  weights  thrown  upon 
beams  never  designed  to  carry  them,  and  unless  they  are  much  stronger 
than  is  necessary  for  any  duty  expected  of  them,  they  may,  in  such 
circumstances,  give  way  and  cause  disaster. 

Why  need  barns  be  built  more  than  a  low  story  from  the  ground 
where  land  is  of  no  comparative  value  ?  It  seems  as  though  an  intelli- 
gent i'armer  might  save  himself  much  labor  in  pitching  bay  at  a  time 
of  the  year  when  labor  is  the  best  worth  saving,  by  planning  his  barn 
so  that  his  hay  need  not  be  raised  above  the  groimd  floor. 

In  stables  there  ought  to  be  a  plentiful  and  constant  supply  of  water. 
If  no  other  can  be  had,  the  roofs  afford  the  means  of  collecting  large 
quantities  of  rain-water.  In  many  situations  it  might  be  carried  by 
pipes  to  cisterns  but  little  lower  than  the  roof,  either  built  on  the 
ground  or  above,  from  which  supplies  might  be  drawn  for  the  barn 
or  house. 

Light  is  as  indispensable  in  stables  as  in  bed-rooms,  if  proper  regard 
is  paid  to  the  condition  and  comfort  of  cattle.  Where  glass  is  sold 
no  higher  than  in  this  country,  it  is  simply  shameful  to  keep  horses 
in  dark  stalls  to  save  the  expense  of  a  window. 

Foul  air  is  no  more  wholesome  for  cattle  than  for  men,  and  is  much 
more  easily  got  rid  of  in  stables  than  in  houses.  To  do  so,  involves 
the  necessity  of  neatness  as  a  habit. 

There  should  be  somewhere  a  shop,  where  tools  may  be  kept  in 
order,  for  making  little  repairs  to  harness  or  tools,  without  delay  or 
loss  by  neglect. 

Orderly  arrangement  and  division  of  the  buildings,  so  that  the  litter 
or  stench,  of  one  part  of  the  barn  shall  not  extend  over  parts  where  it 
is  unnecessary,  can  easily  be  accomplished,  and  is  worth  attention. 
Harness  should  have  a  place  where  it  may  be  kept  in  order,  instead 
of  hanging  in  the  way,  behind  or  beside  the  horses ;  but  it  need  not 
be  in  the  feed-room,  and  it  may,  perhaps,  be  disposed  of  better  than  by 
tumbling  it  in  a  heap  upon  a  straw-cutter  or  in  a  wagon-box. 

The  defects  of  American  farm  establishments  are,  probably,  most 
noticeable  in  the  management  of  the  manure  deposit.  It  was  very 
common,  in  certain  parts  of  the  country,  to  see,  a  few  years  ago — and 
such  things  may  be  found,  perchance,  even  now — barns  placed  directly 
across  the  highway  from  the  house,  stables  ranged  along  the  road,  and 
manure  heaps  piled  against  the  side  of  the  building,  where  every  rain, 
as  it  fell  from  the  roof,  would  drop  upon  them,  bespattering  the  wall 
and  washing  away,  in  offensive  streams,  the  very  substance  most  needed 
for  the  fertility  of  the  farm.     But  little  better  are  the  establishments 


SOME    HINTS   UPON   FARM   HOUSES.  •  441 

wliere  the  stable  doors  are  only  accessible  through  barn  yards,  which 
are  perpetual  sloughs  of  mud  and  filth.  In  these  things,  as  in  most 
others^  the  course  Avliich  is  furthest  from  neatness  and  comfort  is  the 
most  unprofitable. 

There  are  men  who  always  travel  with  the  odor  of  the  stable  clinging 
to  their  boots,  whose  coming  can  be  foretold  in  the  distance,  but  whose 
departure  does  not  remove  the  evidence  of  their  late  presence.  Their 
houses,  from  garret  to  cellar,  are  redolent  of  their  occupation.  A 
cleanly  woman,  in  such  a  house,  is  an  object  of  pity.  Many  of  them 
have  patiently  borne  what  was  to  them  a  serious  and  real  hardship, 
rather  thafi,  by  complaining,  incur  the  charge  of  discontent  with  their 
proper  sphere  of  life,  as  though  industry  and  filth  were  inseparable ! 

This  is  entirely  unnecessary.  The  stables  may  be  so  ventilated  and 
contrived,  and  the  cattle-yards  so  drained,-  that  this  nuisance  may  be 
avoided,  with  profit  at  the  barn,  as  well  as  comfort  at  the  house.  To 
disregard  this  incessant  disgust  of  a  sensitive  woman,  because  the 
olfactories  of  her  more  stolid  husband  are  not  so  acute,  is  scarcely  less 
than  brutal. 

If  a  census  could  be  taken  of  the  merchants  and  business  men  in 
our  large  cities  who  are  most  active  in  their  occupations,  and  the  most 
noted  for  wealth  and  enterprise^  it  would  be  found  that  a  very  large 
proportion  of  them  look  forward  to  a  home  upon  a  farm,  to  which  they 
may  sometime  retire  from  the  avocations  of  commerce,  as  the  goal  of 
their  ambition.  Comparatively  few  ever  reach  it_,  and  they  only 
after  the  habits  of  a  lifetime  have  unfitted  them  for  its  enjoyment. 
At  the  same  time,  the  singular  spectacle  is  presented,  of  whole  neigh- 
borhoods deserted  by  farmers'  sons,  and  their  places  supplied  by 
inferior  and  hired  laborers.  What  drives  these  young  men  from  agri- 
culture to  other  employments?  Is  it  the  hard  work  of  a  farm  ?  Most 
of  them  encounter  more  labor^  physical  as  well  as  mental,  than  would 
be  necessary  on  the  land.  Is  it  constant  work?  They  find  no  relief 
in  that  respect  who  engage  in  trade  or  enter  a  profession.  Is  it  the 
wish  for  a  more  honorable  avocation?  None  such  exists.  But  is  it 
not  the  disgusting  things  which  they  wish  to  escape ;  the  disregard  of 
the  obvious  advantages,  and  neglect  of  the  best  means  which  a  farmer's 
life  afi'ords  for  the  development  of  his  own  better  faculties,  which  is 
seen  on  every  hand? 

Our  whole  subject  has  an  economic  bearing.  It  has,  also,  relations 
to  art  and  to  morals,  the  former  subordinate  to  and  included  in  the 
latter.  It  is  not  a  mechanical  topic  alone,  but  is  worthy  the  investi- 
gation of  the  philanthropist  and  the  patriot. 


442  ■  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

GREEN  SOILING  STOCK. 


BY  D.    S.  CURTIS,  OF  MADISON,  WISCONSIN. 


By  green  soiling,  or  "^soiling  stock,"  is  meant  the  practice  of 
keeping  all  tlie  animals  in  stalls  and  yards,  and  feeding  them  on  cjreen 
food,  raised  and  cut  for  the  purpose,  during  the  ordinary«pasturing 
season,  and  then  allowing  them  to  run  only  in  the  yard  a  short 
time  daily,  where  they  can  take  necessary  exercise,  instead  of  following 
the  old-fashioned  or  ordinary  custom  of  permitting  them  to  range  the 
fields  or  ''commons"  for  the  purposes  of  pasturing  in  the  usual  man- 
ner. 

To  present  some  reliable  information  on  the  practice  and  results  of 
this  system,  derived  from  observation,  experience,  and  reading,  is  the 
object  of  this  paper. 

Observing  persons,  who  have  had  much  exiDcrience  in  tilling  the 
soil,  know  well,  that  it  will  yield  much  more  value  of  product,  when 
wisely  manured,  worked,  and  reaped,  several  times  during  the  season, 
than  if  cropped  but  once,  or  pastured  by  animals  running  at  large. 

The  question  then  arises,  will  the  extra  product,  obtained  by  thorough 
tillage  and  repeated  gatherings  by  man,  remunerate  the  extra  labor 
and  expense  required  by  this  process,  over  and  above  the  ordinary  benefits 
obtained  from  the  same  quantity  of  land,  by  pasturing  it  with  the 
amount  of  stock  which  can  fairly  be  maintained  upon  it,  with  simple 
pasturage  during  the  summer,  and  cutting  feed  for  them  during  the 
winter. 

It  is  believed  that  this  question  can  be  not  only  demonstrated  affirm- 
atively, but  it  can  be  clearly  shown  that  the  system  will  pay,  several 
times  over,  even  in  the  new  States,  where  lands  are  cheap  and  plenty, 
as  well  as  in  the  older  States,  where  land  is  dearer,  and  farms  smaller. 

FENCES  AND   HERDING. 

In  the  prairie  districts  of  the  West  and  South,  where  fencing  timber 
is  scarce  and  expensive,  farmers  are  compelled  to  resort  to  various 
expedients  for  securing  the  usual  conveniences  offences.  Ditches,  sod- 
fences,  and  hedges,  are  the  most  common  substitutes,  all  of  which  are^ 
more  or  less,  useful^  particularly  the  latter,  wherever  the  climate  or 
season  will  permit  their  robust  growth ;  but  all  of  them  demand  con- 
siderable labor  and  trouble,  first  to  make  them,  and  then  to  keej)  them 
in  repair,  while  none  of  them  are  always  sure  to  ''turn  cattle,"  and 
protect  the  crops.  Wire  fences,  also,  are  frequently  employed  to  ad- 
vantage; but  they,  like  the  others,  are  more  or  less  insecure. 

On  some  very  large  plantations,  fences  are  almost  wholly  dispensed 
with,  and,  in  their  stead,  men  or  boys  are  engaged,  night  and  day,  to 
pass  continually  around  and  watch  the  fields ;  while,  on  some  other 
farms,  the  stock  is  herded  by  a  keeper  in  day  time,  and  yarded  at 


GREEN    SOILING   STOCK.  443 

niglit;  and,  on  a  very  large  scale,  these  modes  are  found  cheaper  than 
making  large  outlay  for  a  great  quantity  of  fences. 

But  in  all  of  these  cases  there  must  be  much  insecurity  to  the  crops, 
and  more  or  less  danger  of  losing  the  cattle,  so  that  none  of  these 
expedients  can  he  entirely  relied  upon  for  general  use  in  any  highly 
cultivated  region,  while  boards  and  rails  are  expensive  in  the  prairie 
district.  Hence,  in  order  to  obtain  the  largest  benefits  from  agricul- 
ture of  which  it  is  capable,  farmers  must  adopt  some  other  and  better 
system  of  managing  their  stock  and  lands,  and  herein  that  better  way 
will  be  pointed  out. 

ADVANTAGES    OP    SOILING. 

Green  soiling  is  the  system  which  will  admirably  meet  all  these 
wants,  if  generally  practiced,  even  in  the  prairie  region  and  stock- 
raising  districts. 

To  begin  with :  Suppose  a  man  of  quite  moderate  means  obtains  and 
settles  upon  an  eighty-acre  lot,  the  size  which  generally  constitutes  the 
smaller  farms  of  this  region ;  he  has  a  yoke  of  oxen,  two  cows,  and 
two  or  three  young  hogs,  for  fattening  and  for  breeding.  In  the  start, 
he  is  able  to  inclose  half  of  it,  forty  acres,  with  a  fence  of  some  sort, 
which  requires  80  X  4  rr:  320  rods  of  fence;  the  cheapest  and  most 
economical  kind  within  his  reach  is  a  ditch  and  sod-fence,  which  he 
can  make  with  his  own  hands,  and  not  pay  out  a  dollar  of  money ;  and 
if  well  done,  will  cost  him  one  day's  work  for  every  five  rods  of  the 
fence,  say  $70 ;  and  this  is  the  best  he  can  do,  if  unable  to  hire  help 
or  buy  fencing  stuff. 

This  accomplished,  he  yet  has  but  one  field  inclosed,  and  this  much 
he  could  not  well  dispense  with,  unless  all  of  his  neighbors  kept  their 
stock  safely  fenced  in.  And,  with  his  forty  acres  "fenced  in,"  he  still 
has  no  secure  pasture  for  his  cows,  team,  or  hogs,  but  must  let  them 
run  out,  and  range  the  commons^,  to  any  distance  they  will,  over  the 
unfenced  prairies,  and  waste  his  time  and  theirs  in  being  hunted  up. 
This  much  he  must  submit  to,  the  first  season,  upon  his  new  farm, 
unless  he  can  procure  a  store  of  food  for  his  stock,  or  make  more  fence 
to  confine  them  near  home,  but  the  very  labor  and  expense  required 
for  additional  interior  fences  would  be  sufficient  to  pay  for  their  neces- 
sary food.  And,  with  very  little  labor,  he  could  make  a  temporary 
shed  and  yard  for  them  comfortable  enough  for  the  warm  season, 
which  could  be  improved  and  made  more  comfortable  on  the  approach, 
of  winter ;  thus  he  would  be  economically  and  pleasantly  provided  for 
until  his  new  crops  grow  to  his  use,  which  need  not  be  longer  than 
about  the  first  of  July,  if  he  early  sowed  a  small  patch  of  oats,  or 
corn,  (broadcast,)  or  millet,  peas,  or  any  other  crop  of  whibh  he  may 
happen  to  have  the  seed,  which  will  furnish  a  cut  of  succulent  feed  in 
early  summer,  and  grow  rapidly  at  this  season  of  the  year. 

This  he  can  mow  or  cradle  daily  in  sufficient  quantities  to  supply 
hi^  animals  in  their  stalls  or  yards,  from  which  he  need  have  no  fur- 
ther trouble  than  to  work  his  team  in  raising  crops,  cleaning  his  fields, 
and  feeding  his  animals  at  suitable  times,  say  three  to  five  times  a  day, 
as  circumstances  will  permit.     Some  feed  their  milch  cows  six  times  a 


444  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

day,  and  think  the  benefits  more  tlian  compensate  for  it.  This  first 
jjatch  will  last  until  another  one,  which  was  sowed  fifteen  or  twenty 
days  later,  comes  on;  thus  a  succession  of  feed  is  furnished. 

Now,  the  case  supposed,  being  a  new  farm  in  a  new  country,  is  one 
of  the  worst  that  well  could  be  for  favorably  showing  the  advantao-es 
of  '^ soiling/'  But  the  animals  are  now  all  safe,  where  they  will  not 
destroy  the  crops  nor  cause  the  owner  vexatious  loss-time  in  tedious 
hours  of  looking  after  his  strays,  far  away  over  the  boundless  prairies, 
and  the  little  new  farm  is  in  a  condition  to  begin  to  enjoy  the  fullest 
advantages  of  "soiling,"  in  practicing  which  with  care  and  calcula- 
tion, devoting  more  labor  to  less  land,  giving  the  same  time  to  care 
for  his  stock  in  the  stable  which  is  often  spent  in  chasing  them,  early 
and  late,  when  strayed  away  or  unwilling  to  be  catched,  the  owner 
will  realize  greater  profits,  as  well  as  delight,  in  his  business ;  and  if 
he  will  but  labor  nearly  as  hard,  in  hauling  out  and  spreading  the 
manure  saved  at  the  stables  upon  his  land,  as  he  does  in  making  his 
cross-fences,  he  will  be  sure  to  obtain  larger  returns  from  his  cows  and 
land  than  he  would  by  the  old  system. 

This  first  season  past,  and  all  the  "fodder"  being  saved  for  winter 
which  can  be  on  a  new  place,  the  next  thing  to  be  done  is  to  plow  and 
prepare  as  much  ground  as  can  be  well  done,  or  the  weather  will  per- 
mit, for  the  following  spring's  crops.  Then,  as  early  as  the  condition 
of  the  land  will  allow,  in  the  spring  (which  is  often  as  early  as  the 
latter  part  of  March,  but  still  oftenor  the  forepart  of  Ajoril)  a  piece  of 
oats  should  be  sown — at  least  three  bushels  to  the  acre — and  be  well 
harrowed  in ;  about  half  an  acre  to  each  head  of  stock  to  be  fed,  and 
half  an  acre  for  all  of  the  hogs.  This,  for  the  two  cows,  two  oxen,  and 
the  hogs,  will  require  two  and  a  half  acres.  In  ten  or  fifteen  days 
sow,  broadcast,  of  corn,  millet,  or  the  like,  another  half  acre  to  each 
head,  two  to  three  bushels  to  the  acre.  Sorghum,  buckwheat,  or  peas, 
will  be  good,  if  the  seed  is  at  hand,  to  give  variety  of  feed. 

These  two  soiuings  will  allow  a  rich  and  abundant  suj)ply  of  feed  to 
all  of  the  animals  for  two  months,  at  least ;  the  green  oats  to  be  mowed 
or  cradled  day  by  day^,  as  the  stock  may  need,  for  July,  and  the  corn 
or  other  crop  to  be  cut  in  the  same  manner,  as  it  may  be  needed,  for 
August. 

But  for  the  early  part  of  the  season — ^before  these  sowed  crops  come 
on  for  cutting,  about  the  last  of  June  or  first  of  July — the  stock  will 
continue  to  be  supplied  by  the  winter  feed,  such  as  straw,  hay,  and 
roots,  together  with  cuttings  of  the  earliest  grass  which  makes  its  ap- 
pearance large  enough  for  the  scythe,  and  with  clover,  when  it  is  in- 
troduced on  to  the  farm. 

For  September  the  stock  can  be  fed  with  the  second  cutting  of  oats 
and  the  early  grass,  which,  on  rich,  mellow  land,  will  be  pretty  rank 
and  large  by  this  time  if  it  were  not  cut  too  close  down  the  first  time. 
For  October  they  can  be  fed  on  the  second  cutting  of  corn  and  other 
crops  that  may  be  ready,  together  with  the  first  cutting  of  those  that 
were  sowed  last.  Barley,  and  even  peas,  are  a  good  crop  for  late  sow- 
ing, which  may  be  as  late  as  in  the  early  part  of  June,  as  they  are 
better  calculated  to  stand  the  early  autumn  frosts  than  most  others  * 
which  we  have  named. 


GREEN    SOILING   STOCK.  445 

On  deep-plowed,  mellow  ground,  well  manured,  these  crops  will 
grow  on  thriftily,  and  admit  of  two  or  three  cuttings  hefore  the  frosts 
kill  them  in  the  fall. 

This  "  soiling"  on  very  rich  fields,  is  often  practiced  hy  milkmen 
who  keep  large  numbers  of  cows  near  populous  cities  or  towns,  where 
they  wish  to  feed  a  good  deal  from  little  land  ;  they  sow  corn  or  millet, 
or  other  like  crop,  and  about  as  often  as  once  a  month  they  mow  it, 
and  carry  the  feed  to  the  cows  in  their  stables ;  and  they  find  it  very 
profitable.  Their  course  is,  as  often  as  every  ten  or  fifteen  days,  as 
the  feed  is  cut  off  and  consumed,  to  re-plow  and  sow,  after  first  spread- 
ing all  the  manure  from  the  cow  stables,  as  fast  as  made,  for  re-cutting 
and  feeding.  In  this  manner,  with  care  and  system,  they  regularly 
obtain  the  equivalent  of  three  or  four  rich  crops  in  a  single  season,  and 
find  that  one  square  rod  of  ground  furnishes  an  ample  supply  of  the 
richest  feed  for  a  cow  one  day,  and  maintains  the  fullest  flow  of  rich 
milk.  And  these  valuable  results  may  as  easily  be  realized  by  farmers, 
with  the  same  care  and  effort,  upon  every  acre  of  land  which  they  will 
cultivate  on  the  soiling  system ;  and  certainly  it  must  be  more  safe 
and  agreeable  than  toiling  and  tugging  over  large  fields,  which  are 
made  to  produce  not  more  than  half  their  real  capacity  under  the  best 
management. 

But  returning  to  the  farm:  November  will  be  well  provided  for  by 
the  last  cutting  of  the  soiling  crops,  together  with  the  tops  of  such 
roots  as  have  been  raised,  and  are  gathered  about  or  a  little  before  this 
time,  which  make  a  rich  and  much  relished  food  for  animals  at  this 
season  of  the  year,  and  promoting  the  yield  of  milk.  Any  excess  of 
feed  from  the  several  crops  which  may  happen  to  exist,  can  be  cured 
and  stored  away  like  other  hay  or  straw — all  the  better  if  mixed  in  the 
hay  with  the  latter — for  winter  "fodder." 

Iii  addition  to  these  come  roots  as  the  chief  and  best  feed  for  winter, 
cut  up  with  straw,  hay,  and  stalks,  and  given  to  the  animals  in  mix- 
ture, which  is  sure  to  keep  them  in  good  heart,  flesh,  and  milk,  until 
the  next  spring,  the  usual  time  to  commence  pasture,  when  the  order 
of  "^ soiling"  is  resumed,  and  pursued  about  as  pointed  out  above;  of 
course,  with  such  modifications  as  experience  or  circumstances  may 
dictate ;  and,  like  a  merchant  with  a  comfortable  deposit  of  cur- 
rency in  the  bank,  upon  which  he  can  draw  at  convenience,  the 
farmer  now  has  an  equally  rich  bank  upon  which  he  can  draw  for  sure 
treasures,  in  the  shape  of  the  good  pile  of  manure  which  has  been 
made  during  winter. 

And  here  it  will  be  seen  that  less  than  seven  acres  of  land — less  than 
tioo  acres  per  head — under  this  improved  management,  maintained,  in 
most  comfortable  and  thrifty  condition,  the  two  cows,  two  oxen,  and 
the  hogs,  in  both  winter  and  summer,  and  with  additional  comfort  to 
the  owner,  there  being  no  milking  or  feeding  out  of  doors  in  storms, 
mud,  or  hot  sun,  and  no  racing  through  fields  and  over  the  commons 
for  cow^s,  team,  or  pigs. 

Under  the  more  common  custom  of  cultivation  and  pasturing,  from 
five  to  eight,  and  even  ten  acres  per  head,  is  usually  required  to  get 
well  through  the  year,  with  hardly  half  the  quantity  of  manure  saved, 
and  at  more  than  double  the  cost  and  outlay  of  capital  in  land  and 


446  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

fences.  But  with  tlie  "soiling"  system  generally  prevailing,  farmers 
really  need  to  have  no  more  fence  than  to  inclose  the  outside  or  boun- 
daries of  the  farms;  with,  perhaps,  a  handsome  inclosure  around  the 
residences  and  gardens,  with  good  harn-yards  adjoining  the  stock 
stables. 

FARM   SUPPLY  AND    ROOTS. 

In  the  meantime,  sufficient  ground  is  plowed  and  prepared  upon 
which  to  raise  such  other  crops  as  are  necessary  for  the  farm,  and  the 
family  may  need,  or  other  circumstances  may  render  desirable ;  and  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  land  is  sowed  to  o^oots,  of  some  kind,  to  furnish 
ample  food  for  the  animals  through  the  winter,  after  and  before  soiling. 
One  bushel  a  day  of  carrots,  beets,  parsnips,  or  turnips,  per  head  for 
each  animal  to  be  fed,  for  about  five  months,  is  a  liberal  allowance, 
and  a  safe  calculation  in  providing  roots  for  stock.  Some  of  them  will 
eat  more  than  that  quantity,  but  more  of  them  will  eat  less.  One 
bushel  of  roots  cut  up  with  a  little  straw,  hay,  or  stalks,  is  all-sufficient 
to  keep  the  largest  cow  fat  and  in  full  milk,  if  kept  in  a  warm  stable, 
while  most  of  them  will  not  eat  that  much ;  but  it  is  safer  to  provide 
that  quantity,  if  it  can  be  done.  For  a  working  horse,  one  bushel  of 
carrots,  or  half  a  bushel  with  the  meal  of  a  half  peck  of  oats,  cut  up 
with  a  reasonable  quantity  of  straw  or  hay,  will  keep  him  in  good 
heart  and  working  condition,  under  fair  daily  labor  ;  many  horses  re- 
quire even  less,  while  very  few  ever  need  more.  Carrots  are  the  better 
and  favorite  kind  of  roots  for  horses,  and  most  people  see7n  not  to  un- 
derstand the  value  of  that  fine  root  as  horse  feed,  from  their  not  using 
it  more  largely,  while  it  is  cheaper  than  oats  by  half. 

Both  horses  and  cattle,  supplied  all  the  year  round  with  this  rich 
succulent  food,  are  seldom  sick  or  ailing,  but  always  in  good  flesh*  and 
sleek,  shining  coats — being  never  "hide-bound" — because  never  heart- 
bound  nor  frost-bound. 

On  the  above  estimate,  or  rather  well-tested  data,  for  the  five  months 
of  December,  January,  February,  March,  and  April,  one  hundred  and 
fifty  bushels  of  roots  will  be  required  for  each  animal,  which,  at  a 
moderate  yield,  would  require  the  product  of  only  one-quarter  of  an 
acre ;  or,  of  one  and  a  quarter  acres,  for  all  of  the  stock  which  we  have 
designated,  on  the  eighty-acre  farm  above. 

Where  the  land  is  rich,  mellow,  and  clean,  and  the  crop  is 
thoroughly  cultivated,  with  good  seed,  600  to  800  bushels  of  carrots 
and  parsnips,  and  800  to  1,000  bushels  of  beets  and  turnips  to  the 
acre,  is  only  a  good  crop,  and  can  safely  be  calculated  upon,  while  a 
much  larger  than  this  is  often  obtained,  at  remunerating  rates,  under 
high  culture  and  manuring.  But  the  estimate  above,  for  feeding,  is 
based  upon  the  smallest  yield,  of  only  600  bushels  to  the  acre. 

COULD   DISPENSE   WITH    MOST   FENCES.       ' 

The  interest  on  the  out-lay  for  fences,  with  the  expense  for  necessary 
annual  repairs,  where  a  farm  is  as  well  fenced  as  a  fenced  farm  ought 
to  be,  would  nearly  or  quite  equal  the  cost  of  the  extra  labor  of  raising 


GREEN   SOILING    STOCK.  447 

and  delivering  the  food  to  stock  in  the  stalls,  under  a  well-conducted 
system  of  "soiling,"  to  say  nothing  of  the  superior  comfort  of  work- 
ing with  teams,  plows,  and  other  implements,  in  broad  fields,  where 
there  are  no  obstructions  from  interior  fences  and  hedges,  which, 
moreover,  cause  loss  of  time,  and  waste  of  the  valuable  acres  of  land 
which  they  occupy. 

And,  in  fact,  if  this  custom  of  "soiling"  or  feeding  all  stock  in 
stables  or  yards  were  imiversal,  there  would  be  no  need  of  any  other 
fences  than  those  along  the  highways  and  around  yards,  as  before 
suggested.  It  would  work  an  admirable  7-evolution  in  general  agricul- 
tural operations,  and  effect  a  saving  of  millions  of  dollars  in  every 
State,  and  even  in  some  single  counties,  in  the  mere  matter  of  fences 
alone,  which  are  subject  to  constant  decay  and  waste,  and  entirely 
useless,  save  for  this  one  purpose  of  protecting  crops  from  the  depre- 
dations of  outside  animals,  and  which  can  be  so  easily  dispensed  with, 
and  with  no  sacrifice  of  convenience  to  the  farmer ;  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, with  absolutely  enhanced  comfort  and  profit,  by  avoiding  the 
great  loss  of  time,  of  both  man  and  team,  so  often  suffered^  in  not 
having  the  cattle  or  horses  on  hand  at  early  morning  or  other  times, 
when  most  needed.  This  loss,  alone,  during  the  year,  with  many 
persons,  amounts  to  enough  to  go  far  towards  raising  their  summer's 
feed,  when  judiciously  applied;  besides  the  vexation  and  "wear  and 
tear  of  spirit,"  which  would  also  be  prevented  by  pursuing  this  "better 
way."  All  farmers  who  have  ever  experienced  or  witnessed  the  profit- 
less annoyance  of  having  teams  "strayed  off,"  just  when  much  wanted, 
and  not  found  until  the  "heat  of  the  day,"  and  then  man  and  beast 
"all  tired  out,"  will  appreciate  the  force  of  this  point  right  keenly. 
Besides,  there  is  a  pleasure  in  always  having  all  the  animals  at  hand, 
whenever  wanted  for  inspection,  sale,  or  use,  and  being  quiet  and 
gentle,  from  constant  handling,  they  can  be  more  pleasantly  and  care- 
fully examined.  This  is  an  interesting  thought  to  the  kind  and  en- 
lightened stock  grower. 

COST    OP   BOARD   FENCES. 

In  many  portions  of  Illinois  and  Wisconsin,  the  most  ordinary  plain 
board  fences  cost  from  eight  to  ten  shillings  per  rod,  and  even  more 
in  many  places,  while  often  rail  fences  are  still  more  costly,  but 
taking  the  lowest  cost,  of  one  dollar  per  rod,  the  expense  of  inclosing 
any  eighty-acre  lot  would  be  four  hundred  and  eighty  dollars,  and  two 
cross-fences,  one  each  way,  throwing  the  lot  into  four  twenty-acre 
fields,  would  cost  two  hundred  and  forty  dollars  more — in  all,  seven 
hundred  and  twenty  dollars,  a  larger  sum  than  the  value  of  the  land 
itself  in  many  locations  ;  in  fact,  there  are  many  farms,  in  all  parts  of 
the  country,  on  which  the  fences  really  cost  more  than  the  worth  of 
the  land  ;  of  which,  the  annual  decay  and  cost  for  repairs  are  about  as 
much  as  the  taxes  against  the  whole  property.  Now,  retaining  the 
boundary  fences,  and  excluding  the  cross  or  field  ones,  this  two  hun- 
dred and  forty  dollars,  with  expense  and  waste,  is  saved  for  more 
profitable  investment  in  some  other  department. 


448  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


DOCILITY   OP   ANIMALS. 


As  has  been  previously  hinted  at,  the  systematic  handling,  at  regu- 
lar times,  of  all  the  stock — cattle  as  well  as  horses,  in- and  out  of  their 
stahles — so  familiarizes*  them  to  their  keepers  that  they  become  pleas- 
antly acquainted  with  each  other,  which  affords  increased  confidence 
in  both,  and  thereby  the  animals  become  docile  and  tractable,  and  the 
owner  comes  soon  to  understand  well  their  wants,  nature,  peculiarities, 
and  diseases — if  they  have  any,  which  is  very  seldom — and  how  to 
treat  them  successfully.  Thus,  the  management  of  stock,  generally, 
is  reduced  to  a  science,  eliciting  study,  observation,  and  reflection,  and 
by  thus  exercising  the  intellectual  faculties,  the  business  becomes  far 
more  interesting,  as  well  as  profitable. 

Knowing  and  appreciating  the  animals  more  highly,  the  keeper  is 
moved  to  treat  them  rationally  and  with  increased  kindness,  which 
really  constitutes  him  a  better  man  and  them  better  servants! 

Were  sucli  the  only  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  soiling  pro- 
cess to  the  humane  lover  of  knowledge,  they  of  themselves  would  be 
rich  compensation  for  all  of  the  additional  attention  required  to  prac- 
tice it.  Besides,  the  stock  can  be  more  judiciously  supplied_,  with 
more  comfort  to  them,  the  food  being  readily  selected,  as  to  kind  and 
quantity,  agreeably  to  their  particular  wants ;  and  the  owner  is 
happily  relieved  from  the  annoyance  of  '^breechy"  depredations  by 
'•'unruly"  cattle,  which  often  commit' more  destruction  in  a  single  day 
or  night  than  their  own  worth,  to  say  nothing  of  the  damaging  effects 
to  his  own  temper  and  equanimity,  which,  oftentimes,  considerably 
abridges  both  profits  and  enjoyment.  This  should  lead  to  those 
higher  reflections  and  more  beneficent  impulses  which  it  were  well 
should  enter  into  all  of  our  transactions,  with  either  men  or  animals 
who  are  always  to  be  our  companions  or  servants. 

With  these  reflections,  we  will  proceed  to  point  out  the  more  direct 
and  pecuniary  benefits  of  the  practice,  as  they  have  been  abundantly 
proved  by  the  various  experience  of  enlightened  operators  on  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic. 

NINE   DISTINCT    BENEFITS. 

We  can  now  sum  up,  clearly,  nine  principal  advantages  that  may 
be  surely  derived  from  the  faithful  practice  of  this  beautiful  system  of 
green  soiling  the  stocJc  of  the  farm,  besides  the  incidental  benefits  which 
grow  out  of  it  indirectly,  namely  : 

Saving  of  land;  saving  offences;  saving  of  food;  improved  condition 
and  comfort  of  all  the  animals;  larger  product  of  milk  and  flesh;  greater 
docility  of  the  animals;  freedom  from  breechy  depredations;  larger  ac- 
cumulations of  manure;  and  increased  order  in  all  the  business  of  the 
farm. 

Incidental  to  these,  will  be  greater  cleanliness  throughout  the  prem- 
ises, there  being  few  foul  fence-corners,  and  no  feed  or  manure  scattered 
about  under  foot ;  a  greater  variety  of  food  can  be  used,  and  everything 
saved;  allowing  the  convenience  of  doing  more  of  the  work  by  one's 


GREEN    SOILING   STOCK.  449 

self,  and  requiring  the  paying  out  of  less  money;  and  permitting  the 
sale  of  a  larger  portion  of  all  grain  and  fruit,  or  other  matured  pro- 
ducts that  may  be  raised  on  the  place,  and  be  desired  in  the  usual 
market ;  and  the  comfort  of  doing  a  much  larger  share  of  the  ordinary 
business  under  shelter ;  and  having  a  much  larger  amount  of  vcdue 
concentrated  in  a  comparatively  smaller  space,  thoughout  most  of  the 
farm  property  and  products ;  as,  for  instance,  one  hundred  dollars' 
worth  of  stock  or  grain  occupies  much  less  space  than  the  same  value 
in  land  or  fences,  and  a  hundred  dollars'  worth  of  wool  or  butter  less 
space  than  the  same  value  of  grain. 

LARGER   CROPS  REQUIRE    GREATER   MANURING. 

It  is  true,  that  this  process  of  extreme  cropping  makes  severe  drafts  - 
upon  the  capacities  of  the  soil,  and  requires  corresponding  liberality 
in  supplies  of  manures  ;  yet,  the  superior  product  much  more  than 
pays  for  the  extra  requirements  of  manure  and  labor,  as  surely  as  the 
well-fed  horse  returns  better  service  than  the  poorly-fed  one  does. 

And  all  experiments  and  observations  prove  that  the  quantity  of 
manures,  made  and  secured  from  the  stock  which  eats  this  produce, 
if  all  properly  applied  to  the  land,  is  sufficient  to  keep  up  its  produc- 
tiveness to  the  highest  point  demanded  by  the  system,  so  long  as  it  is 
pursued,  and  even  enough  to  keep  much  more  land  in  high  tilth. 

Now,  taking  these  two  propositions  together — namely,  that  the  land 
thus  treated  and  often  cropped  yields  far  more  than  it  otherwise  would, 
and  much  more  than  pays  the  cost ;  and  that  the  stock  fed  upon  it 
produces  more  than  manure  enough  to  keep  up  the  soil  to  this  state — 
we  are  prepared  to  assume,  that  it  is  more  advantageous  to  maintain 
stock  on  this  plan  than  to  allow  them  the  range  of  much  more  land. 
And  this  fact  will  hold  true  as  well  with  large  farms  as  with  small 
ones,  and  in  new  countries  as  in  old  ones  ;  for,  in  either  case,  capital 
in  lands  and  fences  is  saved  to  a  large  extent.  "Soiling"  will  make 
every  acre  that  is  used  employ  more  labor  and  stock,  and  give  a  greater 
return  for  them,  besides  employing  both  more  pleasantly,  than  the 
pasturing  custom  possibly  can ! 

But,  it  may  be  declared  by  some,  that  "in  new  countries,"  thinly 
settled,  where  there  is  unlimited  range  of  pasture,  it  will  not  pay  to 
raise  and  cut  crops  to  feed  out  to  stock  in  stalls,  when  they  can  so 
readily  run  and  have  what  they  need  ' '  for  the  picking  of  it  themselves." 
Though  this  idea  is  generally  believed  and  indulged  by  emigrants  to 
the  new  States,  it  is  nevertheless  fallacious,  and  is  successfully  answered 
in  previous  remarks  upon  the  netv  eighty-acre  farm.  It  will  cost  no  more 
to  raise  (he  feed  for  stock  on  the  farm  at  home,  because  there  happens 
to  be  a  large  range,  than  if  it  did  not  exist;  while  the  cost  and  loss 
of  chasing  the  stock  is  greater  than  if  the  range  were  small!  It  is 
proper  to  remark,  in  this  connection,  that  there  are  some  peculiarities 
about  the  prairies  of  the  South  and  West  which  require  a  different 
mode  of  cultivation  in  some  respects,  from  that  commonly  pursued  in 
other  portions  of  the  country,  and  which  have  been  presented  in  the 
volume  of  the  Keport  for  1858,  at  page  283,  written  by  myself,  and  a 
29 A 


450  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

reference  to  wliicli  may  render  it  unnecessary  to  repeat  them  at  this 
time. 

But  we  may  repeat,  that  whatever  reasonable  course  or  policy  will 
secure  the  same  return  for  less  labor,  without  depreciating  the  capital, 
must  certainly  he  peculiarly  a  good  system  for  a  new  country,  where 
labor  is  scarce. 

HIGHER   INFLUENCES    OF    THE    SYSTEM. 

"When  thoughtfully  considered^  it  will  be  seen  that  the  general  effect 
of  this  practice  upon  the  mind  of  the  operator  will  be  elevating  and 
salutary.  This  branch  of  his  business  absolutely  requiring  constant 
gentleness  and  order,  his  general  habits  and  feelings  will  naturally 
become  imbued  with  similar  principles  and  sentiments  toward  every- 
thing with  which  he  comes  in  contact,  to  a  much  larger  degree  than 
covid  be  under  the  ordinary  mode  of  imperfectly  and  carelessly  culti- 
vating large  farms,  and  allowing  the  stock  to  run  at  large,  often 
trampling  under  foot  and  destroying  as  much  good  feed  as  they  con- 
sume, and  subjecting  the  keeper  often  to  harassment  in  chasing  after 
his  half-tamed  animals;  his  own  disposition,  as  well  as  theirs,  getting 
badly  "riled-up,"  interrupting  his  tranquillity  and  happiness  for  hours 
or  longer  ;  causing  him,  in  some  measure,  to  lose  his  kindly  interest 
in  them ;  and,  as  though  it  were  a  kind  of  natural  reflex  from  his  own 
condition  upon  them,  they  do  not  thrive  so  well  as  they  ought,  but 
being  frightened  and  excited  they,  too,  fret  aivay  some  portion  of  their 
thrift — serenity  being  as  essential  to  the  highest  product  of  milch  cows 
and  fattening  animals,  as  to  the  enjoyment  of  man.  The  very  oppo- 
site from  the  above  is  the  case  where  all  the  animals  are  quietly 
secured  and  amply  fed ;  comfort  and  order  reigns ;  and  there  being 
little  or  no  disturbing  cause  to  man  or  beast,  the  former  seldom  mal- 
treats the  latter;  and  all  enjoy  thrift  and  progress  to  the  highest 
reasonable  degree. 

This  to  some,  with  only  partial  reflection,  may  be  deemed  but  a 
trifling  consideration ;  but  the  more  thoughtful  and  observing  operator 
well  knows  that  no  attitude  of  mind,  in  the  farmer  or  other  person, 
can  be  productive  of  more  enjoyment  and  prosperity  than  the  steady 
preservation  of  gentleness  and  serenity;  it  is  certainly  a  manly,  a  noble 
deportment,  and  must  ultimately  be  as  profitable  as  it  is  pleasant. 

In  addition  to  all  this,  the  operator  will  uniformly  find  this  frame 
of  thought  and  mind  far  more  favorable  for  reflection  and  investiga- 
tion into  the  causes  of  all  the  various  phenomena  which  constantly 
come  before  his  observation  in  the  pursuit  of  his  business,  and  to  enable 
him  to  extract  therefrom  more  elevated  enjoyments  than  can  be  experi- 
enced by  the  person  who  is  constantly  confused  by  disorder  and  excite- 
ment from  surrounding  circumstances.  Order  and  tranquillity  are 
eminently  essential  to  deep  and  efficient  thought  and  the  successful 
pursuit  for  knowledge  everywhere,  but  especially  so  in  the  study  and 
examinations  of  living  creatures. 

Besides,  many  of  the  neighborhood  quarrels  and  individual  enmities 
are  engendered  by  damages  and  trespasses  committed  by  cattle  running 
at  largo,  and  often  terminating  in  lawsuits,  that  subject  both  parties 


GREEN    SOILING   STOCK.  451 

to  losses,  in  time  and  money,  greater  than  the  value  of  the  damages 
and  animals  combined ;  all  of  which  would  have  been  comfortably 
avoided  under  the  general  prevalence  of  "soiling"  the  animals  in 
secure  stalls. 

GENERAL   VIEW   OF   THE   SUBJECT. 

Whatever  is  conducive  to  order  and  thoroughness  in  its  operations 
must  be  advantageous  to  the  pursuit  of  agriculture,  generally,  in  all 
regions ;  and  to  forward  that  object,  is  the  sole  and  earnest  purpose 
of  writing  this  article. 

That  process  which  increases  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  while  it  pre- 
serves its  productiveness,  and  which  secures  the  highest  remuneration 
to  the  largest  amount  of  labor,  with  the  least  depreciation  of  the  capital 
upon  which  it  is  employed;  whatever  accomplishes  these  ends,  or  any 
of  them,  in  one  State,  must  be  good  policy  also  in  any  other,  while 
the  like  results  follow  the  operation. 

Now,  it  is  well  known  that  land,  which  is  liberally  enriched  by 
suitable  manures,  will  produce  much  more  bulk  and  value  of  succulent 
feed  if  the  crop  be  frequently  cut  off,  before  it  ripens  or  matures,  than 
if  left  to  attain  that  complete  state  before  it  is  cut  at  all.  For  instance, 
if  a  field,  which  is  mellow  and  in  high  tilth,  sowed  with  corn,  or  oats, 
or  millet,  or  other  like  crop,  be  mowed  two  or  three  times  during  its 
growing  season,  it  will  yield  at  least  twice  as  much  as  if  cut  but  once 
in  that  season.  So  with  clover,  and  the  ordinary  meadow  grasses. 
This  results  in  obedience  to  a  pervading  law  in  vegetable  growth, 
which  continually  strives  to  reproduce  or  perpetuate  itself  so  long  as 
the  season  for  growing  will  permit,  and  winter  holds  off. 

If  meadows  are  sufficiently  rich,  and  kept  annually  to23-dressed  with 
fine  manures,  they  will  yield  two  to  three  tons  of  good  hay  at  one 
mowing  in  the  season ;  bu  if  cut  three  times,  at  periods  properly  chosen, 
during  the  season,  they  will  yield  four  to  six  tons  of  still  better  hay 
than  that  obtained  at  one  cutting.  And  instances  are  numerous  where 
even  twice  that  quantity  has  been  obtained  to  the  acre  from  timothy 
and  red-top,  or  even  blue-grass  meadows.  These  statements  are  sus- 
tained by  testimony,  both  in  this  country  and  Europe,  of  early  as  well 
as  recent  date. 

There  is  a  prevalent  belief  among  many  cultivators,  that  for  a 
''stock-farm,"  or  to  keep  a  large  number  of  cattle,  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  have  a  large  farm,  or  a  vast  tract  of  land;  an  opinion,  it 
is  believed,  not  well  founded,  which  a  fair  understanding  of  the  plan 
and  results  of  "soiling"  plainly  shows,  for  it  is  evident  that  the  cost 
of  additional  land  and  fences  demands  more  capital  by  far  to  pasture 
large  herds  and  flocks,  than  is  required  to  cultivate  sufficient  crops  from 
less  land  to  feed  them  with  in  stalls  and  yards,  where  no  feed  is  wasted 
and  much  manure  is  saved.  The  accumulation  of  acres  increases  taxes, 
but  their  enhsinced  fertility  does  not  increase  the  amount  of  taxes. 

By  taking  the  facts^  results,  and  operations  above  elicited,  and  care- 
fully and  honestly  making  estimates,  in  comparison  with  ordinary 
farming  anywhere,  it  is  believed  that  every  candid  inquirer  will  arrive 
at  the  conclusions  stated  above. 


462  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


SOILING   AND   ROOTS   IN   ENGLAND. 

Soiling  cattle  has  proved  liigHly  advantageous  in  Europe  and  the 
older  States  of  this  country  in  all  the  instances  where  it  has  been 
adopted,  and  it  may  also  be  made  profitable  in  the  new  States^  even 
where  land  is  cheap  and  population  sparse,  and  thereby  much  of  the 
hardest  labor,  incident  to  new  settlements,  be  avoided ;  for  even  the 
usual  labor  of  making  the  inside  fences,  where  timber  is  plenty  even, 
can  be  more  profitable  and  pleasantly  appropriated  in  raising  feed  and 
giving  it  to  the  animals  in  a  proper  manner ;  and  surely  the  latter 
will  be  the  lighter  toil  of  the  two  ! 

But,  to  show  what  may  be  accomplished  on  a  given  quantity  of  land, 
when  the  full  amount  of  labor  and  manure  which  it  is  capable  of  re- 
ceiving is  applied,  a  quotation  is  made  from  the  statement  of  Murwen, 
a  distinguished  cultivator  in  England,  a  few  years  ago,  on  the  subject 
of  soiling  and  rotation : 

"On  894  acres  of  land  he  applied  13,700  loads  of  good  manure  on 
the  whole  field,  at  a  cost  of  $12  per  acre ;  he  paid  a  rent  of  $12  per  acre ; 
and  the  labor,  taxes,  implements,  interest,  &c.,  cost  another  $12  per 
acre;  amounting  to  a  total  expenditure  of  $36  per  acre,  and  of  about 
$31,000  on  the  whole  farm.  Then^  the  value  of  the  entire  product 
was,  in  round  numbers,  £8,600,  or  about  $43,000;  leaving  the  hand- 
some profit  of  about  $12,000  on  the  cultivation  of  the  farm  for  the 
year ;  afibrding  an  interest  on  the  investment  of  over  thirty-eight  per 
cent,  and  of  about  $13  50  per  acre;"  an  achievement  which  may  be 
contemplated  with  profit  by  many  who  seem  content  with  $3  profit  pei 
acre ! 

Among  European  agriculturists,  root  crops  have  become  an  important 
staple  in  their  improved  husbandry,  and  play  an  important  part  in  the 
"soiling"  process,  furnishing  the  largest  and  best  portion  of  the  winter's 
feed.  And  there  is  no  doubt,  from  countless  trials,  that  good  ground, 
with  proper  manure  and  culture,  will  yield  a  greater  quantity  to  the 
acre  of  nutritious  food  for  animals  in  roots  than  in  any  other  crop, 
whether  for  milk  or  flesh.  Instances  are  numerous  in  this  country 
and  Europe^  where  1,100  bushels  of  carrots,  the  same  of  parsnips, 
and  1,300  bushels  of  beets  and  of  turnips,  to  the  acre,  have  been  ob- 
tained. In  England,  turnips  and  parsnips  are  the  favorites;  while  in 
France,  beets  and  carrots  are  more  used;  and  in  this  country  they  may 
all  be  used  with  inestimable  profits  ! 

Besides  their  large  nutriment  and  productiveness,  roots  possess  much 
value,  from  the  fact  that  they  can  be  sown  and  will  mature  later  in 
the  season  than  almost  anything  else  which  the  farmer  raises ;  even 
after  the  ground  has  been  cleared  of  some  other  summer  "soiling" 
crop,  a  good  yield  of  turnips  may  be  raised  and  got  off  before  the  frost 
closes  the  ground ;  and  then  they  leave  the  £eld  in  a  clean^  mellow 
condition,  to  be  used  the  following  spring  or  summer,  with  whatever 
crop  it  may  be  desirable  to  occupy  it  with.  The  work  of  digging  and 
gathering  them  is  about  equal  to  one  plowing  for  the  ground. 

Having  once  engaged  in  the  practice  of  "soiling,"  every  farmer, 
who  has  method  and  calculation  enough  to  carry  on  his  business  sue- 


GREEN   SOILING   STOCK.  453 

cessfully,  will  discover,  readily,  such  special  modifications  as  will  be 
most  appropriate  and  beneficial  for  bis  particular  case ;  as  what  succu- 
lent it  is  best  for  bim  to  put  in  for  tbe  particular  kind  of  stock  wbicb 
be  desires  to  feed;  what  lands,  and  bow  mucb  he  needs  to  devote  to 
each  animal ;  wbat  animals  it  is  desirable  for  him  to  keep ;  together 
with  suggestions  in  regard  to  tbe  re<iuirement8 ,  of  tbe  markets  that 
may  be  accessible  to  bim ;  but  still,  in  regard  to  tbe  prime  principle, 
that  all  animals  should  be  hept  up,  and  all  feed  be  gathered  and  re- 
gularly given  to  them  in  the  stalls  or  yard,  there  can  hardly  be  two 
opinions ;  and  to  convince  those  most  interested  of  its  truth  and  economy, 
only  needs  that  tbe  facts  and  directions  contained  in  this  essay  should 
be  thoughtfully  examined,  and  if  not  satisfied,  it  will  cost  no  one  much 
time  or  trouble,  or  subject  him  to  the  slightest  danger  of  loss,  to 
make  the  experiment  with  a  single  animal,  or  on  a  single  quarter  of 
an  acre,  or  for  a  single  season;  it  will  not,  in  anywise,  require  a  hazar- 
dous or  expensive  experiment  to  test  tbe-  subject ;  while,  agreeably  to 
uniform  testimony  thus  far,  a  highly  beneficial  lesson  will  be  learned, 
and  the  conviction  be  confirmed. 

MR.   QUINCY'S   statement. 

In  our  own  country  tbe  most  thorough  and  successful  operator  in 
tbe  system  of  "green  soiling,"  and  who  may  be  regarded  tbe  father 
of  its  practice,  in  New  England,  was  the  Hon.  Josiab  Quincy,  of  Mas- 
sachusetts. He  has  been  followed  with  admirable  success  by  his  son, 
Josiab  Quincy,  Esq.  And  I  cannot  do  a  better  service  to  those  who 
may  desire  to  give  attention  to  tbe  subject,  in  any  other  way,  than  by 
copying  a  few  paragraphs  from  an  essay  by  him,  showing  the  results 
for  many  years  of  their  experiments  in  "soilings"  from  which  others 
can  learn  the  general  system,  and  make  such  changes  in  the  order  of 
operations  as  their  individual  cases  and  localities  and  their  respective 
peculiarities  may  seem  to  render  necessary.     Mr.  Quincy  says : 

"My  farm  being  compact,  the  annoyance  of  having  fifteen  or  twenty 
head  of  cattle  driven  night  and  morning  to  and  from  the  pasture ;  the 
loss  of  time  in  often  turning  the  team  and  plow,  owing  to  the  number 
of  interior  fences,  and  tbe  loss  of  surface  of  good  land  capable  of  being 
plowed,  owing  to  them  and  the  many  bead  lands,  all  drew  my  atten- 
tion to  tbe  subject  of  'soiling'  and  its  effects. 

"I  found  that  European  writers  maintained  that  six  distinct  advant- 
ages were  to  be  obtained  by  tbe  practice  of  'soiling,'  over  that  of 
pasturing  cattle  in  tbe  summer  season  : 

"1.  It  saved  land; 

"2.  It  saved  fences ; 

"3.  It  economized  food ; 

"4.  It  kept  cattle  in  better  condition  and  greater  comfort ; 

"5.  It  produced  more  milk;  and 

"6.  It  increased  tbe  quantity  and  quality  of  manure  ;" 

To  the  above  advantages  enumerated  by  Mr.  Quincy,  observation, 
with  some  experience,  warrants  the  addition  of  three  more  distinct 
benefits  that  may  surely  be  derived  from  a  faithful  practice  of  this 


454  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

system,  which  have  been,  in  part,  described  in  the  foregoing  pages, 
namely  •  * 

7.  Better  discipline  and  docility  of  the  animals ; 

8.  Freedom  from  breechy  depredations;  and 

9.  Increased  order  in  all  business  about  the  farm. 

These  last  three  items  are  more  particularly  realized  in  those  sections 
of  country  where  less  care  and  attention  have  been  given  to  the  improve- 
ment of  stock,  and  consequently  less  orderly  habits  prevail  among  the 
animals,  and  less  method  in  the  business.  •  Incidentally  to  this  will  be 
felt  the  benefits  of  having  the  various  animals  alvv^ays  at  hand  when 
they  may  be  desired. 

Mr.  Quincy  proceeds:  ''  Satisfied  in  my  own  mind  of  the  beneficial 
effects  of  the  practice,  I  adopted  it  in  the  year  1814,  and  adhered  to  it 
until  the  year  1822,  keeping  from  fifteen  to  twenty  head  of  milch  cows, 
with  some  other  stock,  and  with  entire  satisfactory  success."  ''From 
that  time,  being  occupied  in  various  public  ofiices,  in  Boston  and 
vicinity,  I  exercised  no  superintendence  over  my  farm  for  twenty 
years." 

"Eesuming  its  management  in  1847,  I  returned  to  the  practice  of 
'soiling. '  Since  then,  I  have  kept  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  head  of 
milch  cows  in  this  way ;  so  that,  in  my  mind,  my  experience  is  con- 
clusive on  the  subject." 

He  says  that  one  acre  soiled  from  will  produce  at  least  as  much  as 
tliree  acres  pastured  in  the  usual  way,  and  that  ' '  there  is  no  proposi- 
tion in  Nature  more  true  than  that  any  good  farmer  may  maintain 
upon  thirty  acres  of  good  arable  land,  twenty  head  of  cattle  the  year 
round,  in  better  condition,  and  greater  comfort  to  the  animals,  with 
more  profit,  less  labor,  less  trouble,  and  less  cash  advance  for  himself 
than  he  at  the  present  mode  expends  upon  a  hundred  acres."  He 
further  says : .  '''My  own  experience  has  always  been  less  than  this, 
never  having  exceeded  seventeen  acres  for  tioenty  head." 

"To  produce  a  sufficient  quantity  and  succession  of  succulent  food — 
about  one  and  a  half  or  two  square  rods  of  ground  to  each  cow  to  be 
soiled — sow  as  follows : 

' '  As  early  in  April  as  the  state  of  the  land  will  permit,  which  is 
usually  between  the  5th  and  10th,  on  properly-prepared  land,  oats  at 
the  rate  of  four  bushels  to  the  acre. 

"About  the  20th  of  the  same  month  sow,  either  oats  or  barley,  at 
the  same  rate  per  acre,  in  like  quantity  and  proportions. 

"Early  in  May  sow,  in  like  manner,  either  of  the  above  grains. 

"Between  the  10th  and  20th  of  May  sow  Indian  corn,  (southern 
dent  being  best,)  in  drills,  three  bushels  to  the  acre,  in  like  quantity 
and  proportions. 

"About  the  25th  of  May  sow  corn,  in  like  manner  and  proportions. 

"About  the  5th  of  June  repeat  the  sowing  of  corn,  as  above. 

"After  the  last-mentioned  sowing,  barley  should  be  sown  in  the 
above-mentioned  quantity  and  proportions,  in  following  successions, 
on  the  15th  and  25th  of 'June,  and  in  the  first' week  in  July,  barley 
being  the  best  qualified  to  resist  the  early  frosts." 

In  Illinois  and  southern  Wisconsin  it  will  often  happen  that  the 
ground  will  do  to  sow  as  early  as  the  20th  of  March,  occasionally  even 


GREEN    SOILING   STOCK.  465 

earlier,  while  somewhat  less  seed — say  three  bushels — will  answer 
fully  as  well.  In  this  region,  millet,  Hungarian  grass,  sorghum,  and 
spring  rye,  have  proved  to  be  good  crops  for  soiling ;  the  sorghum 
being  particularly  useful  for  the  late  or  second  sowing,  late  in  June. 

Corn,  too,  at  the  West  and  South,  may  profitably  be  sown  ten  or 
fifteen  days  earlier  than  the  dates  indicated  for  New  England,  and 
will  do  well  sown  broadcast,  instead  of  with  the  drill_,  on  mellow, 
clean  ground,  if  thoroughly  harrowed  both  ways,  and  all  the  better 
if  well  rolled  after  the  sowing. 

These  various  provisions  for  a  variety  of  crops  will  supply  food 
something  in  the  following  order,  viz: 

"The  oats,  sown  early  in  April,  will  be  ready  to  cut,  for  soiling, 
between  the  1st  and  15th  of  July,  and  will  usually  remain  succulent 
until  about  the  middle  of  the  month. 

"Those  sown  about  the  20th  of  April  will  be  ready  to  cut  between 
the  15th  and  20th  of  July,  and  will  last  nearly  or  quite  till  the  1st  of 
August. 

"Those  sown  early  in  May  will  be  ready  to  succeed  the  preceding, 
and  will  last  till  near  the  middle  of  August. 

"The  corn,  sown  on  the  10th  and  25th  of  May  and  early  in  June, 
will  supply,  in  succession,  excellent  food  till  early  in  September. 

"The  barley,  sown  in  July,  will  continue  a  sufficient  supply  of 
good  feed  until  the  1st  of  November,  when,  as  sometimes  before,  the 
tops  of  roots — as  carrots,  beets,  and  turnips,  with  cabbages — are  a 
never-failing  resource." 

Grenerally,  in  the  southern  and  western  regions,  these  crops  can  be 
sown,  and  consequently  will  be  ready  to  cut,  ten  to  fifteen  days  earlier 
than  mentioned  by  Mr.  Quincy  for  the  climate  of  Massachusetts. 

"Eeduced  to  a  single  statement,  my  experience  and  system  is,  for 
the  support  of  my  soiled  stock  during  the  months  of  July,  August, 
and  September,  to  sow  in  the  months  of  April_,  May,  June^  and  July, 
equal  to  three  quarters  of  an  acre  for  each  head  of  cattle  to  be  soiled, 
in  such  order  as  will  give  a  regular  succession  of  succulent  food  during 
the  three  first-mentioned  months. 

"For  their  support  from  the  20th  of  May,  and  during  the  month  of 
June,  I  reserve  early  clover  and  other  grass  at  the  rate  of  one  quarter 
of  an  acre  for  each  head  of  cattle  soiled, 

"For  their  support  during  the  first  half  of  October,  I  depended 
upon  the  second  groivth  of  the  half  acre  cut  over  in  May  and  June,  and 
the  second  growth  of  oats  and  corn  cut  over  in  July. 

"It  now  remains  to  be  shown  that  the  cost  of  raising,  cutting,  and 
distributing  the  food  to  the  stock,  is  compensated  by  these  savings 
above  mentioned.  Upon  this  point,  my  own  experience  has  satisfied 
me  that  the  manure  alone  is  an  ample  compensation  for  all  this 
expense ;  leaving  the  savings  of  land,  of  food,  and  of  fencing-stuff",  as 
clear  gain  from  the  system. 

"A  popular  objection  to  this  mode  of  keeping  milch  cows  is,  that 
want  of  exercise  must  affect  injuriously  the  health  of  the  animal.  To 
this  European  writers,  some  of  whom  have  kept,  in  this  way,  large 
herds,  reply  that  they  '  never  had  one  sick,  or  one  die,  or  one  miscarry, 
in  consequence  of  this  mode  of  keeping.'     After  more  than  ten  years' 


456  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

pursuing  of  this  practice,  my  experience  justifies  me  in  uniting  my 
testimony  to  theirs  on  this  point." 

It  is  believed  that  in  the  West  and  Northwest,  at  least,  clover,  which 
runs  its  roots  deep  into  the  mellow  ground,  should  enter  more  largely 
into  these  soiling  rotations ;  it  brings  more  of  the  fertilizing  substances 
of  the  earth  from  heloiv,  by  its  long  penetrating  roots,  than  any  of  the 
others  named ;  it  absorbs  faster  the  moisture  of  the  air  and  the  dews ; 
it  acknowledges  more  readily  the  manures  furnished  to  it,  and  most 
kindly  accepts  the  rankest  sorts ;  while  it  is  more  easily  and  vigorously 
stimulated  by  plaster,  or  ashes,  or  lime,  or  other  light  top-dressings, 
and  grows  faster  than  almost  any  other  vegetable ;  and,  unlike  most 
others,  it  does  not  have  to  be  sown  every  season ;  then  it  does  not  ap- 
pear to  be  affected  or  stinted  so  much  by  frequent  cuttings ;  and, 
finally,  is  more  pleasant  for  plowing  under,  when  desired,  than  any 
other,  its  vast  amount  of  large  leaves,  stems,  and  blossoms  enabling  it 
to  consume  from  the  air  a  larger  and  richer  quantity  of  those  fertili- 
zers or  nutriments,  with  which  the  atmosphere  is  bountifully  charged, 
than  many  persons  seem  to  be  aware  of;  which,  altogether,  renders 
clover  almost  inestimable,  not  only  for  '^ soiling,"  but  for  its  worth  in 
farming  generally,  when  fairly  appreciated  and  employed ;  while  very 
few  things  are  better  relished  by  all  farm  animals,  if  well  and  early 
cured,  free  from  dust  or  ''sun-burnt;"  and  farmers  would  find  their 
account  in  making  more  general  use  of  it ;  certainly  in  the  newer 
States. 

Buckwheat  is  also  a  good  crop  to  soil  with ;  for,  if  cut  while  young, 
it  makes  a  very  palatable  food,  and  will  quickly  "sprout  up"  a  little, 
and  afford  an  excellent  ' '  green  manure' '  for  plowing  under,  on  which, 
to  sow  a  crop  of  winter  rye  or  wheat.  This  manuring  with  green 
crops  turned  under,  is  fast  becoming  deservedly  popular  where  known. 

Peas,  also,  would  make  a  valuable  addition  to  the  above  series  of 
''soiling"  plants  in  almost  any  region  of  country.  They  admit  of 
being  sown  very  early — it  should  be  done  broadcast,  at  the  rate  of 
two  to  three  bushels  per  acre — as  early  as  any  of  the  spring  crops,  and 
then  they  grow  quickly  for  green  feed,  and  can  be  readily  gathered 
into  rows  or  bunches  by  either  hand  or  horse  rakes ;  then  they  contain, 
both  the  peas  and  haulm,  a  large  quantity  of  nutriment,  and  are  much 
relished  by  both  cattle  and  hogs ;  and,  when  ripe,  peas  are  among  the 
very  best  feed  for  work-horses  and  fattening  hogs,  when  ground  or 
cracked.  Then  they  come  off  early,  leaving  the  ground  in  clean, 
handsome  condition  for  a  final  crop  of  turnips  or  rutabagas.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  heans,  as  a  soiling  crop ;  though  few  animals,  ex- 
cept sheep,  will  eat  them  when  ripe,  unless  they  are  cooked,  then  they 
are  much  liked  by  different  animals,  and  are  exceedingly  nutritious, 
particularly  for  sheep,  poultry,  and  for  fattening  hogs. 

These  are  the  principal  crops  which  can  be  used  to  advantage  for 
"soiling"  and  rotation.  But,  doubtless,  in  different  localities,  various 
operators  will  find  still  other  crops  which  may  be  found  useful,  pos- 
sibly preferable,  in  this  system,  to  some  named  above ;  and  the  more, 
if  variety  is  secured,  the  better  for  the  success  of  the  operation. 

From  these  considerations,  with  others  which  might  be  realized  by  a 
more  extended  practice,  soiling  stock  will,  unquestionably,  prove  to  be 


AGRICULTURAL   SCHOOLS    OF   PRUSSIA.  457 

one  of  the  most  efficient,  as  it  will  be  one  of  the  most  pleasing,  meas- 
ures for  not  only  enlarging  the  profits  of  agriculture,  but  for  maintain- 
ing, as  well  as  increasing,  the  productive  powers  of  the  earth  ;  and 
that  the  time  for  the  realization  of  a  consummation  so  desirable  is  no 
further  distant  than  the  time  when  the  process  shall  receive  that  just 
attention  which  shall  make  it  properly  understood  and  adequately  ap- 
preciated. Then  the  lion  and  the  leopard,  emblems  of  man's  destruc- 
tive passions,  shall  lie  down  with,  that  is,  be  in  useful  harmony  with 
the  domestic  animals,  emblems  of  the  productive  faculties  of  man ;  and 
a  child,  that  is,  innocence  and  truth,  shall  lead  them  all  through  the 
world  of  peace  and  prosperity. 


AGEICULTUHAL  SCHOOLS  OF  PRUSSIA. 

Legation  of  the  United  States, 

Berlin,  3Iay  15,  1859. 

Sir:  I  send  you  herewith  a  communication  from  the  minister  of 
agriculture  on  the  subject  of  the  agricultural  schools  of  Prussia. 

As  applications  are  constantly  made  to  me  for  information  concerning 
the  agricultural  schools  of  Germany,  I  hope  you  may  find  this  com- 
munication worthy  of  publication.  In  a  few  days  I  hope  to  be  able  to 
forward  you  a  list  of  seeds,  &c.,  in  order  to  have  your  opinion  as  to 
the  proper  articles  to  forward  you  this  fall  from  this  city.* 

' '  The  Prussian  agricultural  schools  are,  some  of  them,  public,  and 
others  are  private  establishments,  but  all  receive  governmental  support, 
and,  as  has  been  indicated,  are  generally  under  governmental  control. 
In  the  first  place  there  are  four  public  agricultural  academtes,  the 
purpose  of  which  is  to  instruct  young  farmers,  lolio  have  already  a  pre- 
paratory  knowledge,  in  the  physical  sciences,  and  their  bearing  upon 
agriculture,  and  in  agriculture  itself,  with  its  associated  branches  of 
industry.  They  are  each  provided  with  a  chemical  laboratory,  a 
library,  collections  of  natural  history  and  natural  philosophy,  and  a 
building  for  the  practical  purposes  of  husbandry,  in  connection  with 
a  larger  or  smaller  quantity  of  land.  This  land  is  intended  not  only 
to  afford  instruction,  but  also  in  time  to  yield  a  harvest  of  benefit  from 
the  experiments  carried  on  upon  it,  with  the  aid,  where  necessary,  of 
the  laboratory,  and  including  the  culture  of  new  plants  and  varieti^, 
the  results  derived  from  different  manures,  the  comparison  of  different 
methods  in  the  culture  of  crops  and  in  the  feeding  of  stock — all  con- 
ducted with  the  double  object  of  advancing  scientific  truth  and  of 
improving  actual  practice. 

"The  laboratory  thus  subserves  an  important  purpose  in  the  develop- 
ment of  such  experiments,  while  it  is  also  essential  for  the  chemical 
studies  and  analytical  problems  which  form  a  part  of  the  student's 
pursuits,  and  should  therefore  be  located  in  a  room  adjoining  the  one 
occupied  for  chemical  lectures.  The  other  apparatus,  particularly 
such  instruments  as  the  microscope,  are  also  of  use  in  conducting  ex- 

*  As  this  communication  had  already  appeared   in  the  Country  Grentleman,  (No.  1,  toL 
xiv.,  July  7,  1859,)  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  insert  it  as  therein  translated. 


458  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

periments,  and  solving  the  resultant  inquiries,  and  both,  teachers  and 
pupils  have  the  use  of  the  library,  the  collections,  models,  &c. 

"The  oldest  of  the  four  institutions,  to  which  this  general  outline 
applies,  is  that  at  Eldena,  in  New  Citerior,  Pomerania.  It  was  estab- 
lished in  1834,  upon  an  estate  of  the  same  name,  belonging  to  the 
dotation  of  the  University  of  G-reifswalde,  as  a  branch  of  the  university. 
Originally  its  main  object  was  the  instruction  in  this  department  of 
national  economy,  of  young  men  destined  in  after  life  to  serve  as 
public  officers,  and  its  discipline  still  continues  such  as  it  is  supposed 
will  best  answer  this  particular  end. 

''As  I  understand  the  division  of  the  1,650  Prussian  acres,*  com- 
posing this  estate,  1,200  are  devoted  to  the  practical  agriculture  of  the 
farm,  314  are  in  meadow,  40  in  pasture  land,  19  in  gardens  and  hops, 
6  under  water,  (for  ponds,)  17  in  an  experimental  field,  2  or  3  in 
nursery,  while  the  remaining  50  are  rented.  The  soil  is  pretty  fertile, 
and'the  ground  quite  even.  A  stock  is  kept  of  25  horses,  21  oxen,  50 
cows,  2  bulls,  20  young  cattle,  884  sheep,  and  71  swine.  From  1,500 
to  1,800  cwt.  of  malt,  it  is  stated,  are  worked  up  annually  in  the  great 
beer  brewery;  350,000  bricks  and  tile  for  various  purposes,  and  300,000 
draining  tile  are  burnt  in  the  kilns,  and  there  is  a  small  distillery — this 
last,  however,  merely  for  the  instruction  of  the  pupils.  The  faculty 
includes  a  director,  (now  Mr.  Baumstark,)  who  also  teaches  the  eco- 
nomical and  statistical  branches;  a  teacher  of  agriculture,  including 
the  structure  of  vegetables,  general  farm  management,  and  account 
keeping,  and  the  history  of  agriculture ;  a  teacher  of  chemistry, 
physics,  the  structure  of  the  soil,  and  technology;  and  the  administra- 
tor of  the  farm,  who  instructs  in  practical  husbandry  and  in  the 
associated  arts,  including  particularly  the  care  and  breeding  of  sheep 
and  cattle,  the  culture  of  meadows  and  of  farm  crops.  There  is  also 
a  teacher  of  botany,  zoology,  and  the  physiology  of  plants  ;  an  assis- 
tant teacher  in  veterinary  science,  the  physiology  of  animals,  and  the 
breeding  of  horses  ;  another  in  the  cultivation  and  care  of  wood  lands ; 
a  third  in  architecture ;  a  fourth  in  mathematics  and  surveying ;  and 
a  fifth  on  law  as  connected  with  agriculture.  The  number  of  students 
here  last  winter  was  54,  and  a  boarding-house  was  occupied  by  them 
in  the  village  of  Eldena. 

"The  second  of  the  academies  occupies  nearly  4,100  acres  on  a 
public  domain  called  ProsJcau,  and  includes  two  estates,  one  bearing 
this  name,  and  the  other  called  ScJiimnitz,  in  Upper  Silesia — having, 
out  of  the  above  area,  466  acres  in  meadow,  33  in  pasture,  25  now 
designed  for  an  experimental  field,  and  about  20  in  nurseries  and 
gardens,  while  some  parts  are  let  to  private  persons.  The  necessary 
buildings  were  provided  in  1851  and  1852.  The  soil  is  argillaceous, 
with  some  sand  and  lime,  and  is  rendered  wet  by  springs,  to  obviate 
which  some  attempts  have  been  made  at  drainage.  The  climate  suifers 
from  the  vicinage  of  mountains.  The  stock  kept  includes  2,600  sheep, 
20  hogs,  27  cows,  and  138  other  cattle,  young  and  old,  51  horses,  and 
9  foals.  Brewing  and  distilling  are  not  done  largely,  but  brickmaking 
is  extensively  carried  on.     The  teachers  include  Mr.  Heinrich,  the 

*The  Prussian  acre,  I  think,  is  very  nearly  equivalent  to  our  own. 


AGRICULTURAL    SCHOOLS   OF   PRUSSIA.  459 

director,  and  others  similar  to  those  at  Eldena,  and  are  10  in  number. 
There  are  here  Y7  students. 

"Near  Bonn  is  situated  the  academy  of  Poppelsdorf,  the  third  on 
our  list,  and  diifering  considerably  from  the  other  two,  mainly  in  the 
smaller  scale  on  which  its  farm  operations  are  conducted.  The  estate, 
whose  name  it  bears,  belongs  to  the  University  of  Bonn,  and  is  leased 
to  the  ministry  of  agriculture,  under  whose  supervision  lectures  were 
commenced  in  the  fall  of  1847.  The  farm  contains  126  acres,  of  which 
Vj  are  employed  in  experiments,  a  botanical  garden,  and  a  vineyard. 
Its  soil  is  of  that  most  fertile  and  friable  kind  which  characterizes  the 
Valley  of  the  Khine,  and  it  enjoys  the  climate  of  Southern  Germany. 
Among  its  crops  tobacco  is  cultivated,  but  the  technical  professions  are 
not  carried  on,  and  the  stock  only  numbers  25  cattle  of  all  ages_,  and 
3  horses,  with  apparently  neither  a  sheep  nor  a  hog.  There  are  70 
students,  and  6  teachers,  including  Mr.  Hartstein,  the  director^, 
together  with  four  assistant  teachers.  The  courses  of  study  appear 
very  similar  to  those  already  described.  I  notice,  however,  that  in- 
struction is  given  in  the  care  of  silk- worms  and  bees,  and  in  'hunting 
and  fishery.' 

"Two  miles  from  Konigsberg,  in  the  province  of  Prussia,  there  was 
opened  in  the  fall  of  1858,  the  fourth  of  the  agricultural  academies, 
which  derives  its  name_,  like  Proskau,  from  the  public  domain  on 
which  it  is  located — that  of  Waldau — a  domain  covering  nearly  2,000 
acres,  including  430  of  meadow,  335  of  pasture^  and  15  of  garden 
land.  The  pasture  is  swampy  and  difficult  to  drain;  the  meadow, 
although  good,  is  not  yet  protected  from  the  inundations  of  the  Pregel, 
on  which  river  it  lies ;  the  soil  is  generally  clayey,  and  the  climate  that 
of  Northern  Europe.  The  stock  number  60  horses,  young  and  old,  the 
game  number  of  cattle,  700  sheep,  and  30  swine.  Mr.  Settegast  is 
director,  and  with  four  other  teachers  and  one  assistant,  during  the 
sessions  of  the  past  winter  (1858-59)  has  had  nearly  50  students^  in- 
structing them  with  especial  reference  to  the  husbandry  of  Northern 
Germany  and  the  keeping  of  sheep. 

"There  are,  moreover,  two  private  agricultural  academies  receiving 
State  support,  but  of  quite  limited  means — one  at  Mogelin,  in  the 
province  of  Brandenburg,  under  the  direction  of  the  son  of  the  cele- 
brated ThaeRj  and  the  other  at  Begenwalde,  Pomerania,  until  the 
recent  death  of  Dr.  Sprengel,  under  his  supervision. 

"Then  come  what  are  termed  ''private'  agricultural  schools,  for  the 
purpose  of  exercising  the  young  peasants  in  the  best  ways  of  performing 
their  labors,  and  to  show  them  also  why  o?ie  way  is  better  than  another — 
to  lead  them  to  think.  Consequently,  the  instruction  given  must  be 
adapted  to  the  faculties  of  its  recipients,  while  the  number  of  them  varies 
according  to  the  extent  of  the  estate  and  the  views  of  the  owner.  The 
products  of  their  labor  go  to  the  benefit  of  the  farm,  and  the  crops  are 
are  either  used  in  the  institution  or  disposed  of  towards  its  support. 
The  conditions  on  which  students  are  received  vary  widely,  like  the 
hranches  in  which  they  must  be  taught,  with  the  different  localities 
where  the  establishments  are  situated  ;  usually  the  State  contracts  with 
the  proprietor  for  the  instruction  of  the  student,  during  even  as  long  a 


460  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

period  as  ten  years,  and  it  also  appoints  one  or  more  officials,  as  may 
be  necessary,  in  the  carrying  on  of  the  school. 

"Of  these  schools  I  will  not  copy  the  list;  it  includes  no  less  than 
18,  generally  with  from  6  to  18  students  each ;  and  situated  four  in 
the  province  of  Prussia,  three  each  in  Posen  and  the  Khenish  province, 
two  each  in  Brandenburg,  Saxony,  and  Westphalia,  and  one  each  in 
Pomerania  and  Silesia.  One  of  those  in  Saxony,  that  at  Bader- 
slehen,  is  in  a  district  where  the  peasants  are  of  a  more  wealthy  class, 
and  it  has  taken  a  character  intermediate  between  the  academies  and 
the  schools,  having  from  60  to  80  students,  and  over  1,300  acres  of 
land.  There  is  one  in  the  Ehenish  province  which  has  30  students, 
and  another  with  25.     The  aggregate  of  all  these  schools  is  over  300. 

' '  In  special  branches  of  farming  there  is  a  school  at  Treves  for  the 
culture  of  meadows ;  one  at  Eichsfeld,  on  a  small  scale,  for  flaxdressers, 
and  a  well  established  garden  school  at  Sansouci,  near  Potsdam^  with 
12  or  14  scholars. 

"And  to  conclude  with  the  lands  devoted  to  experimental  purposes, 
it  has  been  already  indicated  that  some  experiments  are  constantly 
going  on  in  connection  with  the  four  agricultural  academies,  under 
the  general  inspection  ©f  their  directors,  but  having  also  a  special 
manager,  who  is  assisted  by  a  chemist.  In  addition  to  these,  at  the 
large  sheep  establishment  at  Frankenfelde,  in  Brandenburg,  where 
the  principal  object  is  to  preserve  a  pure  race,  and  where  also  young 
shepherds  receive  instruction,  40  acres  are  devoted  to  the  purpose 
of  particular  experiments,  while  the  whole  1,700  can  indirectly  be 
employed  for  larger  trials.  Some  of  the  agricultural  societies  have 
given  lands,  erected  laboratories,  and  appointed  chemists,  quite  re- 
cently however,  and  the  State  is  aiding  their  efforts  with  some 
money,  but  only  for  a  few  years,  in  order  to  test  the  results  accom- 
plished. Establishments  of  this  kind  have  been  instituted  to  the 
number  of  six,  respectively  by  the  societies  of  Lithuania,  Pomerania, 
Silesia,  Upper  Lusatia,  Brandenburg,  and  the  Rhenish  province.  The 
investigations  thus  instituted  are  not  regulated  by  any  general  system 
of  cooperation,  and  their  results  appear  from  time  to  time  in  pamphlets 
and  in  the  agricultural  journals." 


METEOROLOGY.  461 


METEOEOLOGY. 


METEOROLOGY  IN  ITS  CONNECTION  WITH  AGRICULTURE. 


BY  PROFESSOR  JOSEPH  HENRY,  SECRETARY  OF  THE  SMITESONIAjr  INSTITUTION. 


ATMOSPHEKIC  ELECTKICITY. 

In  this  report,  we  intend  to  give  a  sketch  of  the  general  principles 
of  atmospheric  electricity,  a  branch  of  meteorology  which  has  attracted 
in  all  ages  more  attention  and  has  been  regarded  with  more  interest 
than  perhaps  any  other. 

The  vast  accumulation  of  electricity  in  the  thunder  cloud,  and  the 
energy  exhibited  in  its  mechanical,  chemical,  and  physical  effects,  have 
impressed  the  popular  mind  with  the  idea  of  the  great  efficiency  of 
this  agent  in  producing  atmospheric  changes,  and  have  led  to  views 
of  its  character  not  warranted  by  cautious  induction.  It  is  frequently 
considered  sufficient  in  the  explanation  of  an  unusual  phenomenon  to 
refer  it  simply  to  electricity.  Eeferences,  however,  of  this  kind,  are  by 
no  means  satisfactory,  since  the  scientific  explanation  of  a  phenomenon 
consists  in  the  logical  reference  of  it  to  a  general  law  ;  or,  in  clearly 
exhibiting  the  steps  by  which  it  can  be  deduced  from  an  established 
principle.  Electricity  is  subject  to  laws  as  definite  and  invariable  as 
those  which  govern  the  mechanical  motion  of  the  planetary  system. 
Indeed,  there  is  a  great  similarity  between  them,  and  it  will  be  seen 
in  the  discussion  of  electrical  phenomena,  that  these  are  referable  to 
forces  similar  to  that  of  gravitation,  and  that  the  mathematical  propo- 
sitions which  were  demonstrated  by  Newton  in  regard  to  the  latter, 
have  been  applied  with  admirable  precision  to  represent  those  of  the 
former. 

In  giving  a  general  exposition  of  a  subject  of  this  kind,  two  plans 
may  be  adopted :  either  a  series  of  facts  may  be  stated,  and  from  these 
a  theory  gradually  developed  by  a  careful  induction,  or  we  may  begin 
with  the  general  principles  or  laws  which  have  been  discovered,  and 
from  these  deduce  the  facts  in  a  series  of  logical  consequences. 
The  first  method  is  called  induction,  the  second  deduction,  and  they 
are  sometimes  known  by  the  more  scholastic  names  of  analysis  and 
synthesis.  The  first  method  may  perhaps  be  considered  the  more 
rigid,  and,  where  a  systematic  treatise  on  a  subject  is  intended,  and 
ample  space  allowed  for  its  full  discussion,  it  might  be  preferred;  but 
where  the  object  is  to  give  the  greatest  amount  of  information  in  the 
shortest  time,  to  put  the  reader  in  possession  of  the  means  through 


462  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

wliicli,  by  his  own  reflection,  he  can  deduce  from  a  single  principle, 
hundreds  of  phenomena,  and  declare,  prior  to  experiment  or  observa- 
tion what  will  take  place  under  given  conditions,  the  latter  method 
will  he  the  proper  one  to  be  adopted. 

It  is  impossible,  however,  to  state  a  principle  of  very  general  appli- 
cation without  employing  an  hypothesis  or  an  assumption  which, 
though  founded  on  strict  analogy,  may  possibly  not  be  absolutely 
true.  We  adopt  such  an  hypothesis  temporarily,  not  as  expressing 
an  actual  entity,  but  as  a  provisional  truth  which  may  be  modified  or 
even  abandoned  when  we  find  it  no  longer  capable  of  expressing 
all  the  phenomena.  All  we  assert  positively  in  regard  to  such  an 
hypothesis,  is,  that  the  phenomena  to  which  it  relates,  and  with  which 
we  are  acquainted  at  the  time,  exhibit  themselves  as  if  it  were  true. 

When  an  assumed  hypothesis  of  this  kind  furnishes  an  exact  expres- 
sion of  a  large  number  of  phenomena,  and  enables  us  beforehand  t-o 
calculate  the  time  and  form  of  their  occurrence,  it  is  then  called  a 
theory.  The  two  terms,  however,  hypothesis  and  theory,  though  in  a 
strict  scientific  sense  of  very  difiVent  signification,  are  often  con- 
founded and  otherwise  misapplied.  Theory,  in  common  language,  is 
frequently  used  in  contradistinction  to  fact,  and  sometimes  employed 
to  express  unscientific  and  indefinite  speculations.  The  cause  of  truth 
would  be  subserved  if  these  terms  were  used  in  a  more  definite  and 
less  general  sense ;  for  example :  if  the  term  speculation,  were  restricted 
to  those  products  of  the  imagination  which  may  or  may  not  have  an 
existence  in  nature ;  the  term  hypothesis,  to  suppositions  founded  on 
analogy,  and  which  serve  to  give  more  definite  conceptions  of  laws; 
while  the  term  theory,  is  reserved  for  generalizations  which,  although 
they  are  presented  in  the  language  of  hypotheses,  yet  really  furnish 
the  exact  expression  of  a  large  class  of  facts. 

Hypotheses,  well  conceived  and  properly  conditioned  by  strict 
analogy,  not  only  enable  us,  as  we  have  before  stated,  to  embrace  at 
one  view  a  wider  range  of  phenomena,  but  also  assist  us  in  passing 
from  the  known  to  the  unknown.  When  rightly  used  they  are  the 
great  instruments  of  discovery,  giving  definite  direction  as  to  the 
experiments  or  observations  desirable  in  a  particular  investigation, 
and  thus  marking  out  the  line  of  research  to  be  pursued  in  our 
endeavors  to  enlarge  the  bounds  of  the  science  of  our  day.  We  think 
that  the  tendency  of  some  minds^  instead  of  being  too  speculative,  is 
too  positive ;  and  while,  on  the  one  hand,  there  is  too  much  of  loose, 
indefinite,  and  consequently  of  useless  speculation  intruded  upon 
science,  on  the  other,  an  evil  of  an  opposite  kind,  is  frequently  pro- 
duced by  attempting  to  express  scientific  generalizations  of  a  complex 
character,  without  the  aid  of  proper  hypotheses ;  and  to  this  cause  we 
would  principally  ascribe  the  looseness  of  conception  which  frequently 
exists  in  well  educated  minds  as  to  the  connection  and  character  of 
physical  phenomena. 

In  accordance  with  the  foregoing  remarks,  we  shall  make  use  of  a 
theory  to  express  the  well-established  principles  of  electrical^  action, 
and  from  this  endeavor  to  deduce  such  conclusions  as  are  in  strict 
<X)nformity  with  the  observed  phenomena.    The  intelligent  reader  who 


METEOROLOGY.  463 

attentively  studies  this  theory,  and  exercises  liis  reasoning  faculties 
in  drawing  conclusions  from  it,  will  be  able  not  only  to  explain  many 
remarkable  appearances  whicli  would  otherwise  be  entirely  isolated, 
but  also  to  anticipate  results,  and  to  adopt  means  to  prevent  unpleasant 
occurrences  or  to  ward  off  dangers. 

The  theory  which  we  shall  adopt  is  that  invented  by  Franklin  and 
extended  and  improved  by  Epinus  and  Cavendish.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  theory  of  one  fluid,  in  contradistinction  to  the  theory  of  Du 
Fay,  of  two  fluids.  The  two  theories,  however,  do  not  differ  as  much 
as  at  first  sight  might  be  supposed,  and,  when  expressed  mathemati- 
cally, are  identically  the  same. 

No  part  of  the  writings  of  Franklin  exhibits  his  sagacity  and  his 
power  of  scientific  generalization  in  a  more  conspicuous  light  than  his 
theory  of  electricity.  The  talents  to  discover  isolated  facts  in  any 
branch  of  science,  although  possessed  by  few,  is  comparatively  inferior 
to  that  characteristic  of  mind  which  leads  to  the  invention  of  an 
hypothesis,  embracing  in  a  few  simple  propositions,  whole  classes  of 
complete  phenomena. 

THEORY   OP   ELECTRICITY. 

According  to  the  theory  of  Franklin,  all  the  facts  of  ordinary  elec- 
tricity may  be  referred  to  the  action  of  a  subtle  fluid,  which  perhaps 
fills  all  interplanetary  space,  and  may  be  the  medium  of  light  and 
heat.  In  order  that  the  phenomena  of  electricity  may  be  represented 
by  the  mechanical  actions  of  this  fluid,  it  is  necessary  to  suppose  that 
it  is  endowed  with  certain  properties  and  relations  which  may  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  following  series  of  postulates  : 

1st.  The  electric  fluid  consists  of  atoms  so  minute  as  to  exist  between 
the  atoms  of  gross  matter. 

2d.  The  atoms  of  the  fluid  repel  each  other  with  a  force  varying  in- 
versely as  the  square  of  the  distance  ;  that  is,  when  the  distances  are 
1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  &c.,  the  forces  are  1,  ^,  -f-,  j^,  yV?  ^^• 

3d.  The  atoms  of  the  fluid  attract  the  atoms  of  ordinary  matter, 
with  a  force  also  varying  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance. 

4th.  The  atoms  of  gross  matter  devoid  of  electricity,  tend  to  repel 
each  other  also  with  a  force  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance. 

5th.  The  atoms  of  the  fluid  can  move  freely  through  certain  bodies 
of  gross  matter,  such  as  metals^  water^  &c.,  which  are  hence  called 
conductors  ;  and  cannot  move,  or  but  very  imperfectly,  through  other 
bodies,  such  as  glass,  baked  wood,  dry  air,  &c.,  which  are  called  non- 
conductors. 

6th.  When  each  equal  portion  of  space  has  the  same  amount  of 
electricity,  and  each  body  in  it  has  so  much  of  the  same  fluid  as  to 
neutralize  the  attractions  and  repulsions,  there  are  no  indications  of 
electrical  action ;  and  when  the  attractions  and  repulsions  are  thus 
neutralized,  a  body  is  said  to  be  in  its  natural  condition. 

"Zth.  The  electrical  equilibrium  may  be  disturbed  by  friction,  chem- 
ical action,  change  of  temperature,  &c.,  or  in  other  words  by  these 


464  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

and  otlier  processes  tlie  fluid  may  be  accumulated  in  one  portion  of 
space,  and  rendered  deficient  in  another,  and  in  this  case  electrical 
action  is  exhibited. 

8th.  The  phenomena  are  of  two  classes,  namely:  statical  or  those 
of  attraction  and  repulsion^  in  which  the  electricity  is  at  rest,  and 
dynamical,  or  those  in  which  the  redundant  electricity  of  one  portion 
of  space  is  precipitated  into  that  of  another  in  which  there  is  a  de- 
ficiency. 

9th.  When  the  electrical  equilibrium  has  been  disturbed,  and  a  body 
contains  more  than  its  share  of  electricity,  it  is  said  to  be  positively 
charged ;  and  when  it  contains  less,  it  is  said  to  be  negatiA'-ely  electri- 
fied. 

The  fourth  proposition  of  this  theory  was  added  by  Cavendish,  in 
England,  and  by  Epinus,  in  Germany,  and  was  found  to  be  necessary 
in  order  to  render  the  several  parts  of  the  theory  as  given  by  Franklin 
logically  consistent  with  each  other.  At  first  sight,  it  appears  to  be 
contrary  to  the  general  fact  of  the  mutual  attraction  of  all  bodies,  but 
it  must  be  observed  that  when  gross  matter  exhibits  attraction  it  is  in 
its  normal  condition,  and  that  since  the  electrical  force  is  infinitely 
more  intense  than  that  of  gravitation,  the  latter  may  be  a  residual 
phenomenon  of  the  former. 

According  to  this  theory,  there  are  two  kinds  of  matter  in  the  universe 
— ethereal  or  electrical  matter  and  gross,  or,  as  it  is  frequently  called  by 
way  of  distinction,  ponderable  matter.  The  two,  however,  may  have 
the  same  essence,  and  differ  from  each  other  only  in  the  aggregation 
of  the  atoms  of  the  latter;  or,  in  other  words,  what  we  call  gross 
matter,  may  be  but  a  segregation  or  kind  of  crystallization  of  the 
ethereal  matter  in  definite  masses.  Each  kind  of  matter  is,  in  itself,  en- 
tirely inert,  has  no  power  of  spontaneous  change  of  place,  and  is  equally 
subject  to  the  laws  of  force  and  motion.  A  mass  of  ordinary  ponder- 
able matter,  when  once  at  rest,  tends  to  continue  at  rest  until  put  in 
motion  by  some  extraneous  force ;  so,  also,  the  electrical  fluid,  when 
at  rest,  tends  to  remain  at  rest,  and  only  moves  in  obedience  to  some 
impulse  from  without.  From  this  theoretical  inference,  which  is  in 
accordance  with  all  observation,  it  is  an  error  to  suppose  that  electricity 
is  an  ultimate  power  of  nature,  being  in  itself  the  cause  of  motion. 
Like  the  air,  it  is  inert,  and  has  no  more  tendency  to  spontaneous 
motion  than  this  or  any  other  fluid  which  may  receive  and  transmit 
impulses,  or  which  may  have  its  equilibrium  disturbed,  and  in  the 
restoration  of  this  equilibrium,  give  rise  to  motion,  and  produce  me- 
chanical effects. 

Perhaps  some  currency  is  given  to  the  idea  that  electricity  is  not 
subject  to  the  mechanical  laws  which  govern  the  actions  of  gross 
matter,  because  it  is  called  an  imponderable  agent,  and  has  thus,  as  it 
were^  assigned  to  it  a  semi-spiritual  character.  The  term  imponderable, 
though  convenient,  is  not  properly  applied,  since  it  indicates  a  distinc- 
tion which  may  possibly  not  exist.  If  electricity  is,  in  reality,  a  fluid, 
it  might  exhibit  weight,  could  it  be  so  isolated  and  condensed  as  to 
become  sensible  to  our  balances.  But  whatever  may  be  its  nature,  the 
phenomena  which  it  exhibits  can  be  referred  to  mechanical  laws  ;  and 


METEOROLOGY. 


465 


it  is  in  order  that  sucli  a  reference  may  be  definitely  made,  that  the 
hypothesis  of  a  fluid  is  adopted.  For  a  similar  reason,  the  phenomena 
of  light  and  radiant  heat  are  referred  to  the  vibrations  of  an  ethereal 
medium,  and  it  is  in  this  way  that  the  laws  of  motion  which  have  been 
deduced  from  the  study  of  gross  matter,  have  been  so  successfully  ap- 
plied to  them,  and  it  is  only  so  far  as  the  facts  of  what  are  called 
the  imponderable  agents  are  brought  under  the  category  of  mechanical 
laws,  that  they  take  the  definite  form  which  entitles  them  to  the  name 
of  science. 


THEORETICAL  DEDUCTIONS  A^D  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

We  do  not  intend  to  deduce  from  the  theory  we  have  presented,  a 
complete  system  of  electricity,  but  to  give  such  deductions  from  it  as 
will  put  the  intelligent  reader  in  possession  of  the  principal  known 
facts  of  atmospheric  electricity,  and  particularly  those  which  relate 
to  thunder  storms. 

In  the  first  place,  if  the  ethereal  medium,  in  its  ordinary  state  of  dif- 
fusion, fills  all  space,  then  it  must  be  evident  that  when  a  body  is 
charged  with  more  than  its  natural  share,  a  portion  must  be  drawn 
from  space  around,  and  hence  what  one  body  gains  other  bodies  in 
the  vicinity  must  lose ;  or,  in  other  words,  there  must  always  be  as 
much  negative  excitement  as  positive.  To  exhibit  this,  as  well  as  to 
illustrate  some  of  the  efiects  of  the  disturbance  of  the  electrical  equili- 
brium, provide  two  strips  of  glass  an  inch  in  width  and  twelve  inches 
long,  and  on  the  end  of  one  of  these  fasten,  with  bees  wax  or  sealing-wax,  a 
piece  of  woolen  cloth  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long ;  if  the  glass  slips 

are  warmed  and  rubbed  together  as 
shown  in  figure  1,  and  afterwards  sep- 
arated^ they  will  exhibit  signs  of  elec- 
tricity. If  the  strip  of  glass  of  which 
the  end  is  naked  be  brought  near  a 
pith-ball  C,  suspended  by  a  single  fiber 
of  unconducting  silk,  along  which  the 
electricity  which  may  be  communicated 
to  the  ball  cannot  escape,  the  ball  will 
be  attracted,  and  immediately  after- 
wards repelled.  If,  now,  the  end  of 
the  other  glass  having  the  woolen 
cloth  on  it,  be  brought  near  to  the 
same  ball,  attraction  will  take  place  at 
a  considerable  distance.  The  one  slip 
of  glass  will  constantly  attract,  while 
the  other  will  as  constantly  repel  the 
ball.  If,  however,  the  two  glasses  be 
placed  in  contact,  as  they  were  when 
first  rubbed,  and  thus  presented  to  the 
ball,  neither  attraction  nor  repulsion 
will  be  exhibited, 
are  in  strict  accordance  with  the  theory  we  have 
By  rubbing  the  glass  and  woolen  cloth  against  each  other, 
30 A 


Fig 

These  results 
adopted. 


460  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

the  electrical  equilibrium  is  disturbed — a  portion  of  the  natural  elec- 
tricity of  the  cloth  is  transferred  to  the  glass  ;  the  latter  receives  a  pos- 
itive charge  of  electricity,  while  the  woolen  cloth  loses  a  portion  of  its 
natural  share  of  the  fluid,  and  assumes  the  negative  state  ;  and  since 
the  slips  of  glass,  as  well  as  the  surrounding  air,  are  nonconductors, 
the  redundancy  of  the  one  can  not  escape,  nor  the  deficiency  of  the 
other  be  su;^plied,  and  therefore  the  charged  condition  of  each  will  con- 
tinue for  a  considerable  time,  particularly  if  the  air  be  perfectly  dry. 

When  the  glass  plate  is  made  to  touch  the  ball,  a  portion  of  elec- 
tricity accumulated  on  the  surface  of  the  former  is  transferred  to  the 
latter,  which  has  then  more  than  its  natural  share ;  and,  since  atoms 
of  free  electricity  repel  atoms  of  free  electricity,  the  ball  will  appar- 
ently be  repelled  from  the  glass ;  and  also  because  there  is  an  attrac- 
tion between  free  electricity  and  unsaturated  matter,  the  cloth,  which 
is  in  this  condition,  will  attract  the  same  ball.  When  the  two  slips 
of  glass  are  brought  together,  and  presented  as  a  whole,  the  attractions 
and  repulsions  may  still  be  considered  as  existing,  but  since  they  are 
equal  and  opposed,  they  entirely  neutralize  each  other,  and  no  external 
effect  is  perceptible. 

The  neutralization  of  the  two  opposite  forces  in  this  experiment, 
affords  an  illustration  of  the  condition  of  a  body  in  its  natural  state. 
Although  it  contains  a  large  amount  of  the  fluid,  no  action  is  produced 
on  other  bodies  in  their  natural  condition,  because  the  attractions  and 
repulsions  just  balance  each  other. 

For  exhibiting  the  most  important  statical  phenomena  of  electri- 
city, and  for  verifying  the  deductions  from  the  theory,  we  may  employ 
a  solid  glass  rod  of  about  fifteen  inches  in  length,  and  a  rod  of  sealing- 
wax  or  of  gum  shellac  of  the  same  length.  If  these  be  well  dried, 
held  by  one  end  and  rubbed  with  a  piece  of  woolen  cloth  at  the  other, 
electrical  excitement  will  be  produced.  Instead  of  a  solid  glass  rod, 
a  tube  may  be  employed,  provided  the  interior  be  perfectly  dry,  and 
well  corked  to  prevent  the  access  of  moisture.  If  the  end  of  the  tube  or 
rod  be  rubbed,  and  afterwards  brought  into  contact  with  a  small  ball 
of  pith,  or  of  any  light  conducting  matter,  suspended  by  a  silk  thread, 
the  excitement  will  be  communicated  to  the  ball,  and  if  the  communi- 
cation be  from  the  glass  rod  the  electricity  will  be  that  denominated 
positive ;  if  from  the  rod  of  sealing-wax  or  shellac,  it  will  be  what  is 
called  negative.  Since  the  phenomena  exhibited  by  balls  charged 
negatively  and  positively  are  very  nearly  the  same,  it  is  not  of  much 
consequence  which  we  call  the  positive  or  which  the  negative,  j)rovided 
we  always  apply  the  same  name  to  the  same  kind  of  excitement.  In 
the  early  discovery  of  the  two  kinds  of  electrical  excitement,  that 
which  was  produced  by  rubbing  glass  with  a  woolen  cloth  was  called 
vitreous,  and  that  from  the  friction  of  the  same  substance  on  sealing- 
wax  or  gum  shellac  was  denominated  resinous,  and  these  terms  are  still 
retained,  particularly  in  foreign  works  on  the  subject. 

The  simplest  instrument  for  exhibiting  the  attraction  and  repulsion 
of  electrified  bodies,  and  determining  the  intensity  and  character  of 
the  excitement,  is  the  gold-leaf  electrometer,  which  any  person  with  a 
little  patience  and  some  mechanical  skill  may  construct  for  himself. 
Different  forms  of  this  instrument  are  exhibited  in  Figures  2  and  8. 


METEOROLOGY.  467 

A  brass  wire,  surmounted  hj  a  ball  of  the 
same  metal,  is  passed  through,  the  cork  of  a 
small  glass  jar,  or  large-sized  vial,  from  which 
the  bottom  has  been  removed  and  its  place 
supplied  by  a  disk  of  wood;  and  to  the  lower 
end  of  the  wire,  which  may  be  slightly  flat- 
tened, is  attached,  by  means  of  any  adhering 
substance,  two  narrow  strips  of  gold  leaf,  so 
as  to  hang  freely,  "and,  when  unexcited,  par- 
allel to  each  other  without  touching. 

When  we  wish  to  ascertain  if  a  body  is  elec- 
trified, or  whether  different   parts   of  it  are 
charged,  for  example,  positively  to  the  same  "^ 
degree,  we  bring  in  contact  with  the  part  to 
be  examined,  a  small  metallic  ball  suspended  fig-  2. 

at  the  end  of  a  very  fine  silk  thread,  (a  fiber  from  a  cocoon  will  serve 
for  this  purpose,)  and  afterwards  bring  the  small  ball,  which  may  be 
called  the  carrier,  in  contact  with  the  ball,  or,  as  it  is  called,  the  knob  of 
the  electrometer.  The  electricity  of  the  carrier  will  distribute  itself,  on 
account  of  the  repulsion  of  its  atoms,  throughout  the  knob,  the  stem, 
and  the  leaves  of  the  electrometer.  The  leaves  being  the  only  movable 
part,  will  diverge  from  each  other,  and  will  thus  exhibit  the  electrical 
repulsion  to  the  eye.  We  see  from  this  experiment,  as  well  as  from 
that  of  the  ball  touched  with  the  excited  glass,  that  electricity  may  be 
transferred  from  one  body  to  another,  and  that  when  it  is  applied  to  the 
end  of  an  elongated  metallic  conductor  it  instantly  diffuses  itself  over  the 
whole  mass.  In  the  experiment  we  have  just  described,  the  body  was  sup- 
posed to  have  been  positively  electrified ;  but  a  similar  effect  would  have 
been  produced  had  it  been  negatively  charged.  In  that  case,  a  portion  of 
the  natural  electricity  of  the  carrying  ball  would  have  been  drawn  from 
it  by  the  unsaturated  matter  of  the  electrified  body,  and  the  ball  in 
turn,  when  brought  in  contact  with  the  upper  end  of  the  electrometer, 
would  draw  from  it  a  j^ortion  of  its  natural  electricity — the  deficiency 
extending  to  the  leaves — which  would  therefore  diverge,  since,  accord- 
ing to  the  theory^  unsaturated  matter  repels  unsaturated  matter. 

If  we  wish  to  ascertain  whether  a  body  is  electrified  negatively  or 
positively,  we  transfer  a  portion  of  its  charge  to  the  electrometer  by 
means  of  the  carrying  ball,  and  then,  having  rubbed  a  rod  of  glass 
with  a  ]3iece  of  woolen  cloth,  we  bring  it  near  to  the  electrometer ;  if  the 
leaves  diverge  further  when  the  rod  of  glass  is  brought  near,  the  original 
charge  is  of  plus  electricity;  if,  on  the  contrary,  the  leaves  converge, 
we  may  consider  the  electricity  as  negative ;  or  the  same  conclusion 
may  be  arrived  at  by  rubbing  a  stick  of  sealing-wax  with  the  woolen 
cloth,  which,  becoming  negatively  excited,  will  cause  the  leaves  in  the 
case  of  a  positive  charge  to  converge,  and  in  that  of  a  negative  charge 
to  diverge. 

CONDUCTION  AND  INSULATION  OF  ELECTRICITY. 

By  means  of  a  simple  electrometer  of  the  kind  we  have  just  described 
we  may  at  once  determine  whether  a  body  is  a  conductor  or  non-con- 


468  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

ductor  of  electricity.  If  a  slight  charge  be  given  to  the  electrometer, 
which  may  he  effected  by  touching  the  knob  with  a  rod  which  has 
been  rubbed  by  woolen  cloth,  the  charge  will  remain  with  but  little 
diminution  for  several  hours,  provided  the  air  is  perfectly  dry  ;  while, 
if  the  air  is  moist,  the  charge  is  soon  dissipated.  These  facts  show 
that  the  former  is  a  non-conductor,  and  the  latter  a  partial  conductor. 
Dry  air  would  be  a  perfect  insulator  of  electricity,  provided  it  were 
motionless;  the  atoms,  however,  which  impinge  against  a  charged  body 
become  electrified  with  the  same  kind  of  excitement,  and  are,  conse- 
quently, repelled  off,  their  place  being  supplied  with  others,  and  so  on 
until  the  charge  is  gradually  diminished  and  finally  dissipated. 

If,  when  the  electrometer  is  charged  in  dry  air,  we  touch  the  knob 
with  a  glass  rod,  the  leaves  will  be  but  little  affected ;  but,  if  we  breathe 
on  the  surface  of  the  rod,  the  glass  will  become  a  partial  conductor  and 
the  leaves  will  slowly  converge.  If  the  ball  be  touched  with  one  end 
of  a  metallic  wire,  the  electricity  will  instantly  be  conducted  off.  If 
we  make  a  similar  experiment  with  a  piece  of  dry  wood,  the  charge 
will  be  gradually  dissipated,  a  fact  which  indicates  that  wood  is  a 
partial  conductor.  By  increasing  the  length  of  an  imiDcrfect  con- 
ductor we  shall  find  that  the  time  of  drawing  off  the  charge  is  increased, 
and  in  this  way  it  may  be  shown  that  there  are  very  few  bodies  vfhich 
are  perfect  conductors  or  non-conductors ;  that  every  body  offers  some 
resistance  to  the  passage  of  an  electrical  current,  provided  we  increase 
the  length  sufficiently  to  make  it  perceptible.  By  experimenting  on 
various  bodies  in  the  way  we  have  described,  we  may  form  an  approxi- 
mate table  of  the  degrees  in  which  different  substances  are  conductors 
or  non-conductors  of  electricity.  The  human  body  is  a  very  perfect 
conductor  of  ordinary  electricity,  since  if  we  touch  the  knob  of  the 
electrometer  with  the  finger,  the  leaves  instantly  collapse,  provided  we 
are  standing  at  the  time  on  the  ground.  If,  however,  we  place  a  non- 
conductor, for  example,  a  cake  of  beeswax^,  under  the  feet,  the  whole 
of  the  charge  will  probably  not  be  withdrawn  but  shared  with  the 
body,  and  the  leaves  will  only  partially  converge.  It  may  also  be 
shown  by  the  same  instrument  that  in  order  to  produce  electrical  excite- 
ment by  friction,  it  is  only  necessary  that  two  dissimilar  substances 
be  rubbed  together,  one  at  least  of  which  must  be  a  partial  conductor. 
For  example,  if,  while  a  person  is  standing  on  a  cake  of  beeswax  he 
place  ane  finger  on  the  knob  of  an  electrometer  and  another  person 
strike  him  on  the  back  with  a  silk  handkerchief,  the  leaves  will  in- 
stantly diverge,  showing  that  the  whole  body  has  received  a  charge  of 
electricity,  which  is  prevented  from  escaping  into  the  floor  by  the 
interposed  non-conducting  beeswax. 

After  the  introduction  of  furnaces  for  heating  rooms  by  warm  air, 
the  public  were  surprised  at  exhibitions  of  electrical  excitement  which 
previously  had  not  been  generally  observed.  If  our  shoes  be  very  dry, 
and  we  move  over  the  surface  of  a  carpet,  with  a  shuf&ing  motion,  on 
a  very  cold  day,  particularly  in  a  room  heated  by  a  furnace,  the  fric- 
tion will  charge  the  body  to  such  a  degree  that  a  spark  may  be  drawn 
from  the  finger,  and  under  favorable  circumstances  a  jet  of  gas  from  a 
burner  may  be  ignited.  There  is  nothing  new  or  wonderful  in  this 
experiment ;  it  is  simply  an  exhibition  of  the  production  of  electricity 


METEOEOLOGY.  469 

by  friction,  whicli  only  requires  the  carpet,  tlie  shoes,  and  the  air  to  be 
drj?",  conditions  most  perfectly  fulfilled  on  a  day  in  which  the  moisture  of 
the  air  has  been  precipitated  by  external  cold  and  its  dryness  increased 
by  its  passage  through  the  flues  of  the  furnace.  In  the  ordinary  state  of 
theatmosphere^,  the  electricity,  which  is  evolved  by  friction,  is  dissipated 
as  rapidly  as  it  is  developed,  but  in  very  cold  weather  the  non-con- 
ducting or  insulating  power  of  the  air  is  so  much  increased  that  the 
electricity,  which  is  excited  by  the  almost  constant  rubbing  of  bodies  on 
each  other,  is  rendered  perceptible.  Every  person  is  familiar  with  the 
fact,  that,  on  removing  clothes,  or  shaldng  garments  in  dry  weather,  the 
electricity  evolved  by  the  rubbing  exhibits  itself  in  sparks  and  flashes 
of  light.  The  popular  idea  in  regard  to  this  is,  that  the  atmosphere,  at 
such  times,  contains  more  electricity  than  at  others,  but  these  appear- 
ances are  not  due  to  the  variation  of  the  electricity  in  the  atmosphere, 
but  simply  to  the  less  amount  of  vapor  which  is  present.  When  the 
clothes  are  rubbed  together  one  part  becomes  positive  and  the  other 
negative,  and  in  dry  air  the  excitement  increases  to  such  an  intensity 
that  the  restoration  of  the  equilibrium  takes  place  by  a  visible  spark, 
but  in  the  case  of  moist  air  the  equilibrium  is  silently  restored  as  soon 
as  it  is  disturbed,  and  no  excitation  is  perceptible. 

Similar  effects  are  observed  on  the  dry  plains  of  the  western  part  of 
our  continent ;  in  rubbing  the  horses  or  mules,  sparks  of  electricity 
may  be  drawn  from  every  part  of  the  body  of  the  animal.  Persons  in 
delicate  health,  whose  perspiration  is  feebly  exhaled,  sometimes  exhibit 
electrical  excitement  in  a  degree  sufficient  to  surprise  those  who  are 
not  familiar  with  the  phenomena.  But  these  exhibitions  have  no  con- 
nection Avith  animal  electricity,  and  are  merely  simple  illustrations  of 
the  electricity  developed  by  friction  in  an  atmosphere  too  dry  to  permit 
the  usual  immediate  and  silent  restoration  of  the  electrical  equilibrium. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  ELECTRICITY. 

The  mutual  repulsion  of  the  atoms  of  electricity,  varying  inversely 
as  the  square  of  the  distance,  gives  rise  to  the  distribution  of  the  fluid 
in  regular  geometrical  arrangements,  the  form  of  which  may  be  cal- 
culated with  mathematical  precision.  As  one  of  the  simplest  cases  of 
distribution,  suppose  a  conductor  of  the  form  of  a  cylinder,  with  hemis- 
pherical ends — for  example,  one  of  wood,  covered  with  tin  foil — to  be 
suspended  horizontally  in  dry  air  with  silk  threads,  and,  thus  insulated, 
to  be  slightly  electrified  by  touching  the  middle  of  it  with  a  charged 
body;  the  atoms  of  the  fluid,  by  their  mutual  repulsion,  will  separate 
as  far  as  possible  from  each  other,  and  be  found  at  the  two  extremities. 
If  the  conductor  were  not  surrounded  with  a  non-conducting  fluid,  like 
the  air,  they  would  be  driven  off  by  the  same  repulsion  into  space,  and 
thus  indefinitely  separated. 

This  inference,  from  the  theory,  can  readily  be  proved  to  be  in 
accordance  with  the  actual  condition  of  the  excitement^  by  bringing 
into  contact  with  the  middle  of  the  length  of  the  conductor  a  small 
carrier  ball,  and  afterwards  applying  it  to  the  knob  of  the  electrometer. 
If  the  charge  given  to  the  conductor  be  small,  scarcely  any  electricity 
will  be  found  at  the  middle;  if,  however,  the  carrier  be  brought  into 
contact  with  either  end  of  the  conductor,  it  will  receive  a  charge  of  such 


470 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


intensity  as  to  cause  the  leaves  to  diverge  widely  from  each  other.  If 
a  charge  of  electricity  be  imparted  to  the  center  of  a  conductor  in  the 
form  of  a  thin  circular  disc  the  fluid  will  he  found,  by  a  similar  exami- 
nation, in  the  greatest  intensity,  at  the  outer  rim. 

If  we  electrify  a  solid  globe  of  metal,  the 
excitement  will  be  confined  to  an  indefinitely 
thin  stratum  just  at  the  surface  of  the  con- 
ductor ;  for  if  the  electricity  be  imparted  to 
the  center  of  the  gldbe  along  a  wire  through 
a  glass  tube,  the  atoms  will  evidently  separate 
from  each  other  as  far  as  possible,  on  account 
of  their  mutual  repulsion,  and  would  continue 
to  diverge  even  beyond  the  surface,  were  it  not 
they  are  stopped  by  the  non-conducting  air 
which  surrounds  and  insulates  the  globe.  That 
this  inference  is  true  may  be  shown  by  an  ar- 
rangement which  is  exhibited  in  Fig.  3, in  which 
A  represents  a  hollow  metallic  globe,  insulated 
on  a  glass  pillar  and  charged  with  electricity. 
If  the  carrier  ball  B  be  let  down  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  globe,  so  as  to  touch  the  inner 
surface  and  then  withdrawn  without  touching 
the  side  of  the  hole  it  will  be  found  entirely 
free  from  electricity.  If,  however,  it  be  made 
,to  touch  the  outside  of  the  globe  it  will  carry  off 
iwith  it  a  charge  which  will  cause  the  leaves  of 
the  electrometer  C  to  diverge  in  proportion  to 
the  original  quantity  imparted  to  the  sphere.  A 
similar  effect  will  be  exhibited  if  the  ball  be 
lowered  into  an  insulated  cylinder  of  gauze  A, 
Fig.  4,  which  has  been  charged  with  electric- 
ity. Not  the  least  sign  of  excitement  will 
be  found  on  the  inside,  while  a  spark  may, 
perhaps,  be  drawn  from  the  exterior.  The 
same  result  is  produced,  as  we  shall  see, 
whether  the  globe  be  charged  negatively  or 
positively. 

Newton  has  demonstrated  the  following 
pro|)ositions  relative  to  the  action  of  gravita- 
tion, which  are  equally  applicable  to  electrical 
attraction  and  repulsion,  or  any  other  action 
which  varies  as  the  square  of  the  distance  : 

1.  A  particle  of  matter  placed  outside  of  a 
hollow  sphere  of  attracting  or  repelling  matter 
of  uniform  thickness,  is  acted  upon  as  if  all  the 
matter  were  at  the  center  of  the  sphere. 

2.  A  particle  of  matter  (or  of  free  electricity) 
placed  at  any  point  within  a  hollow  sphere  of 
uniform  attracting  or  repelling  matter,  will 
be  acted  upon  in  every  direction  by  an  equal 
force,  and  will  consequently  be  at  rest. 


Pig.  3. 


METEOROLOGY. 


471 


Pig.  5. 


The  form  of  the  demonstration  of  the  first  of  these  propositions  may 
be  easily  understood  by  a  reference  to  Figure 
5 .  In  this  a  represents  a  particle  of  matter 
or  of  electricity  attracted  or  repelled  by  the 
hollow  sphere  of  which  the  center  is  0.  Let 
the  two  lines  a  d  and  a  e  represent  the  pro- 
jection of  a  jDyramid  having  its  apex  in  a, 
and  its  base  in  d  e,  then  it  will  be  evident 
that  the  attraction  of  the  three  sections 
of  the  cone,  one  through  the  center,  an- 
other coinciding  with  the  upper  part  of  the 
spherical  shell,  and  the  third  with  the  lower 
part  included  within  d  e,  will  be  equal. 
For,  although  the  lower  section  is  at  a 
greater  distance  from  a  than  the  upper,  yet 
its  greater  size  just  compensates  for  the 
greater  distance,  the  surface  increasing,  as 
in  the  case  of  light,  as  the  square  of  the  dis- 
tance, while  the  attraction  and  repulsion 
diminish  in  the  same  ratio.  For  the  same 
reason,  each  of  the  tM'-o  portions  of  the  spher- 
ical shell  are  equal  in  action  to  a  plate  of  equal  thickness  through  the 
center,  included  within  the  cone ;  and  hence,  the  two  together  will  be 
equal  to  a  plate  of  double  thickness  at  the  center. 

If,  in  the  same  way,  we  suppose  the  whole  spherical  shell  included 
in  a  series  of  pyramids  or  cones,  having  as  a  common  apex  the  point 
a,  and  consider  this  series  of  cones  made  up  of  equal  pairs,  the  two 
members  of  which  are  on  each  side  of  the  line  through  the  center  as 
a  h  i,  and  a  f  g,  then  it  will  be  clear  that  the  resultant  action  of 
each  of  these  pairs  of  cones  will  be  in  a  line  through  the  center,  and 
all  the  action  of  the  sphere  made  up  of  such  cones  the  same  as  if  it 
were  at  this  point. 

That  a  point  at  the  center  of  a  hollow 
sphere  would  be  equally  acted  upon,  in  all 
directions,  is  evident;  but  that  the  same 
should  be  the  case  when  the  point,  for 
example,  is  at  a,  Fig.  6,  is  not  quite  so 
clear.  It  may,  however,  be  rendered  evi- 
dent by  considering  the  actions  of  the  op- 
posite bases  of  the  two  cones  ah  c  and  a 
d  e,  or  afg  and  a  h  i,  which,  for  a  reason 
similar  to  that  given  in  the  preceding 
proposition ,  are  respectively  equal  to  each 
other ;  and  as  we  may  consider  the  whole 
interior  surface  of  the  spherical  shell  made 
up  of  the  opposite  bases  of  a  series  of  pairs 
of  similar  cones,  it  is  clear  that  the  particle  at  a  will  be  equally  attracted 
or  repelled  on  all  sides,  or,  in  other  words,  will  be  apparently  unaffected 
by  the  action  of  the  excitement  which  may  exist  at  the  surface 


Ti  c 


472  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

From  the  first  of  these  propositions,  it  is 
easy  to  deduce  the  effect  of  a  point  in  dis- 
charging the  electricity  from  a  globe.  For  if 
A,  Fig.  7,  be  the  center  of  a  charged  sphere,  from 
which  the  slender-pointed  conductor  ah  c  pro- 
jects, then  will  the  action  on  the  point  a  of  all 
the  electricity  of  the  sphere  be  the  same  as  if  it 
were  at  the  center ;  and  if  we  suppose,  for  ex- 
ample, that  the  sphere  is  charged  with  posi- 
tive electricity,  then  will  the  atoms  of  electri- 
city of  the  point  a  be  repelled  by  all  the  atoms 
of  the  fluid  of  the  globe,  as  if  they  were  con- 
centrated at  A,  and  also  the  atoms  of  the  fluid 
at  the  point  h,  below  a,  will  be  repelled  by  all 
the  atoms  of  the  electricity  of  the  globe,  as  if 
they  were  concentrated  at  the  same  point,  and  so  on  with  the  atoms 
at  c,  &c. ;  therefore,  the  atoms  at  the  point  a  will  not  only  be  directly 
repelled  outward  by  the  atoms  of  the  fluid  in  the  sphere,  but  they  will 
also  be  pressed  outward  by  the  repulsion  exerted  on  each  of  the  atoms 
below,  so  that  the  whole  force  exerted  to  drive  off  the  fluid  from  the 
point  a  will  be  in  some  relation  to  the  number  of  atoms  in  the  perpen- 
dicular column  below  this  point ;  and  hence  the  tendency  which  must 
exist  in  a  point  projecting  from  a  charged  surface  to  rupture  the  air 
and  to  escape,  and  for  a  similar  reason,  when  the  globe  is  charged 
negatively,  to  draw  in  electricity  from  surrounding  bodies. 

From  the  second  proposition,  we  can  readily  deduce  the  fact  of  the 
distribution  of  the  electricity  at  the  surface ;  for  if  we  communicate  to 
the  interior  of  a  globe,  a  quantity  of  electricity  just  sufficient  to  ar- 
range itself  in  a  stratum  of  the  thickness  of  a  single  particle,  it  will  so 
arrange  itself,  on  account  of  the  mutual  repulsion  of  the  atoms,  but  if 
an  additional  quantity  is  thrown  into  the  interior,  it  might  not  appear 
evident  that  this  would  also  come  to  the  surface^  since  the  repulsion  of 
the  atoms  already  at  the  surface,  as  it  would  seem  at  first  sight_,  would 
drive  the  additional  atoms  back  towards  the  center ;  but,  from  the  sec- 
ond proposition,  the  inner  atoms  are  not  affected  by  the  outer,  and, 
consequently,  they  would  separate  from  each  other  by  their  mutual 
repulsion,  as  if  the  latter  did  not  exist_,  and  arrange  themselves  at  the 
surface.  That  this  should  take  place,  is  not  difficult  to  understand, 
when  the  sphere  is  charged  with  redundant  electricity ;  but  when  a 
deficiency  exists,  the  explanation  has  not  been  thought  as  easy.  If, 
however,  we  suppose  a  quantity  of  the  natural  electricity  drawn  from 
the  interior  of  a  solid  globe,  then  the  unsaturated  matter  in  the  center 
of  the  globe  will  act  as  a  sphere,  and  draw  into  itself  the  electricity 
from  around^  and  thus  produce  a  hollow  sphere  of  attracting  matter, 
which  will  draw  again  into  itself  from  around  the  natural  electricity, 
and  in  this  way,  it  must  be  evident,  the  deficiency  will  finally  come  to 
exist  at  the  surface. 

These  propositions,  which,  as  we  shall  see,  are  of  great  importance 
in  the  study  of  the  theory  of  atmospheric  electricity,  can  be  readily 


METEOROLOGY.  473 

demonstrated  experimentally.  If  we  coat  a  large  hollow  glass  globe 
with  tin  foil,  and  insert  through  an  opening  into  it  a  delicate  electro- 
meter, consisting  of  two  slips  of  gold  leaf  suspended  parallel  to  each 
other,  and  a  small  piece  of  the  covering  of  tin  foil  being  removed  at 
two  points  on  opposite  sides  to  observe  any  effects  produced  within, 
not  the  slightest  divergence  will  be  seen  in  the  gold  leaves,  when  the 
globe  outside  is  intensely  charged  with  electricity.  The  same  result 
will  be  obtained  when  a  slip  of  gold  leaf  is  suspended  in  the  interior 
and  electrified,  either  positively  or  negatively.  It  does  not  follow, 
from  these  experiments,  that  the  electricity  on  the  outside  does  not  act 
on  that  of  the  inside.  On  the  contrary,  we  must  infer  from  the  theory 
that  every  atom  of  electricity  at  the  surface  acts  repulsively  on  every 
atom  of  electricity  in  the  gold  leaf;  but  these  actions  are  equal  in  all 
directions,  and  therefore  neutralize  each  other. 

The  second  proposition  may  be  demonstrated  by  means  of  a  charged 
ball  and  the  hollow  globe,  Fig.  3.  If  the  charged  ball,  suspended  by 
a  silk  thread,  be  placed  at  about  eighteen  inches  above  a  gold-leaf 
electrometer,  and  the  divergence  noted,  when  the  ball  is  removed  and 
its  place  occupied  by  the  center  of  the  globe  to  which  the  electricity 
of  the  ball  has  been  imparted,  the  divergence  will  be  the  same  as  be- 
fore ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  action  on  the  electrometer  will  be  the 
same  when  a  given  quantity  of  electricity  is  concentrated  on  a  ball  at 
the  center  of  a  sphere,  or  diffused  throughout  the  surface  of  the  same 
body.  This  experiment  may  be  varied,  with  more  striking  results,  by 
placing  the  hollow  globe  at  a  given  distance  from  the  electrometer, 
and  then  letting  down  into  its  interior  until  it  reaches  the  center  a 
charged  ball,  the  leaves  will  be  seen  to  diverge  to  a  definite  degree ;  if 
the  ball  be  now  made  to  strike  the  interior  surface  of  the  globe,  by 
moving  the  suspending,  thread  of  silk,  the  whole  of  the  charge  will 
pass  to  the  surface  of  the  latter,  but  the  leaves  will  exhibit  the  same 
amount  of  divergence  as  before  the  transfer.  The  electricity  which  is 
distributed  throughout  the  surface  of  the  globe  produces  precisely  the 
same  effect  as  it  did  when  confined  to  the  ball  at  the  center. 

The  mathematical  problem  to  be  solved,  for  the  purpose  of  calcula- 
ting the  distribution  of  a  given  charge  of  electricity  in  a  body  of  any 
form,  is  to  proportion  the  amount  of  the  fluid  in  each  part  of  the 
surface,  so  that  the  resultant  action  on  the  interior  of  a  body  will  be 
completely  neutralized.  This  problem^  which  is  simple  for  the  sphere, 
becomes  too  complex,  even  for  the  highest  powers  of  mathematics,  for 
bodies  of  less  regular  forms  than  those  generated  by  the  revolution  of 
simple  curves. 

ELECTRICAL  INDUCTION. 

The  attraction  and  repulsion  of  electricity,  like  those  of  magnetism, 
act  at  great  distances,  and  produce  phenomena  which  it  is  necessary 
clearly  to  understand,  in  order  properly  to  comprehend  the  explanation 
of  many  of  the  facts  connected  with  atmospheric  electricity. 

For  the  exhibition  of  these  phenomena,  which  are  classified  under 
the  name  of  inductive  effects,  we  may  make  use  of  the  arrangement 


474 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT: 


represented  in  Fig.  8,  in  which  A  is  a  metallic  glohe  suspended  in 

free  air  by  a  fine 


silk  thread,  and  is 
thus  insulated.  0 
is  a  long  cylindri- 
cal metallic  con- 
ductor, supported 
by  a  rod  of  shellac 
or  sealing-wax  d, 
on  a  stand  e,  hav- 
ing a  glass  stem. 

N0W3  each  of 
these  metallic  bo- 
dies contains  its 
natural  share  of 
electricity,  and,  as 
long  as  this  con- 
tinues to  be  the 
same,  no  electrical 
effects  are  exhib- 
ited ;  for  although 
the  natural  elec- 
tricity of  A  will 
repel  the  electri- 
city of  O,  yet  the 
matter  of  A  will 
attract  it  with  an 
equal  force,  and 
hence  there  will 
be  no  perceptible 
effect.  Let  us, 
^=E^  however,  suppose 
that  there  be  im- 


Fig.  8. 


parted  to  the  globe  A,  a  redundant  quantity  of  electricity,  then  the 
equilibrium  will  be  disturbed  in  the  conductor  0,  the  repulsion  of  the 
redundant  fluid  will  be  greater  than  the  attraction  of  the  unsaturated 
matter,  and  hence  a  portion  of  the  natural  electricity  of  0  will  be 
driven  down  to  its  lower  end_,  and  consequently  the  upper  end  will 
become  negatively  electrified,  while  the  lower  is  positive.  It  must  be 
evident,  therefore,  that,  between  the  two  extremes,  there  will  be  a 
point  near  the  middle  which  will  be  in  its  ordinary  condition. 

These  inferences  may  readily  be  shown  to  be  true  by  observing  three 
movable  pith  balls  suspended  by  linen  threads,  one  near  the  top,  another 
at  the  middle,  and  the  third  at  the  lower  end.  Those  at  the  two  ex- 
tremities will  diverge,  exhibiting  excitement  at  the  two  ends^  while  the 
one  at  the  middle  will  remain  unmoved,  indicating  that  this  point  is 
in  a  natural  condition.  To  be  assured  that  the  upper  end  is  negatively 
electrified,  and  the  lower  positively,  it  is  only  necessary  to  rub  a  stick 
of  sealing-wax  with  woolen  cloth,  and  to  bring  it  in  succession  near 
the  two  balls;  the  upper  one  will  be  repelled  and  the  lower  one 
attracted ;  or  we  may  arrive  at  the  same  results  by  touching  in  succes- 


METEOROLOGY.  475 

sion  the  two  extremities  and  the  middle  of  the  conductor  with  the 
small  carrier  ball  a,  and  applying  it  to  the  knob  of  the  electrometer  B. 

If  the  conductor  0  be  removed  laterally  to  a  distance  from  under 
the  charged  globe,  the  excitement  will  disappear,  the  atoms  of  natural 
electricity,  by  their  mutual  repulsion  at  the  lower  end,  and  attrac- 
tion for  unsaturated  matter  at  the  upper  end  of  the  conductor,  will 
cause  them  to  distribute  themselves  uniformly,  and  to  assume  the 
natural  condition.  In  this  experiment  the  fact  is  illustrated  that  all 
bodies  are  naturally  charged  with  electricity,  which  exhibits  itself 
when  the  equilibrium  is  disturbed  by  the  action  of  some  extraneous 
force.  If  the  conductor  0  is  restored  to  its  former  position,  the  excite- 
ment will  be  renewed,  provided  the  globe  A  has  lost  none  of  its  charge, 
and  the  two  pith  balls  will  diverge  as  before.  If  the  charge  of  electricity 
in  the  insulated  globe  be  increased,  the  repulsive  action,  or  induction, 
as  it  is  called,  will  also  be  increased;  another  portion  of  electricity 
will  be  impelled  down  into  the  lower  end,  increasing  the  repulsive 
action  at  that  point,  and  also  the  amount  of  attraction  at  the  upper 
end.  The  middle  of  the  conductor,  however,  will  still  remain  in  a 
condition  of  neutrality.  Again,  if  while  the  charge  in  the  globe  A 
remains  the  same,  the  space  between  it  and  the  upper  end  of  the  con- 
ductor is  diminished,  a  greater  excitement  will  be  exhibited  by  the 
increased  divergcDce  of  the  balls  at  the  two  extremities;  for,  since  the 
force  increases  with  a  diminution  of  distance,  an  additional  quantity 
of  the  natural  electricity  of  the  upper  end  will  be  driven  down  into 
the  lower  end,  and  an  equal  amount  of  unsaturated  matter  will  be  left 
at  the  upper  end. 

We  may  still  further  vary  the  experiment  by  lengthening  the  con- 
ductor 0,  the  charge  of  the  globe  and  its  distance  from  the  upper  end 
remaining  the  same,  and  for  this  purpose  the  conductor  may  be  made 
to  draw  out  like  the  tube  of  a  telescope.  We  shall  find  that  the 
greater  the  length,  the  greater  will  be  the  intensity  of  the  effect  at 
each  end.  To  understand  this  we  have  only  to  recollect  that  the 
atoms  of  electricity  constantly  repel  each  other,  and  that,  in  the  case 
of  a  short  conductor,  but  little,  comparatively,  can  be  driven  from  the 
upper  end,  because  the  self-repulsion  of  the  electricity  of  the  lower  end 
and  the  attraction  of  the  unsaturated  matter  of  the  upper  end,  both  con- 
spire to  restore  the  distribution,  but  when  we  give  a  greater  length  to 
the  conductor  for  the  free  electricity  of  the  lower  part  to  expand  into, 
and  thereby  lessen  the  intensity  of  the  repulsion  and  also  remove  the 
free  electricity  further  from  the  center  of  attraction  of  the  redundant 
matter,  the  tendency  to  restore  the  normal  condition  is  much  lessened, 
and  a  new  quantity  will  be  repelled  into  the  lower  end  from  the  upper, 
and  thus  produce  at  that  end  a  greater  intensity  of  excitement.  If  we 
increase  indefinitely  the  length  of  the  conductor,  or,  what  amounts  to 
the  same  thing,  if  we  connect  the  lower  end  of  it  by  means  of  a  metallic 
wire  or  other  conductor  with  the  earth,  or  elongate  it  till  it  touches 
the  earth,  then  we  shall  have  the  maximum  of  effect.  The  neutral 
point  will  descend  to  the  earth,  while  the  conductor,  throughout  its 
entire  length,  will  be  charged  negatively. 

The  effects  which  we  have  described  are  those  which  would  take 
place  if  we  supposed  the  electricity  in  the  globe  suffered  no  change  in 


476  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

its  distribntion  on  account  of  the  induction ;  but  tbis  cannot  be  the 
case,  since,  in.  the  action  of  one  body  on  another,  an  equal  reaction 
must  be  produced,  hence  the  unsaturated  matter  in  0  will  react  on  the 
free  electricity  in  the  globe,  and  draw  down  into  its  lower  side  a  por- 
tion of  that  which  before  existed  in  the  upper  side,  and  thus  render  the 
lower  side  more  intensely  redundant  than  before.  This  additional 
quantity  of  free  electricity  in  the  lower  side,  will  tend  to  increase  the 
amount  of  unsaturated  matter  in  the  upper  part  of  the  conductor.  The 
maximum  effect  will  be  produced,  as  we  have  before  stated,  when  the 
lower  end  of  the  conductor  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  earth,  which 
may  be  considered  as  a  conductor  of  infinite  capacity.  In  this  condi- 
tion the  self-repulsion  of  the  atoms  of  the  fluid  in  the  loAver  part  of  the 
globe,  and  the  attraction  of  the  unsaturated  matter  in  the  upper  end 
of  the  conductor,  may  become  so  great  as  to  cause  a  rupture  of  the  in- 
tervening air  and  a  transfer  of  the  redundant  electricity  in  the  form  of 
a  spark  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  body. 

If,  instead  of  the  metallic  conductor,  we  substitute  a  rod  of  shellac 
or  glass  of  the  same  length  and  diameter,  under  the  same  conditions, 
no  spark,  or  but  a  very  feeble  one,  will  be  produced.  The  natural 
electricity  cannot  be  driven  down  on  account  of  the  nonconducting 
character  of  the  material,  and  while  it  remains  at  the  top  it  repels  the 
free  electricity  of  the  globe  as  much  as  the  matter  of  the  globe  attracts 
it.  For  a  similar  reason,  if  a  small  brass  ball  be  placed  on  the  top  of 
a  rod  of  glass  and  presented  to  the  globe,  but  a  feeble  spark  will  be 
elicited ;  the  inductive  influence  will  act  in  this  case  under  unfavorable 
conditions,  a  portion  of  the  natural  electricity,  it  is  true,  will  be  driven 
down  into  the  lower  surface  of  the  ball,  and  an  equal  amount  of  unsatu- 
rated matter  will  exist  at  the  upper  surface ;  but  the  attractions  and 
repulsions  will  be  so  nearly  at  the  same  distance  that  comparatively 
but  a  feeble  effect  will  be  produced.  An  attentive  consideration  of 
these  facts  is  essential  to  a  knowledge  of  atmospheric  electricity,  and 
necessary  to  understand  and  guard  against  the  effects  of  the  destructive 
discharges  from  the  thunder  cloud. 

The  inductive  action  we  have  described  takes  place,  at  a  distance, 
through  an  intervening  stratum  of  air,  but  the  same  effect  is  produced, 
and  with  nearly  the  same  intensity,  when  the  intervening  space  is 
occupied  with  glass,  or  any  other  nonconducting  substance.  If  a  disk 
of  wood,  which  is  a  partial  conductor,  is  interposed,  the  effect  will  be 
slightly  modified,  because  an  inductive  action  will  take  place  in  the 
substance  of  this,  which  will  tend  to  increase  the  effect  in  the  con- 
ductor 0,  below. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  inductive  influence  of  free  electricity  at  a 
distance  on  the  natural  electricity  of  a  conductor^  we  shall  direct  the 
attention  of  the  reader  to  an  arrangement  exhibited  in  Figure  9, 
which  is  that  of  an  experiment  made  by  the  author  of  this  paper  in 
Princeton^  in  1845.  Two  circular  disks  of  wood,  a  and  h,  each  of 
about  4  feet  in  diameter,  were  entirely  covered  with  tin  foil ;  one  was 
insulated  in  connection  with  a  large  conductor  of  an  electrical  machine, 
in  the  upper  story  of  a  building,  the  other  was  supported  on  a  glass 
foot  in  the  lowest  story,  at  the  distance  of  about  20  feet  below,  with 
two  floors  and  ceilings  intervening.     The  upper  disk  being  charged  by 


METEOROLOGY. 


477 


tlie  macliTne,  the  lower  one  was  touched  with  the  finger,  so  as  to  suffer 
the  induced  electricity  to  escape 
into  the  ground.  If,  when  in  this 
condition,  the  knuckle  was  held 
near  the  lower  disk  and  the  upper 
one  suddenly  discharged  hy  a 
spark  received  on  a  ball  attached 
to  the  end  of  a  wire  connected 
with  the  earth,  a  spark  was  seen 
to  pass  between  the  knuckle  and 
the  lower  disk,  a  similar  effect  was 
produced  when  the  upper  plate 
was  suddenly  charged  by  powerful 
sparks  from  the  machine,  though 
the  intensity  in  this  case  was  some- 
what less. 

In  this  experiment,  the  upper 
disk  may  represent  a  charged  thun- 
der-cloud, and  the  lower  one  the 
ground,  or  any  conducting  body 
within  a  house.  While  the  charged 
cloud  is  passing  over  the  building, 
all  conducting  bodies  in  it,  by  this 
inductive  action  at  a  distance,  have 
their  natural  electrical  equilibrium 
disturbed ;  the  upper  part  of  each 
body  becoming  negatively  electri- 
fied, and  the  lowerpart  positively ; 
and  if  the  cloud  continue  in  this  po- 
sition for  afew  minutes,  the  free 
electricity  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  conductor  will  be  gradually 
driven  into  the  earth,  through 
the  imperfect  insulation  of  the 
floor.      If,  in  this   case,  the 
lower  part  of  the  cloud  is  sud- 
denly  discharged,    sparks    of 
electricity  may  be  perceived, 
and    perhaps    shocks   experi- 
enced, by  the  inmates  of  the 
dwelling,    produced    by    the 
sudden  restoration  of  the  equi- 
librium, due  to  the  removal  of 
the  repulsive  force  of  the  cloud 
on  the  natural  electricity  of  the 
bodies  below. 

The  inductive  action  of  the 
electrical  discharge  at  a  dis- 
tance is  still  more  surprisingly 
exhibited,  by  an  arrangement 
shown  in   Fisrure   10,  which  Fig.io. 


Fig.  9. 


478  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

the  writer  of  this  article  adopted  during  his  electrical  investigations  at 
Princeton. 

The  roof  of  the  house  which  he  occupied  in  the  college  campus 
was  covered  with  tinned  iron,  and  this  covering  was  therefore  in 
the  condition  of  an  insulated  plate,  on  account  of  the  imperfect  con- 
duction of  the  wood  and  hrick-work  which  intervened  between  it 
and  the  ground.  To  one  of  the  lower  edges  of  this  covering  was 
soldered  a  copper  wire,  which  was  continued  downwards  to  the  first 
story  and  passed  through  a  gimlet-hole  in  the  window-frame  into  the 
interior  of  the  author's  study,  and  was  then  passed  out  of  the  lower 
side  of  the  same  window,  and  thence  into  a  well,  in  which  it  termin- 
ated in  a  metallic  plate  below  the  surface  of  the  water.  Within  the 
study  the  wire  was  cut  in  two,  and  the  two  ends  thus  formed  were 
joined  by  a  spiral  of  finer  wire  a  covered  with  silk  thread.  Into 
the  axis  of  this  spiral  a  large-sized  sewihg-needle  d  was  inserted,  the 
point  having  been  previously  attached  to  a  cork,  which  served  as  a 
handle  for  removing  it.  With  this  arrangement,  the  needle  was  found 
to  become  magnetic  whenever  a  flash  of  lightning  was  perceived,  though 
it  might  be  at  the  distance  of  several  miles.  The  intensity  of  magnet- 
ism and  the  direction  of  the  current  were  ascertained  by  presenting  the 
end  of  the  needle  to  a  small  compass  represented  by  c.  In  several 
instances  the  inductive  action  took  place  at  such  a  distance  that,  after 
seeing  the  flash-.^the  needle  was  removed,  its  magnetic  condition  ob- 
served, and  another  needle  put  in  its  place,  before  the  noise  of  the 
thunder  reached  the  ear.  In  this  experiment,  the  inductive  action  of 
the  electrical  discharge  in  the  heavens  was  exerted  on  the  natural 
electricity  of  a  surface  of  about  1,600  square  feet,  and  a  considerable 
portion  of  this  passed  down  through  the  wire  into  the  well.  The  ar- 
rangement served  to  indicate  an  action  which  would  otherwise  be  too 
feeble  to  produce  sensible  effects. 

It  must  be  observed  that  the  effect  here  described  was  not  produced 
by  the  actual  transfer  of  any  electricity  from  the  cloud,  but  was  simply 
the  result  of  induction  at  a  distance,  and  would  probably  have  been 
nearly  the  same  had  the  intervening  space  been  filled  with  glass  or 
any  other  solid  non-conducting  substance.  We  say  probably,  very 
nearly  the  same,  because  Mr.  Faraday  has  shown  that  the  inductive 
effect  at  a  distance  is  modified  by  a  change  in  the  intervening  medium. 

It  is  also  proper  to  mention,  in  this  place,  although  we  cannot  stop 
to  give  the  full  explanation  of  the  means  by  which  the  result  was  ob- 
tained, that  the  electricity  along  the  wire  Was  not  that  due  to  a  single 
discharge  into  the  well,  but  to  a  series  of  oscillations  up  and  down  in 
alternate  directions,  until  the  equilibrium  was  restored. 

ELECTRICITY  IN  MOTION. 

The  phenomena  we  have  thus  far  described  relate  principally  to  elec- 
tricity at  rest.  Those  which  relate  to  ordinary  or  frictional  electricity 
in  motion  have  not  been  so  minutely  investigated  as  the  other  class, 
and  present  much  more  difficulty  in  ascertaining  the  laws  to  which 
they  are  subjected.  The  discharge  of  electricity  from  the  clouds,  or 
from  an  ordinary  electrical  machine,  is  so  instantaneous  that  we  are 


METEOROLOGY.  479 

principally  confined  in  our  investigations  to  the  effects  which  remain 
along  its  path  after  its  transfer. 

The  electricity,  however,  which  is  developed  hy  chemical  action  in 
a  galvanic  battery,  is  of  sufficient  quantity  to  produce  a  continuous 
stream,  or  at  least  a  series  of  impulses  in  such  rapid  succession  that 
they  may  be  considered  continuous.  By  employing  electricity  of  this 
kind,  it  has  been  supposed  that  we  can  study  the  fluid  while  it  is  ac- 
tually in  motion,  and  from  the  results  deduce  inferences  as  to  the  mode 
in  which  some  of  the  effects  are  produced  in  the  discharge  of  frictional 
electricity.  The  two  classes  of  phenomena,  however,  though  referable 
to  the  same  cause,  are,  in  many  respects,  so  different  in  character  that 
considerable  caution  is  required  in  regard  to  inferences  from  analogy. 
The  phenomena  of  ordinary  electricity  are  characterized  by  an  intensity 
of  action  which  indicates  a  repulsive  force  between  the  atoms  of  the 
hypothetical  fluid,  which,  in  some  way  is,  at  least,  partially  neutralized 
in  the  case  of  galvanism. 

Ordinary  electricity  in  a  state  of  equilibrium  appears  to  produce  but 
a  very  feeble  effect  upon  bodies  in  which  it  is  accumulated.  However 
great  may  be  the  quantity  present,  no  perceptible  effect  is  perceived  in 
the  pulse  when  a  person  is  insulated  on  a  glass  stool,  and  charged 
either  positively  or  negatively,  so  long  as  the  electricity  remains  at 
rest.  If,  however,  it  is  drawn  from  him  in  the  form  of  a  spark,  then 
a  disagreea,ble  pricking  sensation  is  experienced  at  the  point  of  rupture. 
Dr.  Faraday  constructed  a  small  metallic  house  or  room,  which  he 
suspended  by  silk  ropes  in  mid  air,  and  charged  it  so  strongly  that  long 
sparks  could  be  drawn  from  the  outside,  yet  not  the  least  effect  was 
perceived  by  the  persons  within ;  even  when  the  air  of  the  interior  of 
the  house  was  strongly  electrified,  the  excitement  was  only  percepti- 
ble on  the  outside. 

It  is  fully  established  by  the  most  satisfactory  experiments  that,  in 
all  cases  in  which  a  discharge  of  Electricity  takes  place  by  breaking 
through  a  stratum  of  non-conducting  substance  like  air,  there  is  an 
actual  transfer  of  matter  each  way  between  the  two  ends  or  sides  of  the 
opening  in  the  conductor  along  the  path  which  the  spark  traverses. 
If  an  opening  be  made  in  a  rod,  and  each  end  terminated  by  a  brass 
ball,  one  of  which  is  covered  with  gold  leaf,  and  the  other  with  silver, 
a  transfer  in  opposite  directions  of  these  two  metals  will  be  observed. 
A  similar  effect  is  produced  in  the  discharge  of  lightning  from  the 
clouds,  and  there  are  several  well  authenticated  cases  on  record,  in 
which  a  picture  as  it  were  of  one  body*  has  been  impressed  on  another 
between  which  the  electrical  discharge  took  place. 

Another  effect  produced  by  the  discharge  which  has  an  important 
bearing  upon  the  explanation  of  some  of  the  mechanical  results  of  elec- 
tricity, is  a  sudden  and  violent  repulsive  energy  given  to  the  atoms  of 
air  and  other  substances  through  which  it  passes,  and  which  causes 
them  to  separate  with  an  explosive  violence. 

This  may  be  shown  by  transmitting  a  discharge  from  an  electrical 
battery  between  two  brass  balls  projecting  into  the  inside  of  a  glass 
bulb,  to  the  lower  side  of  which  is  joined  an  air-tight  tube  containing 
a  small  quantity  of  water,  and  opening  at  the  end  into  a  cup  of  water, 
the  arrangement  with  the  exception  of  the  balls  being  similar  to  that 


480  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

of  an  air  thermometer.  The  moment  the  discharge  takes  place,  the 
water  will  be  driven  down  the  tube,  exhibiting  a  great  enlargement  of 
the  volume  of  air  in  the  bulb.  This  experiment  was  communicated 
by  Mr.  Kinnersley,  of  Philadelphia,  to  Ur.  Franklin.  The  effect 
was  attributed  at  first  to  heat  produced  by  the  discharge  of  electricity 
through  the  air  in  the  bulb,  but  although  there  is  heat  evolved  in  this 
case,  as  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  if  a  number  of  sparks  be  passed  in 
succession^  the  water  does  not  return  to  its  first  altitude,  and  thus 
indicates  an  increase  of  temperature,  yet  the  principal  cause  is  evi- 
dently due  to  the  sudden  repulsive  energy  given  to  the  air  at  the 
moment  of  the  passage  of  the  discharge,  as  may  readily  be  shown  by 
inclosing  a  thermometer  within  the  bulb.  The  increase  of  temperature 
which  this  indicates,  will  be  far  too  small  to  account  for  the  great  and 
sudden  expansion  produced.  A  similar  exhibition  offeree  is  exhibited 
when  a  strong  discharge  of  electricity  is  passed  through  a  vessel  like 
the  one  we  have  described,  filled  with  water.  In  this  arrangement  a 
thick  glass  bulb  may  be  broken  with  violence  into  pieces. 

The  mechanical  effects  produced  by  lightning  must  be  attributed 
principally  to  this  cause.  When  a  pov/erful  discharge  from  a  cloud 
passes  through  a  confined  space  filled  with  air,  and  surrounded  by 
partial  non-conductors,  a  tremendous  energy  is  exerted.  In  the  case 
of  a  house  examined  by  the  writer  of  this  article,  the  discharge  fell 
upon  the  top  of  a  chimney  at  the  west  end  of  the  building  and  passing 
through  a  stovepipe  hole,  traversed  the  space  under  the  rafters  called 
the  cockloft,  to  the  chimney  at  the  east  end,  and  thence  down  to 
the  ground  ;  the  force  exerted  was  sufiiciently  great  to  lift  up  the  whole 
roof  from  the  top  of  the  walls  on  which  it  rested.  In  like  manner, 
when  the  discharge  takes  place  along  the  upright  timbers  of  a  house, 
the  clapboards  are  frequently  blown  off  outwards,  and  the  plaster 
inwards,  as  if  by  the  explosion  of  gunpowder. 

We  must  ascribe  to  a  similar  action  the  splintering  of  trees  by  light- 
ning. At  the  moment  of  the  passage  of  the  discharge,  the  sap  or  mois- 
ture is  suddenly  endowed  with  a  repulsive  energy  which  resembles  in  its 
efiects  the  action  of  an  explosive  compound,  separating  the  fibers  longi- 
tudinally, and  projecting  parts  of  the  body  of  the  tree  to  a  distance. 
When  a  tree  is  struck  by  lightning  the  greatest  efibct  is  usually 
produced  on  the  main  stem  just  below  the  branches.  A  portion  of  the 
discharge  appears  to  be  received  on  each  twig^  leaf,  and  branch,  and 
the  whole  concentrated  by  converging  towards  the  trunk.  The  repul- 
sion imparted  to  the  atoms  of  a. conductor  is  in  some  cases  sufficiently 
great  to  dissipate  at  once  in  vapor,  fine  metallic  wires,  and  this  so 
instantaneously  that  the  silk  covering  by  which  they  are  surrounded 
for  telegraphic  purposes  is  not  burned. 

The  repulsive  energy  is  not  alone  exerted  laterally,  but,  perhaps,  in 
a  greater  degree  in  the  line  of  direction  of  the  conductor,  tending  to 
separate  it  as  it  were,  by  transverse  sections.  Hence,  when  electricity 
passes  through  a  wall  into  the  interior  of  a  house,  a  pyramidal  mass 
of  plaster  is  thrown  out ;  a  similar  effect  is  frequently  produced  when 
the  discharge  takes  place  between  the  cloud  and  the  level  earth ;  a 
large  conical  or  pyramidal  hole  is  formed,  from  which  the  earth  is 
thrown  out  as  if  by  the  explosion  of  a  quantity  of  powder  beneath  the 


METEOROLOGY.  481 

surface.  Sucli  excavations  are  supposed  by  some  to  indicate  a  discharge 
of  electricity  from  the  earth  to  the  cloud,  l3ut  no  conclusion  of  this  kind 
can,  with  certainty,  be  drawn  from  the  phenomena.  It  simply  indi- 
cates an  intense  repulsive  energy  exerted  between  the  atoms  of  matter 
in  the  line  of  the  discharge.  It  sometimes  happens,  when  an  old  tree, 
-which,  perhaps,  has  been  moistened  by  the  rain,  is  struck  by  lightning, 
instead  of  being  rent  laterally,  it  is  broken  off  transversely,  the  upper 
part  being  projected  vertically  upward.  This  effect,  however,  is  not 
usually  produced,  since  the  force  exerted  by  the  tree  to  resist  transverse 
breaking  is  generally  much  greater  than  that  to  prevent  lateral  tearing 
apart. 

In  the  passage  of  electricity  from  a  charged  conductor,  or  from  a 
cloud  to  the  earth,  it  always  follows  the  line  of  least  resistance,  and  by 
an  antecedent  induction,  determines  the  course  it  is  to  pursue.  This 
is  strikingly  exhibited  by  an  experiment  devised  by  Sir  W.  S.  Harris.  A 
number  of  separate  pieces  of  gold  leaf  are  attached  to  a  sheet  of  paper. 
If  a  discharge  sufficiently  strong  to  dissipate  the  gold  and  blacken 
the  paper  be  passed  through  them,  its  course  will  be  shown  by  the 
blackened  parts  ;  and  it  is  especially  worthy  of  remark,  that  not  only 
are  the  pieces  out  of  the  line  of  least  resistance  untouched,  but  even 
portions  of  other  pieces  are  left  unchanged  from  the  same  cause. 
Now,  these  separate  pieces  of  gold  leaf  may  be  taken  to  represent 
detached  conductors  fortuitously  placed  in  the  construction  of  a  build- 

The  apparently  fitful  course  of  a  discharge  in  its  passage  through  a 
building  frequently  excites  surprise,  leaping,  as  the  electricity  does, 
from  one  conductor  to  another,  and  sometimes  descending  to  the  earth 
in  several  streams  ;  but  that  the  discharge  should  leap  from  one  con- 
ductor to  another,  through  a  considerable  intervening  sjjace  of  air,  is 
not  surprising,  since  its  original  intensity  was  sufficient  to  enable  it  to 
break  through  a  stratum  of  the  atmosphere  of  perhaps  a  mile  in  thick- 
ness before  it  reached  the  house. 

Whenever  electricity  passes  through  an  interrupted  conductor  so  as 
to  exhibit  the  appearance  of  light,  a  great  increase  of  intensity  is 
always  manifested  at  the  point  of  disruption^  as  if  the  charge  halted 
here  for  a  moment  until  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  fluid  could  accumu- 
late to  force  its  passage  through  the  obstacle.  An  illustration  of  this 
action  is  presented  in  the  fact,  that  at  the  point  where  the  lightning 
leaves  a  conductor,  and  also  where  it  is  received  by  another  conductor, 
signs  of  fusion  or  of  more  intense  action  are  always  exhibited.  An 
effect  of  lightning  described  by  Professor  Olmsted,  at  a  meeting 
of  the  American  Association,  in  New  Haven,  may  be  explained  on  this 
principle :  A  row  of  five  or  six  milk  pans,  placed  in  the  open  air  on  a 
bench,  was  struck  by  a  discharge  from  a  cloud.  The  electricity  passed 
through  the  whole  series,  making  two  holes  in  each  at  opposite  ex- 
tremities of  the  diameter,  or  at  the  places  where  the  electricity  may  be 
supposed  to  have  entered  and  gone  out. 

Ther§  is  another  circumstance  connected  with  the  discharge  of  elec- 
tricity having  an  important  bearing  on  the  construction  of  lightning- 
rods,  which  may  be  mentioned  in  this  place.  When  the  repulsion  of 
the  atoms  of  electricity  in  a  conductor  or  in  a  cloud,  and  the  attraction 
31 ^A 


482  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

of  the  unsaturated  matter  below,  become  so  intense  as  to  cause  a  rupture 
in  the  air,  the  electricity  of  the  cloud  is  precipitated  upon  the  con- 
ductor, and  not  only  restores  the  natural  quantity,  but  also  gives  it  for 
a  moment  a  redundancy  of  electricity,  a  fact  which  must  be  evident  from 
the  theory,  when  we  consider  the  distance  at  which  the  induction  is  com- 
municated. As  this  charge  of  free  electricity,  for  example,  passes  down- 
the  rod  to  the  earth,  it  assumes,  as  it  were,  the  form  of  a  wave,  render- 
ing the  metal  negative  in  advance;  and  thus,  in  the  transmission  of 
free  electricity  through  a  rod  of  metal,  the  action  consists  of  two  waves, 
one  of  redundant  electricity,  immediately  preceded  by  one  of  deficiency. 
Hence,  if  a  small  ball,  connected  with  the  earth  by  a  wire,  be  brought 
near  a  conductor,  for  example,  a  lightning-rod,  on  the  upper  end  of 
which  discharges  of  electricity  are  thrown  from  an  electrical  machine, 
sparks  may  be  drawn  from  the  rod,  however  intimately  it  may  be  con- 
nected with  the  earth  below. 

This  effect  was  strikingly  exhibited  by  an  experiment  instituted  by 
the  author  of  this  paper^  which  consisted  in  plunging  one  end  of  a 
copper  wire,  a  tenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  beneath  the  water  of  a  well, 
and  throwing  sparks  of  electricity  from  a  globe  of  a  foot  in  diameter  on 
the  upper  end,  which  was  terminated  by  a  small  ball.  Although  in 
this  case  the  conductor  Avas  as  perfect  as  possible,  yet  sparks  sui3&ciently 
intense  to  explode  the  oxy-hydrogen  pistol  were  obtained  throughout 
the  whole  length  of  the  wire. 

This  effect  was  not  due,  as  some  have  supposed,  to  the  tendency  of 
the  electricity  to  seek  another  passage  to  the  earth ,  as  may  be  shown 
by  catching  the  spark  in  a  Leyden  jar ;  but  it  was  solely  the  effect  of  a 
transient  charge  of  electricity  passing  along  the  surface  of  a  conductor 
from  one  extremity  to  the  other. 

The  phenomena  may  be  expressed  generally  by  the  statement  that, 
when  electricity  is  thrown,  as  it  were,  explosively,  by  a  disruptive  dis- 
charge through  the  air,  on  the  end  of  an  insulated  conductor,  it  does 
not  pass  silently  to  the  earth,  but  tends,  in  part,  to  be  given  off  in 
sparks  to  all  surrounding  bodies.  It  is  on  this  account  that  we  object 
to  the  otherwise  admirable  arrangement  of  Sir  W.  Snow  Harris  for  the 
protection  of  ships  from  lightning.  Though  the  main  portion  of  the 
discharge  of  electricity  is  transmitted  innoxiously  to  the  ocean  by  means 
of  the  slips  of  copper  which  are  carried  down  along  the  mast,  and 
through  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  to  the  sheathing  beneath,  as  proposed 
by  him,  yet  we  consider  it  safer  to  conduct  it  across  the  deck,  and  over 
the  sides  of  the  vessel  to  the  copper  sheathing. 

It  is  true,  the  quantity  which  tends  to  fly  off  laterally  from  the  rod, 
is  small,  yet  we  have  shown^  by  direct  experiment,  that  it  is  sufficient, 
even  when  produced  by  the  electricity  of  a  small  machine,  to  set  fire  to 
combustible  materials ;  and,  therefore,  it  cannot  be  entirely  free  from 
danger  in  a  ship,  for  example,  loaded  with  cotton. 

The  atoms  of  electricity,  in  their  transfer  from  one  body  to  another, 
still  retain  their  repulsive  energy ;  and,  if  the  discharge  be  not  very 
large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  conductor,  it  will  principally  be 
trcvnsmitted  at  the  surface. 

If  the  charge  be  very  large,  and  the  conductor  small,  it  will  probabl}'- 
pervade  the  whole  capacity,  and,   as  we  have   seen,  in  some   cases, 


METEOROLOGY.  483 

will  convert  into  an  impalpable  powder  or  vapor  tlie  solid  particles. 
Because  electricity  in  a  state  of  rest  is  found  disturbed  at  the  surface 
of  a  body,  it  was  immediately  assumed,  without  examination,  that 
electricity  in  motion  passed  along  the  surface ;  but  this  conclusion  was 
supposed  to  be  disproved  by  the  fact  that  the  conducting  power  of  a 
wire  for  galvanic  electricity  is  in  proportion  to  the  area  of  the  cross 
section,  from  which  it  follows  that  this  kind  of  electricity  pervades  the 
whole  mass  of  the  conductor.  But  galvanic  electricity  differs  from 
common  electricity,  apparently  in  the  exertion  of  a  much  less  energetic 
repulsion,  and  in  a  greater  quantity  developed  in  a  given  time.  The 
deduction,  therefore,  from  the  experiments  with  galvanism  can  scarcely 
be  considered  as  conclusive  in  regard  to  frictional  electricity. 

To  settle  this  point,  the  author  of  this  paper  instituted  a  series  of 
experiments,  which  conclusively  proved  the  tendency  of  electricity  of 
high  tension,  that  is  of  great  repulsive  energy,  to  pass  along  the  surface. 
It  will  be  sufficient  to  give  as  an  illustration  of  this  fact,  the  result 
obtained  by  the  arrangement  represented  in  Fig.  11,  in  which  A  B  is 


Pig.  11. 

a  copper  wire,  one  of  the  best  conductors  of  electricity,  of  the  size  usually 
employed  for  ringing  door-bells,  passing  through  the  axis  of  an  iron 
tube,  or  a  piece  of  gas-pipe,  about  three  feet  long.  The  middle  of  this 
wire  was  surrounded  with  silk,  and  coiled  into  a  magnetizing  spiral, 
into  which  a  large  sewing  needle  was  inserted.  The  wire  was  supported 
in  the  middle  of  the  tube  by  passing  it  through  a  cork  at  each  end,  cov- 
ered with  tin-foil,  so  as  to  form  a  good  metallic  connection  between  the 
copper  and  the  iron.  /  and  y  are  two  other  magnetizing  spirals  of 
iron  wire,  on  oj)posite  sides  of  the  tube,  the  ends  soldered  to  the  iron. 
When  these  two  spirals  were  also  furnished  with  needles,  and  a  dis- 
charge from  a  Leyden  jar  sent  through  the  apparatus,  as  if  to  pass 
along  the  wire,  the  needle  inside  of  the  iron  tube  was  found  to  exhibit 
no  signs  of  magnetism,  while  those  on  the  outside  presented  strong 
polarity.  This  result  conclusively  shows  that,  notwithstanding  the 
interior  copper  wire  of  this  compound  conductor  was  composed  of  a 
material  whicli  offered  less  resistance  to  the  passage  of  the  charge 
than  the  iron  of  which  the  outer  portion  was  formed,  yet  when  it 
arrived  at  the  tin-foil  covering  of  the  cork,  it  diverged  to  the  surface 
of  the  tube,  and  still  further  diverged  into  the  iron  wire  forming  the 
outer  spirals.  We  must  not  conclude,  however,  from  this  experiment 
that  the  electricity  actually  passes  on  the  outside  of  the  tube.  On  the 
contrary,  we  must  infer  from  the  following  fact,  that  it  passes  just 
within  the  surface.  If  the  iron  be  coated  with  a  thin  covering  of 
sealing-wax,  the  latter  will  not  be  disturbed  when  a  moderate  dis- 


484  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

cTiarge  is  passed  through  it,  though  with  a  large  discharge  in  proportion 
to  the  conducting  power  of  the  rod,  the  outward  pressure  may  become 
go  great  as  to  throw  off  the  stratum  of  sealing-wax.  This  point  is  of 
some  importance  in  regard  to  the  question  of  painting  lightning-rods. 
If  the  metal  is  of  sufficient  size  to  freely  transmit  an  ordinary  dis- 
charge from  the  clouds,  the  condition  of  the  exterior  surface  can  have 
but  little  effect,  and  we  see  no  objection  to  coating  it  with  black  paint, 
the  basis  of  which  is  carbon,  a  good  conducting  material. 

It  is  also  to  the  same  repulsive  energy  that  we  may  attribute  the 
spreading  of  a  discharge  when  it  passes  through  partial  conductors,  as 
in  the  case  in  which  a  spark  from  an  electrical  machine  is  transmitted 
over  a  pane  of  glass  on  which  particles  of  iron  filings  are  sparsely  scat- 
tered. It  is  probable  that  drops  of  rain  and  partially  condensed  vapor 
in  the  atmosj)here  in  some  cases  are  connected  with  a  similar  appear- 
ance of  discharge  of  electricity  in  the  heavens. 

A  much  longer  spark  of  electricity  can  be  drawn  through  rarified  air 
than  through  that  of  ordinary  density.  The  light  which  accompanies 
a  discharge  in  this  case  assumes  different  colors,  the  violet  predomina- 
ting. This  is  a  fact  of  interest  in  connection  with  the  color  exhibited 
by  lightning,  and  we  may  infer  that  the  discharges  of  a  violet  hue  take 
place  between  clouds  at  a  great  elevation  in  the  atmosphere. 

The  electric  spark,  when  passed  through  a  confined  portion  of  at- 
mospheric air,  is  found  to  produce  a  chemical  combination  of  its  com- 
ponent parts,  namely,  nitrogen  and  oxygen,  and  to  form  nitric  acid. 
The  same  result  is  produced  on  a  grand  scale  in  the  heavens  during 
thunder-storms  ;  hence  the  rain  water  which  falls,  in  the  summer  season 
especially,  always  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  nitric  acid, 
which  is  considered  by  the  chemist  as  furnishing  a  portion  of  the  nitro- 
gen essential  to  the  growth  and  development  of  the  plant,  and  to  the 
same  source  is  referred  the  nitric  acid  in  the  nitrate  of  lime  and  potash 
which  is  found  in  the  form  of  efflorescence  on  damp  ground  and  the 
walls  of  old  buildings.  Indeed,  all  the  nitrate. of  potash  from  which 
gunpowder  is  manufactured  is  supposed  to  have  its  origin  in  this  way, 
and  the  explosion  from  the  thunder-cloud_,  and  that  from  the  cannon^ 
are  the  counterparts  of  each  other. 

Again,  during  the  transmission  of  electricity  from  an  ordinary  elec- 
trical machine,  a  pungent  odor  is  perceived,  something  analogous  to 
that  produced  by  the  slow  combustion  of  phosphorous,  which,  by  a  long- 
continued  series  of  researches.  Professor  Schonbein  has  shown  to  result 
from  a  change  in  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  He  supposes  that  this  sub- 
stance is  composed  of  two  atoms,  which,  by  their  combination,  partly 
neutralize  each  other,  but  which  are  separated  by  the  repulsion  of  the 
electric  spark,  and  thus  free  have  a  much  greater  tendency  to  combine 
with  other  substances  than  in  their  ordinary  state  of  union.  Oxygen, 
thus  changed,  according  to  Schonbein,  is  called  ozone,,  and,  as  it  would 
appear,  performs  an  important  part  in  many  of  the  molecular  and 
chemical  phenomena  of  the  atmosphere.  To  this  increased  combining 
power  of  oxygen  may  be  attributed  the  formation  of  the  nitric  acid  we 
have  mentioned,  and  without  such  an  explanation,  it  would  be  difficult 
to  conceive  how  particles  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  which  are  rendered 


METEOROLOGY.  485 

mutually  repulsive  by  tlie  electrical  discharge,  should  enter  into  chem- 
ical combination. 

We  have  seen  that  though  metals  are  generally  good  conductors, 
yet  when  electricity  falls  upon  a  rod  of  iron  or  copper  explosively,  the 
energetic  repulsion,  which  must  always  accompany  these  explosions, 
tends  to  throw  the  particles  off  on  all  sides,  and  when  the  discharge  is 
sufficiently  great,  the  conductor  itself  is  dissipated  in  vapor.  Water 
is  a  much  inferior  conductor  to  iron,  and  though  a  large  mass  of  it  will 
silently  discharge  a  conductor,  yet  it  offers  great  resistance  to  the  trans- 
mission of  electricity  explosively,  and  hence  the  electricity  is  sometimes 
seen  to  leave  a  conductor,  and  pass  a  considerable  distance  over  the 
surface  of  Avater,  rather  than  to  force  its  passage  through  the  interior 
of  the  mass.  It  is,  therefore,  highly  important  in  arranging  lightning 
rods  that  they  should  be  connected  at  the  lower  end  with  a  large  sur- 
face of  conducting  matter,  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  the  fluid  from 
leaving  the  rod  in  the  case  of  an  explosive  discharge. 

ELECTRICITY  OF  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 

Having  given  in  the  preceding  sections  a  brief  exposition  of  the 
general  principles  of  electricity,  we  are  now  prepared  to  apply  these 
to  an  exposition  of  the  phenomena  of  atmospheric  electricity. 

The  origin  of  the  electricity  of  the  atmosphere  has  long  occupied 
the  attention  of  physicists,  and  at  different  times  they  have  apparently 
settled  down  on  some  plausible  hypothesis,  which  merely  offered  a 
probable  explanation  of  the  phenomena  without,leading  to  new  facts  or 
pointing  out  new  lines  of  research. 

The  earth,  as  is  now  well  known,  is  almost  a  perfect  conductor  for 
the  most  feeble  currents  of  electricity,  provided  the  contact  with  it  of 
the  electrified  body  be  sufficiently  broad.  The  serial  covering  which 
surrounds  it,  however,  is  a  non-conductor  which  is  capable  of  confining 
electricity  in  a  condition  of  accumulation  or  of  diminution,  and  of 
preventing  the  restoration  of  the  equilibrium  which,  without  the 
existence  of  this  isulator  would  otherwise  take  place. 

The  hypothesis  was  at  first  advanced  that  the  earth  attracted 
the  ethereal  medium  of  celestial  space  and  condensed  it  in  a  hollow 
stratum  around  the  whole  globe ;  that  the  electricity  of  the  atmosphere 
was  due  to  the  action  of  this  exterior  envelope.  Dr.  Hare,  our  coun- 
tryman, has  presented  this  hypothesis  with  considerable  distinctness. 
Without  denying  the  possibility  or  even  probability  of  such  a  distri- 
bution of  electrical  excitement,  we  may  observe  that,  if  this  electrical 
shell  were  of  uniform  thickness,  and  we  see  no  reason  to  suppose  it 
should  vary  in  different  parts  in  this  respect,  it  would  follow  from  the 
law  of  central  forces,  that  it  could  have  no  effect  in  disturbing 
the  equilibrium  on  the  surface  or  in  the  interior  of  the  earth ;  a  par- 
ticle of  matter  remaining,  as  we  have  seen,  at  rest  or  unaffected  at  any 
point  within  a  hollow  sphere.  This  fact  appears  to  militate  against 
the  truth  of  this  assumption. 

Another  hypothesis  attributed  the  electricity  of  the  atmosphere  to 
the  friction  of  the  winds  on  each  other  and  on  the  surface  of  the  earth, 


486  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

but  careful  experiments  liave  shown  that  the  friction  of  dry  air  on  air 
or  of  air  on  solids  or  liquids  does  not  develop  electrical  phenomena. 

The  next  hypothesis  was  advanced  by  Pouillet ;  which  referred  the 
electricity  of  the  atmosphere  to  the  evaporation  of  water,  particularly 
that  which  contained  saline  ingredients.  But  when  pure  water  is  care- 
fully evaporated  in  a  space  not  exposed  to  the  sky,  no  electricity  is  pro- 
duced except  by  the  friction  of  the  sides  of  the  vessel  in  the  act  of 
rapid  ebullition  ;  and  when  the  experiment  is  made  with  salt  water, 
the  electrical  effects  observed  are  found  to  be  produced  by  an  analogous 
friction  of  the  salt  against  the  interior  of  the  vessel.  When  pure  water 
is  evaporated  under  a  clear  shy,  the  vapor  produced  is  negatively 
electrified  ;  but  this  state  is  contrary  to  that  in  which  "the  atmosphere 
is  habitually  found. 

Pouillet  also  supposed  that  the  process  of  vegetation  was  a  source  of 
disturbance  of  the  electrical  equilibrium,  but  this  has  not  been  sup- 
ported by  critical  experiments. 

The  discovery  accidentally  made  a  few  years  ago  of  the  great  amount 
of  electricity  evolved  in  blowing  off  steam  from  the  boiler  of  a  locomo- 
tive, seemed  to  afford  a  ready  explanation  of  the  electrical  state  of  the 
atmosphere.  It  was  then  attributed  to  the  condensation  of  the  Eerial 
vapor.  Faraday,  however,  conclusively  proved  by  one  of  his  admi- 
rable series  of  model  experiments,  that  this  effect  was  due  entirely  to 
the  friction  of  the  water  which  escaped  in  connection  with  the  steam 
on  the  side  of  the  orifice  through  which  the  discharge  took  place. 
When  dry  steam,  or  that  which  is  so  heated  as  to  contain  no  liquid 
water,  was  blown  out,,all  electrical  excitement  disappeared;  and  when 
condensed  air,  even  at  elevated  temperatures,  was  discharged  from  an 
insulated  fountain,  no  electricity  was  produced. 

The  celebrated  physicist  of  Geneva,  Professor  De  la  Eive,  refers 
the  electricity  of  the  atmosphere  to  thermal  action.  It  is  well  known 
that  if  the  lower  end  of  a  bar  of  iron,  or  of  any  other  metal  not  readily 
melted,  be  plunged  into  a  source  of  heat  while  the  upper  end  remains 
cool  a  current  of  electricity  will  flow  from  the  heated  to  the  cooled  end, 
the  former  becoming  negative  and  the  latter  positive,  and  that  these 
different  states  will  continue  as  long  as  the  difference  of  temperature 
is  maintained.  Now,  according  to  Professor  De  la  Eive,  a  column  of  the 
air  is  in  the  same  condition  as  the  bar  of  metal — its  lower  end  is  con- 
stantly heated  by  the  earth,  and  its  upper  cooled  by  the  low  tempera- 
ture of  celestial  space.  Unfortunately,  however,  for  this  ingenious 
hypothesis,  a  column  of  air  is  a  non-conductor  of  electricity,  while  a 
bar  of  metal  is  a  good  conductor,  and  it  still  remains  to  be  proved  that 
such  a  distribution  of  electricity  as  that  we  have  described  relative  to 
the  bar  of  metal  can  be  produced  in  a  column  of  air. 

The  foregoing  are  the  principal  hypotheses  which  have  been  ad- 
vanced to  account  for  what  has  been  considered  the  free  electricity  of 
the  atmosphere.  After  an  attentive  study  of  the  whole  subject,  we 
have  been  obliged  to  reject  them  all  as  insufiicient,  and  compelled,  in  the 
present  state  of  science,  to  adopt  the  only  conclusion  which  appears  to 
offer  a  logical  explanation  of  all  the  phenomena,  namely,  that  of  Pel- 
tier, which  refers  them  not  to  the  excitement  of  the  air,  but  to  the 
inductive  action  of  the  earth  primarily  electrified. 


METEOROLOGY.  487 

The  author  of  this  theory,  we  are  sorry  to  say,  did  not  receive  that 
attention  which  his  merits  demanded,  nor  his  theory  that  considera- 
tion to  which  so  logical  and  so  fruitful  a  generalization  was  justly  enti- 
tled. Arago,  in  his  great  work  on  the  phenomena  of  atmosplieric  elec- 
tricity, does  not  allude  to  the  labors  of  Peltier,  hut  perhaps  the  reason 
of  this  is  that  this  work  was  not  intended  as  a  scientific  exposition 
of  the  principles  of  the  phenomena,  hut  merely  a  collection  and  clas- 
sification of  observed  facts. 

Peltier  commenced  the  cultivation  of  science  late  in  life,  and,  since 
the  untutored  mind  of  the  individual,  like  that  of  the  race,  passes 
through  a  series  of  obscure  and  complex  imaginings  before  it  arrives 
at  clear  and  definite  conceptions  of  truth,  it  is  not  surprising  that  his 
first  publications  were  of  a  character  to  command  little  attention,  or, 
indeed,  to  excite  prejudice,  on  account  of  their  apparent  indefinite  char- 
acter and  their  want  of  conformity  with  established  principles.  His 
theory  of  atmospheric  electricity  requires  to  be  translated  into  the 
ordinary  language  of  science  before  it  can  be  readily  comprehended 
even  by  those  best  acquainted  with  the  subject,  and  hence  his  want  of 
appreciation  maybe  attributed  more  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  individual 
than  to  the  fault  of  the  directors  of  the  science  of  the  French  Academy. 

According  to  the  theory  of  Peltier,  the  electrical  phenomena  of  the 
atmosphere  are  entirely  due  to  the  induction  of  the  earth,  which  is 
constantly  negative,  or  what,  in  the  theory  of  Du  Fa.y,  is  called  resinous. 
He  offers  no  explanation,  as  far  as  we  know,  of  this  condition  of  the 
earth,  which,  at  first  sight,  would  appear  startling,  but,  on  a  little  reflec- 
tion, is  not  found  wanting  in  analogy  to  support  it.  The  earth  is  a 
great  magnet,  and  possesses  magnetic  polarity  in  some  respects  similar 
to  that  which  is  exhibited  in  the  case  of  an  ordinary  loadstone  or  artificial 
magnet.  This  magnetism,  however,  is  of  an  unstable  character,  and 
is  subjected  to  variations  in  the  intensity  and  in  the  direction  of  its 
polar  force.  In  like  manner  we  may  consider  the  earth  as  an  immense 
prime  conductor  negatively  charged  with  electricity,  though  its  condi- 
tion in  this  respect  may,  like  that  of  its  magnetical  state,  be  subject  to 
local  variations  of  intensity,  and  perhaps  to  general  as  well  as  partial 
disturbance.  It  may  be  said  that  this  merely  removes  the  difficulty 
of  the  origin  of  the  electricity  of  the  atmosphere  to  an  unexplained 
cosmical  condition  of  the  earth,  but  even  this  must  be  considered  an 
important  step  in  the  progress  of  scientific  investigation.  The  hypo- 
thesis of  Peltier  has  since  his  death  been  rendered  still  more  probable 
by  the  labors  of  Sabin,  Lloyd,  La  Mont,  Bache,  and  others,  in  regard 
to  certain  perturbations  of  the  magnetism  of  the  earth,  which  are 
clearly  referable  to  the  sun  and  moon.  It  must  now  be  admitted  that 
magnetism  is  not  confined  to  our  earth,  but  is  common  to  other,  and, 
probably,  to  all  the  bodies  of  our  system ;  and,  from  analogy,  we  may 
also  infer  that  electricity,  a  coordinate  if  not  an  identical  principle,  is 
also  cosmical  in  its  j)resence  and  the  extent  of  its  operation.  That  the 
earth  is  negatively  electrified  was  proved  by  Volta  at  the  close  of  the 
last  century.  For  this  purpose  he  received  the  spray  from  a  cascade  on 
the  balls  of  a  sensitive  electrometer ;  the  leaves  diverged  with  nega- 
tive electricity. 


488  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

This  experiment  has  heen  repeated  in  various  parts  of  the  globe, 
and  always  with  the  same  result.  That  it  indicates  the  negative  con- 
dition of  the  earth  is  evident,  when  we  reflect  that  the  upper  level  from 
which  the  water  falls  must  be  considered  as  the  exterior  of  the  charged 
globe,  and  hence  must  be  more  intensely  electrified  than  points  nearer 
the  center.  Since  the  earth  is^  as  a  whole,  a  good  conductor  of  elec- 
tricity, as  shown  by  the  operations  of  the  telegraph,  the  electrical  ten- 
sion of  it  cannot  differ  much  in  different  parts,  and  we  are  at  present 
unacquainted  with  any  chemical,  thermal,  or  mechanical  action  on 
land  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  produce  this  constant  electrical  state. 
We  are  therefore  induced  to  adopt  the  conclusion  that  the  earth,  in 
relation  to  space  around  it,  is  permanently  electrical ;  that  perhaps  the 
ethereal  medium,  which  has  been  assumed  as  the  basis  of  electricity,  as 
was  supposed  by  Newton,  becomes  rarer  in  the  vicinity  and  within 
bodies  of  ponderable  matter.  Be  this  as  it  may,  all  the  phenomena 
observed  in  the  atmosphere,  and  which  have  so  long  perplexed  the 
physicist,  can  be  reduced  apparently  to  order,  and  their  dependencies 
and  associations  readily  understood,  in  accordance  with  the  foregoing 
assumption.  This  is  not  a  mere  vague  supposition,  serving  to  explain 
in  a  loose  way  certain  phenomena,  but  one  which  enables  us  not 
only  to  group  at  once  a  large  class  of  facts  which,  from  any  other  point 
of  view,  would  appear  to  have  no  connection  with  each  other,  but  alg  o 
to  devise  means  for  estimating  the  relative  intensity  of  action,  and  to 
predict,  both  in  mode  and  measure,  changes  of  atmospheric  electricity 
before  they  occur.  It  follows,  as  a  logical  consequence  from  this 
theory,  that  salient  points,  such  as  the  tops  of  mountains,  trees,  spires, 
and  even  vapors,  if  of  conducting  materials,  will  be  more  highly  excited 
than  the  general  surface  of  the  globe,  in  a  manner  precisely  similar 
to  the  more  intense  excitement  of  electricity  at  the  summit  of  a  point 
projecting  from  the  surface  of  the  prime  conductor  of  an  ordinary 
electrical  machine. 

It  also  follows,  from  the  same  principle,  that  if  a  long  metallic 
conductor  be  insulated  in  the  atmosphere,  its  lower  end,  next  the 
earth,  will  be  positive,  and  the  upper  end  negative.  The  natural 
electricity  will  be  drawn  down  by  the  unsaturated  matter  of  the  earth 
into  the  lower  end  of  the  wire,  which  will  thence  become  redundant, 
while  the  upper  end  will  be  rendered  negative,  or  under  saturated. 
That  this  condition  really  takes  place  in  the  atmosphere  was  proved  in 
a  striking  manner  by  the  experiment  of  Guy  Lussac  and  Biot,  in  their 
celebrated  atrial  voyage,  which  consisted  in  lowering  from  the  balloon 
an  insulated  copper  wire,  terminated  at  each  end  by  a  small  ball.  The 
upper  end  of  this  was  found  to  be  negative,  and  consequently  the  lower 
end  must  have  been  positive,  since  the  whole  apparatus,  including  the 
balloon,  was  insulated.  The  experiments  should  be  repeated  at  differ- 
ent elevations  by  some  of  our  modern  eeronauts,  since  the  results 
obtained  would  have  an  important  bearing  on  the  theory  of  atmospheric 
electricity. 

The  same  results  may  be  shown  in  a  simpler  manner  by  the  method 
invented  by  Saussure.  This  consists  in  attaching  a  leaden  ball  to 
a  long  wire  covered  with  silk  or  varnish,   connected  by  mean's  of  a 


METEOROLOGY. 


slight  spring  to  tlie  hook  of  an 
electrometer.  When  this  hnlb  is 
thrown  upward  so  as  to  rise  to  a 
considerable  height  in  the  air,  by 
means  of  a  string  and  handle  2^, 
the  wire  is  disconnected  from  the 
electrometer,  and  the  pith  balls  of 
the  latter  diverge  with  positive 
electricity.  That  this  eifect  is  not 
due  to  the  friction  of  the  bulb  and 
the  air,  is  shown  by  whirling  it  in 
a  horizontal  circle  round  the  head 
— not  the  least  sign  of  electricity  in 
this  case  will  be  exhibited  ;  and 
that  it  is  not  charged  by  absorbing 
free  electricity  from  the  air  is  prov- 
ed by  the  fact  that  when  the  ball 
is  thrown  horizontally  no  excite- 
ment is  manifest.  The  result  is, 
however,  just  such  as  would  be 
{B.  produced  by  the  induction  of  the 
earth  acting  on  the  natural  electri- 
city of  the  wire  and  drawing  it 
down  to  its  lower  extremity.  A 
precisely  similar  effect  would  also  be  produced  if  the  upper  surface  of 
the  atmosphere  were  charged  with  this  electricity.  The  intensity  of 
the  charge  which  the  electrometer  receives  will  depend  upon  the  eleva- 
tion to  which  the  ball  ascends,  or,  in  other  words,  on  the  perpen- 
dicular component  of  the  wire. 

The  method  employed  by  Saussure  in  observing  the  variations  of  the 

electricity  of  the  atmosphere, 


illustrates  the  same  principle.  For  this  pur- 
pose he  made  use  of  one  of  his  own  electro- 
meters, which  is  shown  in  Fig.  12.  It 
consists  of  a  bell-glass  with  a  brass  stem,  D 
E,  surrounded  with  sealing-wax,  and  two 
small  pith  balls,  g  g,  suspended  by  very  fine 
wires.  C  B  is  a  metallic  foot,  and  h  li  slips 
of  tin-foil  pasted  on  the  inside  and  outside 
of  \\\Q  glass  to  discharge  the  pith  balls  when 
the  electricity  is  so  strong  as  to  cause  them 


-^"T^i^^^ 


Fis.  \f 


490 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


a. 


to  strike  t1ie  glass.  To  measure  the  electrical  intensity  with  this 
instrument,  the  hook  A  was  removed,  and  its  place  supplied  with 
a  pointed  brass  rod.  The  electrometer  was  first  brought  in  con- 
tact with  the  ground  as  exhibited  in  Fig.  13  ;  then  held  vertically 
as  shown  in  Fig.  14,  and  gradually  elevated  until  the  leaves  began 
to  diverge.  He  found  that  the  height  to  which  the  instrument  re- 
quired to  be  elevated  before  the  leaves  showed  signs  of  electricity, 
varied  at  different  times,  and  he  estimated  the  intensity  of  the  elec- 
tricity of  the  atmosphere  by  the  inverse  ratio  of  this  height. 

The  explanation  of  this  will  be  readily  seen  by  a  reference  to  Fig.  15, 

in  which  C  D  repre- 
sents a  portion  of  the 
—    ^^  surface  of  the  earth  neg- 

ativel}^  charged,  and  a  h 
c  a  perpendicular  con- 
ductor terminated  above 
and  below  by  a  bulb.  In 
this  condition  the  unsatu- 
rated matter  in  C  D  will 
act  upon  each  atom  of  the 
fluid  in  the  conductor, 
and  tend  to  draw  the 
whole  down  into  the  low- 
er bulb ;  the  atom  a  v/ill 
not  only  be  attracted 
downward  by  the  action 
of  the  earth  on  itself,  but 
also  pressed  downward  by 
the  attraction  of  the  earth  on  all  the  atoms  above  it,  and  hence  the  in- 
tensity of  the  electricity  of  the  lower  part  of  the  conductor  will  be 
increased  by  an  increase  in  the  perpendicular  length  of  the  rod.  Now, 
if  we  connect  the  lower  bulb  of  the  rod  with  the  earth  by  means  of 
a  good  conductor,  the  redundant  electricity  of  the  lower  end  will  be 
drawn  off  into  the  earth  and  will  no  longer  react  by  its  repulsion  on 
the  electricity  of  the  rod  to  drive  it  back  into  the  upper  bulb,  and 
hence  this  will  become  intensely  negative ;  and  in  this  condition  it 
will  be  a  salient  point  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  If,  while  the 
appara,tus  is  in  this  condition,  we  could  touch  the  upper  ball  with  an 
electrometer,  it  would  exhibit  a  negative  charge. 

If  a  conductor  20  feet  in  length  were  made  to  revolve  on  a  horizon- 
tal axis,  passing  through  the  middle  of  its  length  so  that  it  could 
be  immediately  changed  from  a  horizontal  to  a  vertical  position, 
any  change  in  the  apparent  condition  of  the  atmosj)here  would  be 
shown  by  the  greater  or  less  intensity  of  the  balls,  as,  in  succession,  they 
passed  the  lower  point  of  their  circuit ;  and  an  apparatus  in  the  form  of 
radiating  conductors  like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel,  if  made  to  revolve,  would 
furnish  a  constant  source  of  electricity.  An  apparatus  of  this  kind 
was  constructed  by  M.  Palmeri,  of  Italy,  and  might  be  used  perhaps 
with  success  in  studying  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere  in  ascensions. 
The  most  convenient  apparatus,  however,  for  exhibiting  electricity 


Fig.  15. 


METEOROLOGY. 


491 


by  the  induction  of  the  earth,  is 
shown  in  Fis:.  16  : 


that  invented  hy  M.  Dollman,  and 


A  is  a  brass  ball,  supported  on  a  thick  brass 
stem,  which  is  insulated  inside  of  a  glass  tube, 
by  passing  through  corks  of  gum  shellac.  The 
apparatus  is  fastened  to  a  pole,  which  is  tem- 
porarily elevated,  by  a  windlass  or  the  hand, 
on  the  top  of  a  house  into  the  air.  When 
it  reaches  the  height  intended,  the  wire  h, 
connected  with  the  earth  below,  is  pulled, 
the  end  of  the  metallic  bent  lever  g  h  is  de- 
pressed, and  the  fork  i  brought  into  contact 
with  the  stem  of  the  globe,  and  thus  a  per- 
fect metallic  connection  is  formed  between  the 
latter  and  the  ground.  The  wire  h  is  then 
released ;  the  lever  falls  back ;  the  ball  is  cut 
off  from  the  earth,  brought  down,  and  applied 
to  an  electrometer,  and  in  all  cases,  when  the 
sky  is  clear,  is  found  to  be  negatively  electri- 
fied. If  the  wire  h  be  insulated  through  its  en- 
tire length,  and  terminated  in  a  bulb  at  a  little 
distance  from  the  earth,  and  a  pull  be  given  to 
it  by  means  of  a  rod  of  glass,  at  the  instant  of 
contact  of  the  point  i  with  the  stem  d,  the  lower 
bulb  will  exhibit  a  positive  charge  of  electricity. 


Fig.  ic. 
The  arrangement  will,  in 
fact,  be  precisely  the  same  as 
that  exhibited  in  the  previous 
figure,  [Fig.  15,]  namely:  a 
vertical  conductor,  in  which 
the  upper  end  is  rendered  mi- 
nus, and  the  lower  end  plus, 
by  the  induction  of  the  earth. 
This  effect  is  entirely  due 
to  induction,  and  is  indepen- 
dent of  any  free  electricity 
which  may  exist  in  the  air. 

The  results  are  exhibited  with  __^ 

the  greatest  intensity  during  ^'^Fig.  n.        ~~ 

perfectly  clear  and  dry  weath- 
er, and  are  not  observed  when  the  conductor  is  placed  horizontally, 


492 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


but  with,  increased  effect  as  its  upper  end  is  gradually  brought  nearer 
the  perpendicular. 

That  these  effects  are  not  due  to  the  free  electricity  of  the  atmos- 
phere, is  conclusively  proved  by  the  original  experiments  of  Peltier. 
For  measuring  the  intensity  of  the  inductive  influence  of  the  earth, 
he  made  use  of  an  electrometer  represented  in  Fig.  IT.  In  this, 
^  -B  is  a  glass  cylinder,  furnished  with  a  wooden  foot  and  a  glass 
cover,  in  the  center  of  which  is  cemented  a  brass  tube,  carrying  a  ball 
C  at  the  top,  and  a  bent  wire  /  at  the  bottom.  At  the  level  of  the 
bent  wire  /  is  suspended  a  fine  magnetized  needle  g,  the  height  of 
which  is  adjusted  by  the  screw  li.  The  intensity  of  the  electricity 
is  measured  by  the  divisions  pointed  out  by  the  needle  on  the  slip  of 
paper  surrounding  the  cylinder.  This  instrument,  which  is  very 
sensitive,  has  been  modified  and  improved  by  Dellman. 

On  the  top  of  the  flat  roof  of  his  house  Peltier  placed  a  flight  of  steps 
by  which  he  could  ascend  with  an  electrometer  in  his  hand  similar  to  that 
we  have  just  described,  armed  with  a  comparatively  large  sized  polished 
ball.  The  ball  of  the  electrometer  was  held  at  the  height  say  of  four  feet 
above  the  roof  of  the  house,  and  in  this  position  it  was  touched  by  the 
end  of  a  wire  connected  with  the  earth  below.  It  thus  formed  the 
termination  of  a  perpendicular  conductor,  and  was,  of  course,  negatively 
electrified — the  bulb  more  intensely  than  the  leaves  below,  but  the 
stratum  of  air  in  which  it  was  placed  being  in  the  same  state,  it  exhib- 
ited no  signs  of  electricity.  It  was  then  elevated  by  ascending  the 
steps  to  the  height  of  six  feet  above,  and  held  by  the  lower  plate.  The 
leaves  in  this  case  diverged  with  negative  electricity  because  the  ball 
was  still  further  removed  from  the  earth,  and  the  attraction  of  which 
being  lessened,  the  part  of  the  electricity  which  was  in  the  leaves  was  set 
free,  and  ascended  up  the  bulb  by  repulsion,  leaving  a  deficiency  in  the 
leaves.  When  the  electrometer  was  brought  down  to  its  first  position, 
the  leaves  again  collapsed,  since  there  was  again  an  equilibrium;  and 

when  the  elec- 
trometer was 
depressed  be- 
low its  normal 
position,  the 
leaves  became 
positively  elec- 
trified by  the 
increased  at- 
traction of  the 
earth,  and  in 
this  way  the 
electrometer 
was  made  to 
diverge,  to 
converge,  and 
diverge  again, 
by  simply 
changing  its 
elevation. 
Fig.  18  is  intended  to  illustrate  the  condition    of  the  electrometer 


Fig.  18. 

18  is  intended  to  illustrate  the  condition    of 


METEOROLOGY.  493 

in  the  tliree  positions,  in  wliicli  it  is  supposed  to  be  supported  on 
three  metallic  conductors  of  different  heights.  The  electrometer  brought 
into  neutral  condition  by  the  ball,  is  shown  in  the  middle  of  the  figure 
at  B,  in  which  the  connection  of  the  rod  with  the  ball  is  indicated  by 
the  dotted  line.  When  the  electrometer  is  raised  by  the  hand  to  a 
higher  elevation,  its  condition  is  exhibited  by  C,  in  which  the  greater 
elevation  of  the  rod  beneath  it  causes  a  greater  amount  of  electricity 
to  be  drawn  down,  and  the  top  of  the  rod  and  the  bottom  of  the  elec- 
trometer in  connection  with  it,  to  become  more  intensely  negative,  and 
hence  to  draw  down  into  the  leaves  a  portion  of  the  natural  electricity 
of  the  ball,  and  cause  the  former  to  diverge  with  positive  excitement 
relative  to  the  air  around. 

The  condition  of  the  electrometer  when  brought  to  a  lower  level  is 
illustrated  by  A,  in  which  the  shortening  of  the  conductor  reduces  the 
number  of  atoms  on  which  the  electricity  of  the  earth  acts,  and  hence 
those  at  the  top  are  more  pressed  upward  by  their  self-repulsion  than 
in  the  former  case,  consequently  a  portion  of  the  natural  electricity  is 
driven  into  the  upper  ball,  and  the  leaves  themselves  diverge  with  a 
negative  charge. 

The  writer  of  this  article  had  the  pleasure,  in  1837,  to  witness  this 
interesting  experiment,  as  performed  on  a  dry  clear  day  by  Peltier 
himself. 

In  order  that  the  result  may  be  shown  Avith  a  slight  change  of  eleva- 
tion, it  is  necessary  that  a  large  ball  be  employed,  that  the  effect  may 
be  multiplied  by  all  the  electricity  of  the  large  surface.  When  the  elec- 
trometer is  terminated  with  the  point  of  a  fine  needle,  though  this  is 
the  best  means  of  attracting  electricity  from  the  air  at  a  distance,  no 
effect  will  be  exhibited,  altliougli  the  apparatus  may  be  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere  for  several  hours,  provided  the  weather  is  dry  and  the  sky 
cloudless. 

From  these  experiments  it  appears  conclusive  that  the  positive  elec- 
tricity with  which  the  air  is  apparently  always  charged  in  dry  and  clear 
weather  is  not  due  to  the  free  electricity  of  the  atmosphere,  but  to  the 
induction  of  the  earth  on  the  conducting  materials  of  which  the  in- 
struments are  in  whole  or  in  part  composed. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  deduce  from  the  same  general  principles  the 
apparent  changes  in  the  electrical  state  of  the  atmosphere  at  different 
times  of  the  day  and  in  different  hygrometrical  conditions  of  the  air. 
Vapor  of  water  mingled  with  the  atmosphere  renders  the  latter  a  posi- 
tive conductor ;  and  when  the  moisture  of  the  air  extends  up  as  high 
as  the  upper  part  of  the  apparatus  in  Fig.  16,  a  feeble  negative  elec- 
tricity will,  by  slow  conduction,  be  diffused  through  the  adjacent 
strata,  which,  acting  upon  the  ball  A,  will  lessen  the  effect  of 
the  more  intense  action  of  the  earth.  While  the  latter  tends  to  draw 
the  atoms  of  natural  electricity  of  the  conductor  down  into  its  lower 
part,  and  to  render  the  upper  end  negative,  the  vapor  around  the 
ball  will  tend  to  draw  it  slightly  upward,  and  thus  diminish  the 
effect,  and  lead  the  casual  observer  to  suppose  that  the  air  is  less 
positively  electrified.  Peltier  in  this  way  has  shown,  as  well  as 
Quetelet  and  Dellman,  that  the  variations  of  the  electricity  of  the 
atmosphere  observed  from  day  to  day,  and  at  different  times  in  the 


494  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

twenty-four  liours,  correspond  inversely  witli  tlie  variations  in  the 
amount  of  vapor. 

The  experiments  we  liave  thus  far  described  are  intended  to  estab- 
lish the  inductive  character  of  the  atmosphere  in  its  condition  of  dry- 
ness and  serenity,  particularly  during  clear  and  cold  Aveather. 

We  have  employed  movable  conductors  terminated  by  balls,  which 
have  been  of  the  most  favorable  form  and  relative  dimensions  to  ex- 
hibit the  effects  of  induction.  The  apparatus,  however,  usually  em- 
ployed before  the  experiments  of  Peltier,  were  principally  stationary 
insulated  conductors,  terminated  by  points  above,  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  act  powerfully  in  discharging  electricity  from  a  body,  or  in 
absorbing  it  from  the  surrounding  medium. 

If  in  the  experiments  with  the  apparatus.  Fig.  16,  the  rod  be  term- 
inated by  a  point  instead  of  a  ball,  but  feeble  excitation  will  be  ob- 
served during  clear  cold  weather,  because  the  point  exhibits  so  exceed- 
ingly small  a  surface  that  but  very  little  electricity  can  be  drawn  down 
into  the  lower  end,  before  the  intensity  of  attraction  of  unsaturated 
matter  upwards  comes  into  an  equilibrium  witli  the  attraction  of  the 
earth  downwards.  With  this  instrument  the  observer  would  probably 
make  a  record  to  the  effect  that  the  electricity  of  the  atmosj)here  was 
very  feeble,  whereas  if  the  experiment  were  made  with  the  apparatus 
previously  described,  an  opposite  condition  would  be  noted.  The 
result,  however,  would  be  entirely  different  if  the  air  were  damp  and 
the  insulated  rod  elevated  to  a  considerable  height,  the  negative  inten- 
sity of  the  upper  end  would  be  sufficient  to  attract  a  portion  of  the 
natural  electricity  from  the  surrounding  medium,  even  although  this 
had  become  slightly  negative  by  the  previous  induction  of  the  earth. 
In  this  case  the  pointed  conductor  would  indicate  a  large  amount  of 
electricity. 

The  intensity  of  the  induction  may  even  become  so  great  as  to  absorb 
a  portion  of  the  natural  electricity  of  the  dry  atmosphere,  as  in  the 
case  of  a  very  long  wire,  the  upper  end  of  which  is  furnished  with  a 
series  of  points,  and  raised  to  a  great  height  by  means  of  a  kite.  The 
points  may  attract  a  portion  of  the  natural  electricity  of  the  air,  and 
thus  produce  at  the  lower  end  of  the  wire  a  series  of  sparks,  following 
each  other,  after  the  lapse  of  a  certain  time,  at  regular  intervals. 

From  the  foregoing,  it  will  be  evident  that  in  interpreting  the  indi- 
cations of  the  two  classes  of  instruments  we  have  described,  which 
may  be  denominated  those  of  induction  and  those  of  absorption,  we  must 
keep  constantly  in  view  the  principles  which  have  been  explained; 
and  it  is  for  want  of  a  clear  appreciation  of  these  principles  that  so 
much  complexity  has  been  introduced  in  the  otherwise  comparatively 
simple  effects  of  induction. 

ELECTRICITY  OF  THE  CLOUDS. 

The  explanation  of  the  thunder-storm  and  the  tornado  given  by 
Peltier  does  not  appear  to  us  as  satisfactory  as  could  be  desired.  In 
common  with  most  of  the  meteorologists  of  Europe,  he  does  not  take 
into  consideration  the  real  character  of  the  storm,  which,  as  we  think, 
has  been  fully  established  by  theory  and  observation  in  this  country. 


METEOEOLOGY. 


495 


We  have  stated  in  a  previous  report  that  this  consists  in  the  rushing 
up  of  the  lighter  air  to  restore  the  normal  equilibrium  of  the  atmos- 
phere, which  had  heen  disturbed  or  rendered  unstable  by  the  gradual 
introduction,  next  to  the  ground,  of  a  stratum  of  warm  and  moist 
air.  As  an  illustration  of  this  disturbance,  we  may  mention  the  fact 
pointed  out  to  Arago,  by  Captain  Hessard,  which  he  had  observed  in 
the  Alps,  namely,  that  during  great  heats  there  takes  place  suddenly 
at  the  lowest  stratum  of  clouds,  upward  rushings,  extending  vertically 
like  rockets. 

We  shall  endeavor  to  supply  the  deficiency,  in  the  exposition  of  Pel- 
tier, we  have  mentioned,  and  to  present,  on  the  principles  of  the  induc- 
tion of  the  earth  in  connection  with  the  upward  motion  of  the  air,  a 
logical  explanation  of  the  origin  and  continued  supply  of  the  great 
quantity  of  electricity  developed  in  the  meteors  under  consideration. 

It  follows,  from  the  principles  of  induction,  that  tlie  upper  end  of 
all  perpendicular  insulated  conductors  must  be  electrified  negatively, 
and  the  lower  end  positively,  since  the  attraction  of  the  unsaturated 
matter  of  the  earth  below  will  draw  down  the  natural  electricity  of  the 
conductor  into  its  lower  extremity,  leaving  a  deficiency  in  the  upper 
part.  Now,  if  we  admit,  agreeably  to  the  theory  of  Mr.  Espy,  that  a 
cloud  consists  in  the  upward  motion  of  a  mass  of  moist  and  heated  air, 
the  vapor  of  which  is  condensed  as  it  ascends  into  the  colder  regions, 
thus  forming  a  high  perpendicular  column  of  partially  conducting 
.material,  it  will  be  evident  that  by  induction,  the  upper  part  of  this 
cloud  vv-ill  become  negatively  electrified,  and  the  lower  part  positively, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  conductor. 
Figure  15.  The  intensity  of 
this  excitement  will  depend 
upon  the  length  of  the  ver- 
tical dimensions  of  the  cloud, 
which,  in  many  cases,  is  ex- 
ceedingly great,  and  also  upon 
the  density,  and  consequently 
the  conducting  power  of  the 
vapor.  The  induction  of 
the  earth  being  very  intense, 
a  partial  excitement  of  the 
atoms  of  vapor  may  take  place 
even  before  the  condensation 
of  the  whole  mass  has  reached 
its  maximum.  If  this  be  the 
case,  a  transparent  mass  of 
vapor,  or  that  which  is  merely 
beginning  to  condense  into 
cloud,  will  be  electrified 
throughoutits  entire  mass ;  and 
when  the  condensation  of  the 
vapor  has  gone  so  far  as  to 
render  the  interior  a  tolerably 
good  conductor,  the  electricity 
the   surface,    as  in   the  case  of 


Fig.  19. 

of   each   atom   will   be    repelled   tj 
conductor;   the  intensity 


globular 


496  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

will  thu  be  highly  increased ;  and  while  the  rushing  upward  of  moist 
air  is  going  on,  a  series  of  discharges  will  take  place  between  the  upper 
and  lower  portions  of  the  cloud.  • 

It  is  asserted  by  Mr,  Wise  that  the  thunder  cloud,  when  viewed  on 
one  side  from  a  sufficient  elevation,  presents  the  appearance  of  an  hour- 
glass, the  upper  and  the  lower  ends  spreading  out  almost  into  two 
distinct  clouds,  as  seen  in  Figure  19. 

We  find  that  the  same  form  of  the  thunder  cloud  has  been  described 
by  other  serial  voyagers,  also  by  Volta;  and  we  are  inclined  to  con- 
sider it  the  usual  one  presented  by  this  meteor,  since  it  is  precisely 
that  which  would  be  produced  by  the  self-repulsion  of  the  upper  and 
lower  parts  of  the  cloud,  each  charged,  as  it  is  throughout  its  mass, 
with  the  same  kind  of  electricity.  The  middle  of  the  perpendicular 
dimensions  of  the  cloud,  as  illustrated  by  the  perpendicular  conductor 
Figure  15,  will  be  neutral,  and  hence  no  tendency  to  bulge  out  at 
this  point  will  exist.  Mr.  Wise  also  states  that  flashes  of  sheet  light- 
ning are  constantly  seen  at  c,  in  the  middle  space ;  and  sometimes  intense 
discharges  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  part  of  the  cloud — appearances 
in  exact  conformity  with  the  views  here  presented. 

The  immense  number  of  discharges  of  lightning  from  a  single  thun- 
der cloud  in  its  passage  over  the  earth,  through  a  distance  in  some 
oases  of  more  than  500  miles,  indicates  a  constant  supply  of  electricity ; 
and  this  is  found  in  the  continued  rushing  up  of  new  portions  of  moist 
air,  and,  as  it  were,  in  the  successive  renewals  of  the  perpendicular, 
column  with  fresh  materials,  the  electrical  equilibrium  of  which  is  dis- 
turbed by  induction. 

In  the  case  of  a  tornado  or  water-spout,  the  ascending  current  of  air 
is  confined  to  a  very  slender  column,  in  which  the  action  is  exceedingly 
intense ;  and  since  it  is  scarcely  possible  that  the  rushing  in  from  all 
directions  of  the  air  below  to  supply  the  upward  spout  can  be  directed 
to  precisely  the  same  central  point,  a  whirling  motion  must  be  produced. 
This  will  tend  to  limit  the  diameter  of  the  spout,  and  to  create  a  partial 
vacuum  at  the  axis  of  the  column,  in  which  the  moist  air,  by  the  cold 
of  the  sudden  expansion,  will  have  its  vapor  condensed,  and  a  con- 
ductor will  thus  be  formed  extending  from  the  cloud  to  the  earth. 
Through  this  conductor  a  constant  convective  discharge  of  electricity 
will  take  place,  and  all  the  phenomena  described  by  Dr.  Hare  will  be 
exhibited. 

In  this  view  of  the  liature  of  the  tornado  or  spout,  although  we  adopt 
with  Franklin  and  Espy,  as  the  characteristic  of  the  commotion  of  the 
atmosphere,  the  rushing  upwards  in  the  form  of  a  column,  on  the 
principles  of  hydrostatics,  of  a  stratum  of  heated  and  moist  air,  which 
had  accumulated  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  yet  the  phenomena  are 
modified  and  increased  in  number  by  the  great  amount  of  electricity 
which  must  be  evolved  by  the  simple  action  of  the  continued  elevation 
of  new  portions  of  a  constant  stream  of  moist  air.  Since  the  conductor, 
in  the  case  of  the  tornado  or  water-spout,  extends  to  near  the  earth, 
and  the  discharge  is  continually  taking  place,  the  cloud,  which  is 
spread  out  immediately  above,  will  be  negatively  electrified,  and  the 
upper  portion  of  the  cloud,  as  exhibited  in  Figure  19,  will  be  wanting. 


METEOROLOGY.  497 

Tlie  greater  or  less  degree  of  conduction  of  the  depending  spout  will 
vary  the  phenomena  and  give  rise  to  the  different  appearances  which 
have  been  seen  at  the  surface  of  the  water.  When  the  conductor  does 
not  quite  reach  to  the  earth,  visible  discharges  of  electricity  will  be 
exhibited,  and  the  surface  of  the  water  will  be  attracted  upwards. 
When  the  conducting  material  of  the  spout  touches  the  surface  of  the 
water,  the  liquid  will  be  depressed. 

That  the  rushing  up  of  the  air  with  intense  violence  does  take  place 
in  the  column  of  a  land  or  water  spout  is  abundantly  proved  by  direct 
observation,  and  that  electricity  cannot  be  the  cause  of  this  action_,  but 
is  itself  an  effect,  is  proved  by  the  fact,  that  since  the  column  of  moist  air 
extends  to  the  earth,  through  it  discharges  of  the  fluid  must  be  made, 
which  would  soon  exhaust  the  cloud,  were  it  not  constantly  renewed. 
In  some  instances  the  meteor  has  been  known  to  continue  its  destruc- 
tive violence  along  a  narrow  line  of  more  than  two  hundred  miles  in 
length.  To  merely  refer  this  prolonged  action  to  a  whirling  motion 
of  the  air,  without  attempting  to  explain  on  known  principles  of  science, 
the  renewed  energy  of  the  rotation,  is  to  rest  satisfied  with  a  very  par- 
tial analysis  of  the  phenomenon. 

If,  by  the  action  of  an  elevated  horizontal  current  of  air,  the  upper 
part  of  a  thunder-cloud  be  separated  from  the  lower,  we  shall  have  a 
mass  of  vapor  charged  entirely  with  negative  electricity,  and  from  such 
a  mass  floating  high  in  the  atmosphere,  a  new  evaporation  may  take 
place  by  the  heat  absorbed  directly  from  the  sun.  The  column  of 
invisible  vapor  thus  produced  being  a  partial  conductor  elongated  up- 
ward, the  attraction  of  the  earth  will  draw  down  a  new  portion  of  its 
natural  electricity  into  the  cloud  from  which  the  vapor  was  produced, 
and  thus  diminish  its  negative  intensity.  If,  now,  the  upper  end  of 
this  transparent  column  be  condensed  hj  the  cold  of  the  greater  altitude 
into  visible  vapor,  it  will  form  a  cloud  of  the  second  order  of  negative  in- 
tensity. We  shall  thus  have,  according  to  Peltier,  lower  clouds  intensely 
excited  with  positive  electricity,  clouds  of  medium  elevation  either  neu- 
tral or  slightly  negative,  and  the  highest  cirrus  clouds,  which  are 
formed  by  the  secondary  evaporation  we  have  mentioned,  excited  in- 
tensely with  a  negative  electricity. 

Since  particles  of  ponderable  matter  similarly  electrified  repel  each 
other,  it  is  evident  that  the  electrical  state  of  the  cloud  must  in  some 
degree  counteract  the  tendency  to  condensation  which  would  result 
from  the  cold  of  the  upper  regions ;  and  also,  the  same  action  in  the 
lower  clouds  will  tend  to  prevent  precipitation  in  the  form  of  rain,  even 
though  the  atoms  of  vapor  are  in  a  condition  to  coalesce  into  drops  of 
water. 

It  is  evident,  also,  since  the  earth  is  negatively  electrified^  that  the 
particles  of  vapor  in  the  same  state  will  be  repelled  further  from  the 
surface,  and  those  which  are  positively  electrified  will  be  drawn  down. 
Hence,  the  negative  clouds  will  tend  to  retain  their  elevated  position, 
although  they  may  be  pressed  downwards  by  descending  currents. 

Negative  clouds  may  also  be  formed  near  the  surface  of  the  earth  by 
a  detached  portion  of  cloudy  matter  under  a  cloud  more  highly  charged 
with  positive  electricity _,  which  will  cause  the  former,  by  induction,  to 
32 A 


498  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

discharge  its  positive  electricity  into  the  earth,  as  well  as  a  portion  of 
its  natural  electricity ;  and  if  the  upper  cloud  he  afterwards  driven 
away  hy  the  wind,  the  lower  will  he  left  highly  negative. 

Peltier  states  that  he  can  determine  from  the  appearance  of  a 
cloud  whether  it  he  positively  or  negatively  charged.  Clouds  nega- 
tively electrified,  according  to  him,  are  of  a  hluish  grey  color,  while 
those  which  are  positively  charged  are  white,  and  exhibit  at  the  setting 
sun,  a  red  appearance. 

From  the  foregoing  considerations  it  must  he  evident  that,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  disturbance  which  is  produced  in  the  atmosphere  by  the 
variations  of  heat  and  moisture,  which  we  have  so  fully  discussed  in 
the  last  report,  we  must  take  info  account  those  that  result  from  the 
changes  in  the  electrical  condition  of  the  atoms  of  moisture.  Though 
they  may  not  be  as  important  as  the  former,  still  they  must  modify 
the  conditions  of  the  general  phenomena,  and  no  theory  of  storms 
can  he  complete  which  does  not  include  the  effect  of  this  agent. 

On  the  principles  we  have  developed,  the  discharges  of  lightning 
which  are  exhibited  in  volcanic  eruptions  are  readily  understood.  The 
column  of  vapor  of  water,  heated  air,  and  other  conducting  materials, 
which  sometimes  rise  to  a  great  elevation  from  Vesuvius,  must  be  sub- 
jected to  the  inductive  action  of  the  earth,  and,  consequently,  the 
electricity  of  the  upper  end  of  the  column,  as  soon  as  its  elevation  is 
sufficient  to  produce  a  condensation  of  the  vapor,  by  the  cold  of  the 
higher  regions,  must  send  down  to  the  lower  part  of  the  column  a 
large  amount  of  electricity  which,  when  the  length  is  great,  and  the 
ascending  stream  rapid,  will  manifest  itself  in  discharges  of  lightning. 
In  accordance  with  the  same  principles,  thunder  storms  have  been  pro- 
duced in  a  peculiar  state  of  the  atmosphere,  as  it  were,  artificially. 
About  thirty  years  ago  a  farmer  at  Greenbush,  near  Albany,  collected 
on  a  knoll  in  the  middle  of  a  field,  a  large  amount  of  brushwood,  which 
w^as  set  on  fire  simultaneously  at  different  points,  and,  burning,  gave 
rise  to  an  ascending  column  of  heated  air,  extending  to  a  great  alti- 
tude. The  air  rushing  in  to  supply  the  upward  current  assumed  a 
rapid  rotary  motion,  accompanied  by  a  loud  roaring  and  discharges  of 
lightning  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  frighten  the  laborers  from  the  field. 
The  explanation  in  this  case  is  too  obvious  to  require  a  formal  state- 
ment. 

In  the  equatorial  regions,  under  a  vertical  sun,  masses  of  moist  air 
are  constantly  rising  during  the  day  time,  and  producing  electrical  dis- 
charges to  the  earth.  The  vapor,  therefore,  which  accompanies  the 
reverse  trade  winds  in  the  upper  region,  must  be  negatively  electrified, 
while  the  earth  in  the  torrid  zone  must  constantly  be  receiving  elec- 
tricity from  the  clouds.  From  this,  we  may  infer,  that  there  is  a 
current  of  electricity  through  the  earth,  from  the  equator  towards  the 
poles,  and  a  neutralization  by  means  of  the  air  above,  which  may  give 
rise  to  the  aurora  polaris. 

Arago  has  described  the  different  forms  of  lightning  under  three 
classes.  The  first  class  comprises  the  lightning  which  consists  of  a 
vivid  luminous  line  or  furrow,  very  narrow,  and  sharply  defined, 
the  course  of  which  is  not  a  direct  line,  but  is  that  denominated 


METEOROLOGY.  499 

zig-zag.  This  peculiar  form  of  lightning,  according  to  Moncel,  is 
referable  to  the  effect  of  partial,  interrupted  conduction,  and  may  be 
imitated  by  sprinkling  iron  filings  on  a  plate  of  glass ;  the  bifurcations 
of  the  discharge  may  also  be  referred  to  the  same  cause.  The  drops  of 
rain  distributed  through  the  air  perform  the  office  of  the  particles  of 
iron  filings  in  the  experiment,  and  the  repulsion  of  the  electricity 
tending  to  separate  it  into  different  streams.  The  next  class  consists 
of  what  is  called  ''sheet  lightning,"  which,  instead  of  being  narrowed 
to  bright  sinuous  lines,  appears  on  the  contrary  to  extend  over  immense 
surfaces.  It  not  unfrequently  has  an  intensely  red  tinge,  and  some- 
times a  blue  or  violet  color  predominates.  The  color,  probably,  belongs 
to  the  flashes  of  lightning  which  take  place  at  a  great  elevation,  and 
seems  to  illuminate  lov/er  clouds,  and  thus  to  present  the  appearance 
of  a  broad  flash. 

We  may  also  mention  that  flashes  of  lightning  are  sometimes  ob- 
served in  a  summer  evening,  without  thunder,  and  known  as  "heat 
lightning."  They  are^  however,  merely  the  light  from  discharges  of 
electricity  from  an  ordinary  thunder-cloud  beneath  the  horizon  of  the 
observer,  reflected  from  clouds,  or  perhaps  from  the  air  itself,  as  in  the 
case  of  twilight.  Mr.  Brooks,  one  of  the  directors  of  the  telegraph 
line  between  Pittsburg  and  Philadelphia,  informs  us  that,  on  one 
occasion,  to  satisfy  himself  on  this  point,  he  asked  for  information 
from  a  distant  operator  during  the  appearance  of  flashes  of  this  kind 
in  the  distant  horizon,  and  learned  that  they  proceeded  from  a  thunder 
storm  then  raging  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  eastward  of  his  place 
of  observation. 

The  third  class  is  called  ''globiilpj  lis-htnina;,"  which  is  remarkable, 
besides  its  peculiar  form,  for  the  slowness  of  its  motion.  The  occur- 
rence of  this  form  of  lightning  is  very  rare,  and  were  not  the  phenome- 
non well  authenticated,  we  should  be  inclined  to  regard  it  as  a  delusion. 
But  it  does  not  comport  with  the  cautious  procedure  of  true  science  to 
deny  the  existence  of  all  appearances  which  may  not  come  within  the 
prevision  of  what  are  considered  as  established  principles ;  although 
when  facts  of  an  extraordinary  nature  are  related  to  us  they  should 
not  be  received  with  that  easy  credence  which  might  be  due  to  less  re- 
markable phenomena,  yet,  after  having  fully  satisfied  ourselves  of 
their  reality,  we  must  endeavor  to  collect  all  the  facts  connected  with 
them,  and  to  ascertain  with  accuracy  the  essential  conditions  on  vfhich 
they  depend.  Arago  has  given  a  number  of  instances  of  this  remark- 
able form  of  the  electrical  discharge,  the  general  appearance  of  which 
is  that  of  a  ball  moving  slowly  through  the  aii%  and  sometimes,  when 
coming  near  a  body,  exploding  with  tremendous  violence. 

The  only  explanation  which  has  been  suggested  for  this  remark- 
able meteor,  and  which,  at  first  sight,  appears  to  belong  entirely  to 
some  other  class  of  phenomena  than  those  denominated  electrical,  is 
that  which  was  in  part  suggested,  I  think,  by  Sir  W.  Snow  Harris. 
According  to  his  hypothesis,  the  ball  of  light  is  the  result  of  what  is 
analogous  to  that  which  is  known  as  a  glow  discharge,  a  phenomenon 
familiar  to  all  who  are  in  the  habit  of  making  electrical  experiments. 
When  a  conductor  connected  with  the  earth  is  brought  near  a  charged 


500  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

body,  particularly  when  the  air  is  damp,  a  partial  silent  discharge 
will  take  place,  during  which,  although  there  may  be  no  light  percep- 
tible in  the  space  between  the  two,  yet  on  the  end  of  the  conductor 
connected  with  the  earth  a  glow  of  light  will  appear,  attended  with  a 
hissing  noise.  Now,  if  we  suppose  that  in  the  atmosphere  between  the 
cloud  and  the  earth  there  exists  a  stratum  or  current  of  very  dry  air, 
while  the  remaining  portions  are  in  a  very  moist  condition,  and  that 
the  silent  discharge  from  the  cloud  is  taking  place,  for  example,  nearly 
perpendicularly  to  the  earth,  and  passing  through  the  dry  stratum, 
then  the  partial  interruption  of  conduction  as  the  current  of  electricity 
passes  through  the  dry  stratum  v/ill  give  rise  to  the  exhibition  of 
light.  Again,  if  we  suppose  the  cloud  to  be  in  motion,  this  appearance 
will  travel  with  it,  and  the  patch  or  glow  of  light  will  thus  exhibit 
in  mid-air  a  comparatively  slow  progressive  motion,  and  disappear  as 
if  with  an  explosion,  when  a  disruptive  discharge  takes  place.  This 
hypothesis  can  only  be  considered  as  an  antecedent  possibility,  and  is 
not  presented  as  a  full  or  satisfactory  explanation;  the  phenomenon 
itself  must  be  more  frequently  observed,  and  the  associated  condition 
of  its  appearance  more  minutely  noted  before  a  definite  hypothesis  can 
be  formed  as  to  its  cause. 

Eecords  of  observations,  therefore,  with  regard  to  this  meteor  are 
exceedingly  desirable  ;  they  should,  however,  be  made  with  scrupulous 
accuracy,  and  by  persons  accustom^ed  to  scientific  investigations.  We 
have  found,  from  experience,  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  an  accurate 
account  of  all  the  circumstances  attending  a  peculiar  occurrence  of 
nature,  from  those  who  were  present  at  the  time  and  witnessed  the 
phenomenon.  It  is  astonishing  how  much  the  products  of  the  imagi- 
nation are  mingled  vnth.  the  actual  impressions  made  upon  the  senses, 
and  how  difficult  it  is  to  separate  from  the  testimony  of  a  witness,  what 
he  actually  saw,  and  what  he  unconsciously  infers  from  the  previous 
crude  conceptions  of  his  mind,  awakened  at  the  instant  by  a  powerful 
association  of  ideas.  In  the  transit  of  the  meteor  which  passed  over 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  United  States,  in  November  last,  a  large 
number  of  persons  declared  that  it  fell  in  an  adjoining  field,  or  in  the 
water  near  by,  although  it  must  have  been  at  the  time  many  miles  in 
altitude  above  the  surface  of  the  earth. 


INDUCTIVE  ACTION  OP  THE  CLOUD. 

A  cloud  formed  as  we  have  described  must  produce  a  great  inductive 
effect  on  the  earth  beneath,  and  as  it  is  borne  along  from  the  west  in 
this  latitude  over  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  intensity  of  the  elec- 
tricity of  the  lower  part  must  constantly  vary,  on  account  of  the  con- 
ducting condition  of  the  materials  at  or  below  the  surface.  For 
example,  since  water  is  a  better  conductor  than  dry  earth,  if  the  cloud 
is  moving  in  a  line  which,  if  produced,  would  cross  a  river,  its  course 
will  frequently  be  changed,  and  in  a  similar  way  we  can  explain  the 
fact  that  discharges  of  lightning  more  frequently  fall  on  some  places 
than  others.     Although  the  cloud  may  be  impelled  in  the  same  direc- 


METEOROLOGY.  501 

tion  by  tlie  wind,  yet  tlie  attraction  of  the  surface  of  the  water,  rendered 
more  than  naturally  negative  by  induction,  will  tend  to  draw  it  from 
its  course.  And  since  the  induction  acts  at  a  distance  through  all  sub- 
stances, if  a  quantity  of  water  or  good  conducting  material  exist  below 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  the  cloud  will  be  similarly  affected.  It  fre- 
quently happens  that  when  a  heavy  discharge  of  lightning  passes  near 
a  house  or  descends  along  a  rod,  inductive  effects  are  exhibited  which- 
are  more  startling  than  dangerous. 

We  have  seen  in  the  experiment  described  in  page  47*7  that  an  in- 
duced spark  was  exhibited  at  the  edge  of  a  large  disk  covered  with 
tinfoil,  in  the  lower  story,  by  suddenly  drawing  the  electricity  from  a 
similar  disk  in  the  upper  part  of  a  house.  A  precisely  similar  ar- 
rangement, but  on  a  much  more  gigantic  scale,  is  presented  when  a 
highly  charged  thunder-cloud  is  in  the  zenith  of  a  building.  Now,  if 
the  intensity  of  this  be  suddenly  diminished  by  a  discharge  to  the 
earth,  flashes  of  electricity  and  sparks  from  different  objects  Vt^ithin  the 
house  will  be  observed.  The  explanation  of  this  is  very  easy.  The 
free  electricity  of  the  cloud,  which  we  may  suppose  to  be  positive, 
repels  all  the  positive  electricity  of  conductors  and  partial  conductors 
into  the  ground,  and  renders  them  negative.  They  will  be  brought, 
however,  into  this  state  very  gradually,  either  by  the  comparatively 
slow  approach  of  the  cloud,  or  by  its  increase  in  intensity.  The  fluid, 
therefore,  will  escape  into  the  ground  without  being  perceptible  in  the 
form  of  sparks,  but  when  the  repulsion  is  suddenly  relieved,  at  least 
in  part,  by  a  discharge  of  the  cloud,  the  natural  electricity  rushes 
back  and  exhibits  itself  in  flashes  and  sparks,  and  even  may  give 
shocks  to  persons  in  the  vicinity.  Although  this  sudden  return  of  the 
electricity  from  the  earth  into  which  it  has  been  driven,  in  ordinary 
cases  of  conductors  in  a  house  supported  by  bad  conducting  materials, 
is  usually  attended  with  but  slight  effects ;  yet  it  may,  under  certain 
circumstances,  produce  serious  accidents,  particularly  v/hen  a  person 
is  in  good  conducting  connection  with  the  earth.  A  remarkable  in- 
stance of  this  kind  was  given  by  Mr.  Brydone,  in  a  letter  to  the  presi- 
dent of  the  Eoyal  Society,  in  1T87. 

Two  laborers,  each  driving  a  cart  loaded  with  coal,  and  sitting  upon 
the  front  part,  ascending  a  slight  eminence,  the  one  following  the 
other  at  a  distance  of  about  twenty-four  yards,  as  represented  at  M 
and  L,  Fig.  20,  were  conversing  about  the  thunder  which  was  heard  at 
a  distance,  when  in  an  instant  the  man  in  the  hinder  cart  was  astounded 
by  a  loud  report,  and  saw  his  companion  and  the  two  horses  which  he 
was  driving  fall  to  the  ground.  He  immediately  ran  to  his  assistance, 
but  found  him  quite  dead.  The  horses  were  also  killed,  and  appeared 
to  have  died  without  a  struggle.  The  hinder  cartman  had  the  horses 
and  driver  of  the  forward  cart  full  in  view  when  they  fell  to  the 
ground,  but  he  saw  no  flash  nor  appearance  of  fire,  and  was  sensible 
of  no  shock  nor  uncommon  sensation.  Each  wheel  was  marked  with 
a  bluish  spot  on  the  tire,  as  if  the  iron  had  been  subjected  at  that 
place  to  an  intense  heat,  and  directly  under  these  spots  were  two  holes 
in  the  ground,  from  which  the  earth  was  removed  as  if  by  an  upward 
explosion.     Flashes  of  lightning  had  been  seen  and  thunder  heard  by 


502 


AGRICULTUEAL    REPORT. 


'Mr.  Brydone  also,  who  was  in  the  vicinity  at  the  time,  hut  these  were 
at  the  distance  of  live  or  six  miles,  as  shown  hy  the  time  elapsed 
between  seeing  the  flash  and  hearing  the  thunder.  There  were  no 
marks,  however,  of  the  exit  of  the  discharge  upwards  from  the  body 
of  the  man  or  of  the  horses,  or  any  effect  which  could  he  attributed  to 
a  discharge  immediately  from  the  cloud.  The  accident  was  seen  by 
another  person,  from  a  greater  distance,  who  was  also  astounded  by  the 
loud  report,  saw  the  horses  and  man  fall  to  the  ground,  but  observed 
no  lightning  nor  fire  at  the  time,  but  perceived,  the  dust  arise  at  the 
place.  A  shepherd  in  a  neighboring  field,  during  the  same  storm, 
observed  a  lamb  drop  down  dead,  and  felt  at  the  same  time  as  if  fire 
had  passed  over  his  face,  although  the  lightning  and  clap  of  thunder 
a  were  at  great  distance  from  him.  This  happened  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
before  the  accident  to  the  cartman,  and  not  over  three  hundred  yards 
from  the  same  spot.  A  woman  making  hay  near  the  bank  of  the  river 
near  by,  fell  suddenly  to  the  ground,  and  exclaimed  to  her  companions 
that  she  had  received  a  violent  blow  on  her  foot,  and  could  not  imagine 
whence  it  came. 

A  scientific  analysis  of  these  phenomena  is  given  by  Earl  Stanhope, 
on  principles  similar  to  those  of  induction,  which  we  shall  translate 
as  it  were  into  the  precise  language  of  that  theory.  Let  us  suppose  a 
cloud  eight  or  ten  miles  in  length  to  be  extended  over  the  earth  in  the 
situation  represented  by  A  B  C  in  Fig.  20,  and  let  another  cloud  D  E  F 


Fig.  90. 


"be  situated  between  the  above-mentioned  cloud  and  the  earth.  Let  the 
two  clouds  be  supposed  to  be  charged  with  the  same  kind  of  electricity, 
and  both  positive.  Let  us  further  suppose  that  the  lower  cloud  D  E  F 
be  only  so  far  from  the  earth  as  to  be  just  beyond  the  striking  dis- 
tance, and  the  man,  cart_,  and  horses  to  be  at  L,  under  the  part  E  of  the 
cloud  which  is  nearest  the  earth.  Now,  let  the  remote  end  C  of  the 
upper  cloud  approach  the  earth  within  striking  distance,  and  suddenly 
discharge  itself  at  G.     The  effect  which  would  be  produced  by  this 


METEOROLOGY.  503 

arrangement,  at  tlie  moment  of  the  cliscliarge  C  Gr,  will  be  understood 
by  considering  the  condition  of  the  electricity  in  the  tv/o  clouds,  and 
in  the  earth  a  moment  previous  to  the  discharge.  Both  clouds  being- 
positive,  the  two  will  act  upon  each  other  by  repulsion,  the  free  elec;; 
tricity  of  the  lower  cloud  will  be  driven  down  into  its  lower  surface,  and 
will  be  accumulated  particularly  in  the  point  E  nearest  to  the  earth. 
The  ground  underneath  the  lower  cloud,  and  more  especially  at  L,  where 
the  distance  is  least,  will  become  highly  negative.  The  natural  elec- 
tricity will  be  driven  down  into  the  ground  by  repulsion,  and  will  be 
retained  there  as  long  as  this  condition  remains,  but  vf  hen  a  discharge 
takes  place  at  the  point  C  Gr,  if  the  cloud  B  be  a  good  conductor,  the 
repulsion  at  A  and  D  will  be  suddenly  removed,  and  the  natural  elec- 
tricity of  the  earth  will  return  with  a  rush  to  the  surface,  and  pass 
beyond  its  point  of  natural  equilibrium,  as  in  this  case  into  the  man 
and  horses.  The  loud  report  was  caused  by  the  discharge  from  I)  to 
A,  which  was  invisible  to  the  eye  of  the  spectator  on  account  of  the 
density  of  the  lower  cloud. 

An  experimental  illustration  of  the  effects  produced  in  this  case  may 
be  readily  furnished  by  charging  two  conductors,  arranged  in  the  rela- 
tive position  of  the  two  clouds.  At  the  moment  a  spark  is  drawn  from 
the  end  0,  a  discharge  is  observed  at  D  A.  The  death  of  the  lamb, 
and  the  shock  felt  in  the  foot  of  the  v/oman  were  both  produced  accord- 
ing to  this  view,  by  the  sudden  rushing  up  of  the  natural  electricity 
of  the  ground,  when  the  repulsion  in  the  upper  cloud  was  in  part 
diminished  by  the  distant  discharge. 

The  inductive  action  at  a  distance  which  we  have  described,  affords 
a  rational  exposition  of  the  effects  which  are  perceived  by  persons  of 
nervous  sensibility  on  the  approach  of  a  thunder-storm,  and  may  also 
be  connected  with  the  change  which  is  said  to  take  place  suddenly 
in  liquids  in  an  unstable  condition,  such  as  the  souring  of  milk  and 
other  substances,  near  the  point  of  fermentation.  But  whether  the 
latter  effects  are  due  to  the  inductive  action  of  the  electricity  or  the 
tremor  produced  by  the  thunder,  has  not,  to  our  knowledge,  been 
definitely  settled.  If  the  effects  are  due  to  induction,  it  is  probable 
that  they  would  be  greater  in  the  case  of  milk  in  a  metallic  pan  resting 
on  the  earth,  than  in  one  of  glass,  supported  on  glass  legs  or  a  thick 
cake  of  beeswax. 

PRECAUTIONS  WITH  REGARD  TO  LIGHTNING. 

Men  have  often  been  struck  by  lightning  in  open  plains,  and  since 
the  human  body  is  a  good  conductor  of  electricity,  from  the  principles 
we  have  given  it  must  be  evident  that  when  standing  it  would  be 
more  likely  to  be  struck  than  any  point  on  the  earth  in  the  vicinity. 
There  is  less  danger  in  a  horizontal  position,  particularly  if  the  person 
be  resting  on  some  non-conducting  substance  which  would  prevent  the 
natural  electricity  from  descending  into  the  earth.  Near  the  foot  of  a 
tall  isolated  tree  is  always  considered  a  dangerous  position,  and  this  is 
in  accordance  not  only  with  facts  but  well-established  principles.  The 
upper  part  of  the  tree  being  a  partial  conductor,  particularly  if  covered 
with  foliage,  will  become  electrified  by  induction,  will  attract  the  dis- 


504  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

charge  to  itself,  and  in  tlie  passage  of  tlie  lightning  toward  the  earth 
it  will  act  with  energetic  induction  on  all  surrounding  objects,  and 
since  the  body  of  the  man  is  a  better  conductor  than  the  wood,  the  in- 
stantaneous inductive  effect  of  the  descending  bolt  will  be  greater  on 
the  head  of  the  man  than  on  the  remaining  part  of  the  tree  in  its  de- 
scending course,  and  hence  it  will  diverge  from  the  line  it  was  pursuing, 
break  through  the  air,  and  pass  through  the  body  of  the  man.  To 
attempt  to  explain  this  phenomenon,  by  merely  saying  that  the  elec- 
tricity leaves  the  tree  because  the  human  body  is  a  better  conductor 
than  the  wood,  is  to  attribute  to  this  agent  prescience  and  forethought, 
but  by  an  application  of  the  principles  of  induction,  the  whole  is  referred 
to  the  simple  action  of  attraction  and  repulsion.  In  the  interior  of  a 
house,  the  safest  ]3osition  we  can  well  imagine  is  that  of  being  horizon- 
tally suspended  in  a  hammock  by  silk  cords  in  the  middle  of  a  room, 
and  perhaps  the  next,  that  of  lying  on  a  mattress  or  feather  bed  on  a 
wooden  bedstead,  the  materials  of  which  are  very  imperfect  conductors. 
It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  if  the  bedstead  be  in  the  middle  of 
the  room,  at  a  distance  from  the  wall,  the  danger  will  be  less. 

It  may,  perhaps,  be  well  to  dwell  for  a  moment  on  the  explanation 
of  the  foregoing  statement.  Let  us  suppose  a  man  to  be  standing  on 
a  large  piece  of  beeswax,  which  is  almost  a  perfect  non-conductor, 
and  exposed  to  a  cloud  highly  charged  with  positive  electricity  A 
portion  of  the  natural  electricity  of  his  head  would  be  drawn  down 
into  his  feet;  the  former  would  become  negatively  electrified  and 
attract  the  lightning  of  the  cloud,  while  the  latter  would  repel  it; 
the  tendency  to  be  struck  would  be  on  account  of  the  difference  of  these 
two  actions.  If  the  man  stepped  off  the  non-conducting  wax  on  to  the 
earth,  the  redundant  electricity  which  had  collected  in  his  feet  would 
be  discharged,  his  head  would  become  still  more  negatively  electrified, 
the  repulsion  which  existed  in  the  other  case  would  disappear,  while 
the  attraction  would  be  increased,  and  hence  the  tendency  to  be  struck 
would  be  much  greater. 

Let  us  next  consider  what  would  take  place  if  a  man  should  be  ex- 
tended horizontally  on  a  large  disk  of  beeswax.  In  this  case  the  upper 
part  of  the  body,  or  that  toward  the  sky,  would  become  negative,  and 
the  lower  part,  or  that  in  contact  with  the  beeswax,  would  become 
positive,  and  the  attractions  and  repulsions  would  be  exhibited  as  in 
the  first  instance,  but  with  less  energy,  because  their  foci  would  be 
much  nearer  each  other,  and  consequently  they  would  act  with  almost 
equal  efiect ;  while  the  repelled  electricity  not  having  space  into  which 
to  descend,  a  less  quantity  of  it  would  be  repelled  from  each  point  of 
the  upper  surface.  If  the  disk  of  wax  were  placed  above  the  man's 
head  while  in  a  standing  position,  it  would  not  screen  the  repulsive 
energy  of  the  cloud,  which,  like  gravitation,  acts  through  all  bodies ; 
the  induction  would  take  place  as  before,  the  head  would  become  highly 
negative,  while  the  natural  electricity  which  had  been  driven  down 
would  escape  into  the  earth.  The  effect  would,  therefore,  be  the  same 
as  if  the  individual  were  standing  on  the  earth  without  the  intervention 
of  the  non-conducting  material.  A  descending  bolt  would  be  attracted 
towards  his  head,  and  if  the  tenacity  of  the  beeswax  were  not  sufficient 
to  withstand  a  disruptive  discharge^  the  body  would  be  injured.     It  is 


METEOROLOGY.  505 

from  a  misappreliension  of  these  principles  that  it  has  been  supposed 
that  the  protection  is  increased  by  a  slight  covering  over  the  body,  of 
silk  or  feathers,  or  by  interposing  a  plate  of  glass  between  the  sky  and 
body;  but  it  is  well  known  that  fowls  and.  other  large  birds  are  struck, 
the  slight  covering  of  feathers  affording  no  protection  while  the  feet 
are  in  connection  with  the  earth. 

From  the  conducting  capacity  of  the  lining  of  the  soot  of  a  chimney, 
and  of  the  smoke  and  heated  air  which  ascends  from  the  flue,  it  will 
be  clear  that  the  vicinity  of  the  fire-place  during  a  thunder  storm  is 
not  the  safest  position  which  may  be  chosen  in  a  house.  A  person 
leaning  out  of  an  open  window  may  also  not  be  in  a  very  safe  position, 
because  the  outside  of  the  house,  wetted  with  rain,  will  be  rendered  a 
partial  conductor,  and  a  descending  charge  along  the  wall  may  reach 
the  body  projecting  beyond  the  surface.  The  induction  is  always 
greater  where  there  is  a  large  amount  of  conducting  material ;  hence 
barns  filled  with  damp  hay  will  be  more  liable  to  be  struck  than  when 
empty.  Besides  the  action  of  induction  in  this  case,  it  is  generally 
supposed  that  the  danger  is  increased  by  the  ascent  of  moist  vapor 
from  the  barn  at  the  season  mentioned ;  and  this  supposition,  which  is 
in  accordance  with  scientific  principles,  is  apparently  borne  out  by 
observation. 

On  the  principle  of  the  increase  of  induction  in  the  collection  of  a 
large  number  of  conducting  bodies  in  a  given  space,  the  assemblage 
of  persons  in  churches,  or  other  places  of  public  meetings,  increases 
the  tendency  of  lightning  to  fall  on  the  edifice.  The  inductive  action 
will  be  slightly  increased  when  the  audience  assumes  a  standing  posi- 
tion. For  a  similar  reason,  sheep  which  are  crowded  together  during 
a  storm  are  frequently  killed  by  lightning.  The  fact  has  several  times 
been  noticed,  that  when  a  discharge  passes  through  a  number  of  ani- 
mals arranged  in  a  straight  line,  those  which  are  at  the  extremities  of 
the  row  suffer  most ;  and  this  has  been  observed  even  when  the  ani- 
mals were  not  in  immediate  contact  with  each  other,  as,  for  example, 
a  number  of  horses  in  a  series  of  stalls.  It  is  probable  that  the  heated 
air  between  the  horses  may  have  served  as  a  conducting  medium,  and 
that  the  effect  can  be  referred  to  the  increase  of  intensity  which  always 
takes  place  in  the  electrical  discharge  at  the  points  where  the  air  is 
ruptured,  or  where  the  electricity  enters  and  passes  out. 

The  probability  of  injury  from  lightning,  even  in  this  country, 
where  thunder-storms  are  comparatively  frequent  in  the  summer,  is 
slight ;  and  though  it  may  be  well  to  observe  proper  precaution,  yet, 
on  account  of  the  small  risk  to  which  we  are  subjected,  we  should  not 
deprive  ourselves  of  the  gratification  of  observing  and  studying  one  of 
the  most  sublime  spectacles  of  nature ;  and,  indeed,  we  know  of  no 
better  way  of  overcoming  the  natural  dread  which  many  persons  have 
of  this  meteorological  phenomenon  than  by  becoming  interested  in  its 
scientific  principles,  and  in  studying,  in  connection  with  these,  its  ap- 
pearance and  effects. 


506  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


EFFECTS  OF  THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  GAS  AND  WATER  PIPES. 

Since  the  use  of  gas  has  "become  so  general  in  our  cities  as  to  be 
considered  almost  one  of  the  essentials  of  civilized  life,  a  new  source 
of  danger  has  heen  introduced.  Persons  who  repudiate  the  use  of 
lightning  rods,  because  they  attract  the  electricity  from  the  clouds, 
should  reject  the  introduction  of  gas,  particularly  into  the  upper  stories 
of  their  dwellings,  since  the  perpendicular  pipes  must  act  as  the  most 
efficient  conductors  between  the  cloud  and  the  earth.  We  say  the 
most  efficient,  because  they  are  connected  below  the  ground  with  a 
plexus  of  pipes,  in  many  cases,  of  miles  in  extent,  the  whole  of  which 
is  rendered  by  the  induction  of  a  large  cloud  highly  negative ;  and, 
since  this  action  takes  place  with  as  much  efficiency  through  the  roof 
of  a  house  and  the  chamber  floors  as  it  does  through  the  open  air, 
a  gas-pipe,  therefore,  within  a  house,  in  proportion  to  its  height, 
would  powerfully  attract  any  discharge  from  a  cloud  in  its  vicinity. 

To  obviate  the  danger  from  this  source,  the  lightning-rod,  which 
rises  above  the  top  of  the  building,  should  be  placed  in  immediate 
metallic  contact  with  the  plexus  of  gas-pipe  outside  the  house.  If, 
as  is  very  frequently  the  case,  the  rod  is  made  to  terminate  by  simple 
insertion  of  a  few  feet  in  the  dry  earth,  while  the  gas-pipe  is  con- 
nected with  miles  of  metallic  masses,  rendered  highly  negative  by 
induction,  the  path  of  least  resistance,  or  of  most  intense  induction 
from  the  cloud  to  the  earth,  will  be  down  the  rod  to  some  point 
opposite  the  gas-pipe,  then  through  the  house'  and  down  the  pipe 
into  the  great  receiver  below.  This  conclusion,  from  the  theory,  is 
fully  borne  out  by  observation.  On  Friday  evening.  May  14,  1858, 
a  house  in  Georgetown,  D.  C,  was  struck  by  lightning,  and  on  Sat- 
urday, the  next  evening,  another  house  was  struck  in  Washington, 
on  Seventeenth  street,  north  of  the  avenue.  The  writer  carefully  ex- 
amined the  conditions  and  effects  in  both  cases,  and  found  them  almost 
identically  the  same.  The  houses  were  similarly  situated,  with  gable 
ends  north  and  south,  and  attached  to  the  west  side  of  each  was  a 
smaller  back  building.  The  lightning-rod  of  the  house  at  George- 
town was  placed  on  the  southern  gable.  It  terminated  above  in  a 
single  point,  and  its  lower  part  was  inserted  into  hard  ground,  through 
a  brick  pavement,  to  the  depth  of  about  five  feet.  The  lightning  fell 
upon  the  point,  which  it  melted,  passed  down  the  rod  until  it  came  to 
the  level  of  the  eaves,  thence  leaving  the  conductor,  it  passed  horizon- 
tally along  the  wet  clapboards  to  the  southwest  cave  or  corner  of  the 
house,  thence  down  a  tinned  iron  spout  to  the  tin  gutter  under  the  roof 
of  the  back  building,  and  thus  it  pierced  the  wall  of  the  house  oppo- 
site the  point  on  the  outside  of  the  back  building  corresponding  to  the 
position  of  a  gas-pipe  in  the  interior,  after  which  no  further  effects 
of  it  could  be  observed.  A  small  portion  of  the  charge,  hoAvever, 
diverged  to  a  second  gas-pipe  in  an  adjoining  room.  The  back  build- 
ing was  of  wood,  and  the  passage  of  the  charge  appeared  to  be 
facilitated  by  a  large  nail.  The  discharge  was  marked  throughout 
its  course  by  the  effects  it  produced:  1st,  the  point  of  the  rod  was 
melted ;  2d,  a  glass  insulating  cylinder,  through  which  the  upper  part 


METEOROLOGY.  607 

of  the  rod  passed,  was  broken  in  pieces ;  3d,  tlie  horizontal  clapboard 
extending  from  the  rod  to  the  eave  was  splintered ;  4th,  the  tin  of  the 
gutters  and  spout  exhibited  signs  of  fusion ;  5th,  the  plaster  was 
broken  around  the  hole  through  which  the  charge  entered  the  house. 

The  lightning  rod  of  the  house  which  was  struck  in  Washington 
was  placed  on  the  north  gable ;  the  electricity  left  the  conductor  at  the 
apex  of  the  roof,  descended  along  the  angle  of  the  coping  and  the  roof, 
which  was  lined  with  tin,  to  the  northwest  eave  of  the  main  building, 
thence  southward  along  a  tin  gutter  until  it  met  a  perpendicular  tin 
spout,  which  conducted  it  to  a  point  on  the  outside  of  the  back  build- 
ing, corresponding  to  a  gas-pipe  within ;  it  then  pierced  a  nine-inch 
brick  wall  and  struck  the  gas-pipe,  which  was  embedded  in  the  wall 
of  the  main  building,  at  the  distance  of  15  inches  horizontally  north 
of  the  hole  which  it  pierced  in  entering  the  interior.  A  lady  was 
sitting  with  her  back  toward  the  point  where  the  discharge  entered 
the  gas-pipe,  at  the  distance  of  18  inches,  and,  though  she  was  some- 
wdiat  stunned  at  the  time,  and  perceived  a  ringing  sensation  in  her 
ears  for  sometime  after,  she  received  no  permanent  injury.  At  the 
last  meeting  of  the  American  Association,  Professor  Benjamin  Silli- 
man,  jr.,  described  two  instances  of  a  similar  character,  in  which  the 
discharge  from  the  cloud  struck  twice,  in  different  years,  the  lightning 
rod  of  the  steeple  of  a  church  in  New  Haven,  left  the  conductor  and 
entered  the  building,  to  precipitate  itself  on  the  gas-pipes  of  the  interior. 
The  rema,rkable  fact  was  stated,  in  connection  with  this  occurrence, 
that  the  joinings  of  the  gas-mains,  under  the  street  on  the  outside  of 
the  building,  were  loosened,  apparently  by  the  mechanical  effect  of  the 
discharge,  and  the  company  was  obliged  to  take  them  up  and  repair 
the  damage,  to  prevent  the  loss  of  gas.  An  occurrence  of  this  kind 
might,  perhaps,  lead  the  proprietors  of  ga,s-works  to  object  to  the  prop- 
osition of  connecting  the  end  of  the  rod  with  these  mains ;  but  they 
should  recollect  that,  if  means  be  not  furnished  to  prevent  the  danger 
consequent  upon  the  use  of  gas,  a  less  amount  of  the  article  will  be 
consumed ;  and,  furthermore,  that  giving  more  efficiency  to  the  induc- 
tive action  of  the  rod,  on  the  cloud,  by  the  connection  we  have  proposed, 
the  tendency  to  a  discharge  will  be  lessened;  and,  finally,  that,  if  the 
connection  be  not  formed,  the  discharge  from  the  cloud  will  itself  find 
the  main  through  the  gas-pipes  within  the  house. 

There  is  another  source  of  danger,  of  a  similar  character,  in  cities 
supplied  with  water  from  an  aqueduct ;  the  pipes  in  different  stories  of 
the  building,  connected  with  the  water-mains  which  underlie  the  city, 
are  in  most  intimate  connection  with  the  earth,  subject  to  a  powerful 
induction  from  the  cloud  above,  and  therefore  will  attract  any  discharge 
which  may  be  passing  in  their  vicinity,  or  even  determine  the  point  at 
which  the  rupture  of  the  stratum  of  air  between  the  cloud  and  the 
house  shall  take  place.  In  this  case  the  lightning-rod  should  also  be 
connected  on  the  outside  of  the  building  with  the  pipes  under  ground,  in 
order  that  the  induction  through  the  rod  should  be  as  perfect  as  possi- 
ble, and  that  the  consequent  attraction  may  confine  the  charge,  and 
transmit  it  entirely  to  the  large  mains,  and  from  them  to  the  earth. 
Houses  are  sometimes  supplied  with  water  from  the  roof,  collected  in 
tanks  in  the  loft,  whence  it  is  distributed  by  pipes  to  different  parts  of 


508  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

tile  "building.  This  arrangement  also  tends  to  invite  the  lightning  in 
proportion  to  the  perpendicular  elevation  of  this  system  of  conductors. 
The  lower  ends  of  these  are  not  usually  in  very  intimate  connection 
with  the  earth,  and  therefore  a  less  powerful  induction  takes  place  than 
in  the  other  instances  we  have  mentioned.  They  should  he  placed, 
however,  as  in  the  preceding  case,  in  good  metallic  connection,  on 
the  outside  of  the  house,  with  the  lightning-rod.  The  same  remark 
applies  to  steam  and  hot-water  pipes  used  for  heating  large  buildings. 

The  different  sides  of  a  building  are  not  all  equally  exposed  to 
accident  from  lightning.  Thunder  clouds  in  this  latitude  approach 
us  from  the  southwest,  and  hence  the  part  of  the  house  which  faces 
this  direction  is  not  only  more  exposed  to  the  fury  of  the  storm,  hut 
also  to  the  effects  of  the  electrical  discharge.  The  position,  then,  of 
the  lightning-rod  on  this  account  is  not  to  he  neglected.  The  soot 
which  lines  a  chimney  is  a  good  conductor,  and  hence  the  discharge 
not  unfrequently  passes  into  the  house  along  the  interior  surface  of 
this  opening.  But  there  is  another  circumstance  which  renders  the 
chimney  still  more  liable  to  be  struck,  namely :  the  column  of  heated 
air  and  smoke  which  ascends  from  it  into  the  atmosphere  when  there 
is  a  fire  burning  below.  These  are  tolerably  good  conductors  of  elec- 
tricity, and  as  they  may,  under  some  conditions,  extend  to  a  considerable 
height  in  the  atmosphere,  they  are  sufficient  to  attract  the  descending 
discharge  and  determine  its  course  to  the  chimney.  A  rod  should 
therefore  be  placed  on  every  chimney  through  which  a  column  of 
heated  air  ascends  during  the  season  of  the  occurrence  of  thunder 
storms. 

Among  the  many  novel  propositions  which  have  been  favored  by 
Congress,  there  was  one  a  few  years  ago  connected  with  results  having 
a  bearing  on  this  subject.  For  the  purpose  of  lighting  the  public 
grounds,  an  appropriation  v/as  made  to  erect  a  mast  eighty  feet  in 
length  on  the  top  of  the  dome  of  the  Capitol.  This  mast  was  sur- 
mounted by  a  lantern  of  about  sis  feet  in  height  and  of  corresponding 
diameter,  containing  a  large  number  of  gas-burners,  and  terminated 
above  by  a  gilded  copper  ball  of  about  a  foot  in  diameter.  After  this 
gigantic  apparatus  had  been  erected  in  defiance  of  all  the  principles 
of  architecture  and  illumination,  the  author  of  this  report  was  called 
upon  to  give  his  opinion  as  to  the  effect  of  lightning  upon  it.  The 
answer  given  was  as  follows :  Since  the  simplest  method  of  obtaining 
electricity  from  the  atmosphere  is  to  elevate  a  j)iece  of  burning  tinder 
on  the  end  of  a  fishing-rod,  the  apparatus  placed  on  the  dome  of  the 
Capitol  is  a  collector  of  electricity  on  an  immense  scale,  and  therefore 
it  will  probably  be  struck  by  lightning.  As  if  to  verify  this  predic- 
tion, on  the  occurrence  of  the  first  thunder  storm,  the  apparatus 
received  a  discharge  from  the  cloud,  which  fused  several  holes  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  ball  and  indented  the  surface,  but  fortunately  did  no 
damage  to  the  building.  The  apparatus  was  then  removed,  and  the 
ball  deposited  in  the  museum  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  as  an 
interesting  illustration  of  the  chemical  and  mechanical  effects  of  a 
discharge  of  lightning. 


METEOROLOGY.  509 


EFFECTS  OP  TELEGRAPH  WIRES. 

In  1846  the  Hon.  S,  D,  Ingham,  of  Pennsylvania,  requested  the 
opinion  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society  as  so  whether  security 
in  regard  to  accidents  from  lightning  is  increased  or  lessened  by  the 
erection  of  telegraph  wires,  the  poles  of  which  are  placed  hy  the  side  of 
the  roads  along  which  persons  with  horses  and  carriages  are  constantly 
passing.  The  subject  was  referred  to  the  author  of  the  present  article^ 
from  whose  report  in  regard  to  it  the  following  facts  and  deductions 
are  given.  The  wires  of  a  telegraph  are  liable  to  be  struck  by  a  direct 
charge  from  the  clouds,  and  several  instances  of  this  kind  have  been 
observed.  About  the  20th  of  May,  1846,  the  lightning  struck  the 
elevated  part  of  the  wire,  which  is  supported  on  a  high  mast  where 
the  wire  crosses  the  flackensac  river.  The  fluid  j)assed  along  the  wire 
each  way  from  the  point  which  received  the  discharge  for  several 
miles,  striking  off  at  regular  intervals  down  the  supporting  poles. 
At  each  point  where  the  discharge  took  place  along  a  pole,  a  number 
of  sharp  explosions  were  heard  in  succession,  resembling  the  rapid 
reports  of  several  rifles.  During  another  storm  the  wire  was  struck  in 
two  places  on  the  route  between  New  York  and  Philadelphia.  At  one 
of  these  places  twelve  poles  were  struck,  and  at  the  other  eight.  In 
some  instances  the  lightning  has  been  seen  coursing  along  the  wire  like 
a  stream  of  light,  and  in  one  case  it  is  described  as  exploding  from  the 
wire  in  several  places,  though  there  were  no  bodies  in  the  vicinity  to 
attract  it  from  the  conductor. 

That  the  wires  of  the  telegraph  should  be  frequently  struck  is  not 
surprising,  when  we  consider  the  great  length  of  the  conductor,  and 
consequently  the  many  points  along  the  surface  of  the  earth  through 
which  it  must  pass,  peculiarly  liable  to  receive  the  discharge  from  the 
heavens.  Besides  this,  from  the  great  length  of  the  conductor,  its 
natural  electricity,  driven  to  the  further  end  or  ends  of  the  wire,  will 
be  removed  to  a  great  distance  from  the  point  immediately  under  the 
cloud,  and  hence  this  will  be  rendered  more  intensely  negative  and  its 
attractive  power  thereby  highly  increased.  It  is  not,  however,  proba- 
ble that  the  attraction,  whatever  may  be  its  intensity,  of  so  small  a 
wire  as  that  of  the  telegraph,  can  of  itself  produce  an  electrical 
discharge  from  the  heavens,  although,  if  the  discharge  were  started 
from  some  other  cause,  such  as  the  attraction  of  a  large  mass  of  con- 
ducting matter  in  the  vicinity,  the  attraction  of  the  wire  might  be 
sufficient  to  change  the  direction  of  the  descending  bolt  and  draw  it, 
in  whole  or  in  part,  to  itself.  It  should  also  be  recollected  that,  on 
account  of  the  perfect  conduction  of  the  wire,  a  discharge  on  any  one 
point  of  it  must  affect  every  other  part  of  the  connected  line,  although 
the  whole  may  be  several  hundred  miles  in  length.  That  the  wire 
should  give  off  a  discharge  to  a  number  of  poles  in  succession,  is  a  fact 
that  might  have  been  anticijDated,  since  the  electricity  would,  by  its 
self-repulsion,  tend  to  send  a  portion  of  itself  down  the  j)artial  conduct- 
ing pole,  while  the  remaining  part^  attracted  by  the  wire  in  advance 
of  itself,  rendered  negative  by  induction,  would  continue  its  passage 
along  the  metal  until  it  met  another  pole,  when  a  new  division  of  the 


510  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

charge  would  take  place,  and  so  on.  The  several  explosions  in  suc- 
cession, heard  at  the  same  pole,  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  dis- 
charge from  the  cloud  does  not  generally  consist  of  a  single  wave  of 
electricity,  but  of  a  number  of  discharges  in  the  same  path  in  rapid 
succession,  so  as  in  some  cases  to  present  the  appearance  of  a  continuous 
discharge  of  a  very  appreciable  duration ;  and  hence,  the  wire  of  a  tel- 
egraph is  capable  of  transmitting  an  immense  quantity  of  the  fluid 
thus  distributed  in  time  over  a  great  length  of  the  conductor. 

From  the  foregoing,  in  regard  to  the  direct  discharge,  we  think  the 
danger  to  be  apprehended  from  the  electricity  leaving  the  wire  and 
striking  a  person  on  the  road  is  small.  Electricity  of  sufficient  inten- 
sity to  strike  a  person  at  the  distance  of  twenty  feet  from  a  perfectly 
insulated  wire  would  in  preference  be  conducted  down  the  nearest  pole. 
It  will,  however,  in  all  cases,  be  most  prudent  to  keep  at  a  proper  dis- 
tance from  the  wire  during  the  existence  of  a  thunder-storm,  or  even 
at  any  time  when  the  sound  of  thunder  is  heard  in  the  distance. 

In  case  of  wires  passing  through  cities  and  attached  to  houses,  they 
should  be  provided  at  numerous  points  with  electrical  conductors  to 
carry  off  the  discharge  to  the  earth.  These  consist  of  copper  wires  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  earth  by  means  of  a  plate  of  metal  at  the 
lower  end,  extending  up  the  pole  or  side  of  the  house,  and  terminating 
in  a  flat  plate  above,  parallel  to  another  plate  of  metal  depending  from 
the  wire  of  the  telegraph.  The  two  plates  are  separated  by  a  thin 
stratum  of  air,  or  some  other  non-conducting  material,  through  which 
the  intense  discharge  from  the  clouds  will  readily  pass  and  be  con- 
ducted to  the  earth,  while  the  insulation  of  the  wire  for  the  purposes 
of  the  telegraph  is  unimpaired. 

There  are  other  electrical  phenomena  connected  with  the  telegraph 
which,  though  frequently  annoying  to  the  operator,  are  not  attended 
with  the  same  degree  of  danger  to  his  person.  These  are  immediately 
referable  to  induction  at  a  distance,  and  consist  entirely  in  the  dis- 
turbance of  the  natural  electricity  of  the  wire.  Suppose  a  thunder 
cloud  to  be  driven  by  the  wind  in  such  a  direction  as  to  cross,  for  ex- 
ample, at  right  angles,  the  middle  of  a  long  line  of  telegraph  wire. 
During  the  whole  time  the  cloud  is  approaching  the  point  of  its  path 
directly  above  the  wire,  the  repulsion  of  the  redundant  electricity  of 
the  former  will  constantly  drive  the  natural  electricity  of  the  latter 
further  and  further  along  the  line,  so  that,  during  the  approach 
of  the  cloud,  a  continuous  current  will  exist  in  each  half  of  the  line. 
When  the  center  of  action  of  the  cloud  arrives  at  the  nearest  point  of 
the  wire  the  current  will  cease  for  a  moment,  and  as  the  repulsion 
gradually  diminishes  by  the  receding  of  the  cloudy  the  natural  elec- 
tricity of  the  wire  will  return  to  its  normal  condition  by  a  current 
opposite  to  that  which  was  first  manifested.  Since  the  thunder  clouds 
over  the  greater  portion  of  the  United  States  move  from  west  to  east, 
lines  in  a  north  and  south  direction  are  more  liable  to  currents  of 
this  class,  which  may  be  denominated  those  of  statical  induction. 

There  is  another  class  of  currents  which,  although  they  continue  but 
for  an  instant,  are  more  intense  than  the  preceding,  giving  rise  to  vivid 
sparks,  and  are  due  to  the  dynamic  induction  at  a  distance  of  a  dis- 
charge from  a  cloud  to  a  cloud,  or  from  a  cloud  obliquely  to  the  earth. 


METEOROLOGY.  511 

The  greatest  intensity  is  produced  wlien  tlie  path  of  the  lightning  is 
parallel  to  the  line  of  the  telegraph,  and,  in  this  case,  under  favorable 
circumstances  sparks  and  shocks  may  result  from  a  discharge  between 
two  clouds  at  the  distance  of  several  miles.  In  these  inductive  actions 
there  is  no  transfer  of  the  electricity  from  the  cloud  to  the  wire,  hut 
simply  the  disturbance  of  the  natural  electricity  of  the  conductor  by 
the  repulsive  energy  exerted  at  a  distance.  As  we  have  said  before, 
nothing  screens  this  induction,  for,  like  magnetism  and  gravitation, 
it  acts  freely  through  the  roof  of  a  house,  the  air,  and  all  other  non- 
conducting materials,  as  it  probably  would  do  through  void  space. 
A  similar  result  is  produced  on  the  long  lines  of  railway,  and  sparks 
have  been  observed  at  the  joining  of  the  rails  not  in  perfect  metallic 
connection,  particularly  at  the  turn-tables. 

The  electrical  telegraph  is  sometimes  disturbed  by  other  influences. 
It  is  evident  from  what  we  have  said  in  reference  to  elevated  bodies, 
that  if  a  line  of  wire  extends  over  a  high  hill,  the  intensity  of  elec- 
tricity will  be  greater  at  the  high  points  than  below,  particularly  during 
the  occurrence  of  fogs  ;  the  wire  will  tend  to  absorb  the  electricity  of 
the  air,  and  transmit  it  from  the  higher  to  the  lower  portions  ;  also 
during  the  fall  of  rain  and  snow  on  one  portion  of  a  long  wire,  while 
clear  weather  exists  at  another,  there  would  be  a  current  of  electricity 
observed  in  the  intermediate  portion.  During  very  warm  weather  a 
feeble  current  is  observed  at  different  periods  of  the  day,  which  may 
be  referred  to  thermo-electricity.  It  is  well  known  that  when  one  end 
of  a  long  conductor  is  heated  and  the  other  cooled,  a  current  of  electricity 
will  pass  from  the  hotter  to  the  colder  extremity,  and  this  will  be 
continued  as  long  as  the  difference  of  temperature  exists.  Extended 
lines  in  a  north  and  south  direction  are  most  favorably  situated  for  ob- 
serving a  current  of  this  class.  Currents  of  electricity  have  also  been 
observed  in  connection  with  the  appearance  of  the  aurora  borealis,  of 
sufficient  intensity  to  set  fire  to  pieces  of  paper.  But  the  consideration 
of  these  will  be  postponed  for  another  article. 

MEANS  OF  PROTECTING  BUILDINGS. 

Although  there  has  been  much  written  and  said  in  disparagement 
of  the  admirable  invention  of  our  illustrious  countryman,  Franklin, 
yet  an  attentive  consideration  of  all  the  facts,  even  independent  of 
theory,  fully  establishes  its  great  importance. 

1st.  It  is  well  known,  from  general  experience,  that  lightning  di- 
rects itself  to  the  most  elevated  portions  of  edifices.  Cotton  Mather 
declares  that  lightning  is  under  the  immediate  direction  of  the  "Prince 
of  the  power  of  the  air,"  because  church  steeples  are  more  frequently 
struck  than  any  other  objects.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  the  preser- 
vative means,  whatever  they  may  be,  should  be  applied  to  the  upper 
portions  of  a  building. 

2d.  If  other  conditions  be  the  same,  lightning  directs  itself  in  pre- 
ference to  metals.  When,  therefore,  a  mass  of  metal  occupies  the  more 
elevated  portion  of  a  house,  we- may  be  nearly  certain  that  lightning, 
if  it  falls  upon  the  building,  will  strike  that  point. 

3d.  Lightning,  when  it  enters  a  metallic  mass,  does  mischief  only 


612  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

wlien  it  quits  tlie  metal,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  tlie  point  at  which  it 
issues.  A  house,  therefore,  entirely  covered  with  metal,  would  he 
safe,  provided  this  covering  were  intimately  connected  with  the  ground, 
or  if  the  roof  be  covered  with  metal^  and  this  is  intimately  connected 
with  the  ground  by  metallic  conductors  of  sufficient  size,  the  lightninp- 
which  may  fall  on  the  metallic  covering  will  descend  to  the  ground, 
which  itself  is  a  good  conductor,  provided  it  is  saturated  with  water. 
When  there  are  upon  the  roof,  or  in  any  of  the  upper  stories  of  an  edi- 
fice, several  distinct  metallic  masses,  completely  separated  from  each 
other,  it  will  be  difficult  to  tell  which  of  them  will  be  struck  in  pref- 
erence. The  safest  practice  is  to  unite  all  these  masses  by  rods  or 
bands  of  iron^  copper,  or  other  metal,  so  that  each  of  them  may  be  in 
metallic  communication  with  a  rod,  which  may  transmit  the  lightning 
to  the  damp  earth. 

"We  thus  deduce,  from  facts  established  by  observation  alone, 
without  borrowing  anything  from  theory,"  says  Arago,  ''a  simple, 
uniform,  and  rational  means  of  protecting  buildings  from  the  effects  of 
lightning.  But  when  we  refer,  in  addition  to  these  facts,  to  the  pre- 
cise principles  or  laws  of  electrical  action,  as  deduced  from  cautious 
and  refined  experiments  in  the  laboratory,  we  are  enabled  to  give  rules 
for  the  protection  of  buildings  which,  when  properly  observed,  reduce 
almost  to  insignificance  the  danger  to  be  ap23rehended  from  the  ordi- 
nary occurrences  connected  with  the  terrific  exhibitions  of  thunder- 
storms." 

From  what  we  have  said  in  regard  to  the  principles  of  induction, 
and  also  in  reference  to  the  fact  of  the  negative  condition  of  the 
earth,  it  will  readily  be  perceived  that  the  upper  end  of  an  elevated 
conductor  must  become  highly  negative  under  the  repulsive  energy 
of  a  positive  cloud,  and  though  it  may  not  be  sufficient  in  itself  to  cause 
a  rupture  of  the  thick  stratum  of  air  intervening  between  the  cloud  and 
the  earth,  yet  if  a  discharge  does  take  place  within  the  vicinity  of  this 
body,  it  will  be  drawn  toward  it,  and  if  the  conductor  extends  to  the 
earth,  and  is  in  intimate  connection  with  the  damp  ground,  the  dis- 
charge will  pass  innoxiously  into  the  great  reservoir.  We  further 
know,  from  theory  as  well  as  experiment  and  observation,  that  the  in- 
tensity of  attraction  is  increased  when  the  conductor  is  terminated  above 
in  a  single  sharp  point.  Although  the  attraction  at  a  distance  may  be 
greater  on  a  metallic  globe  of  a  few  feet  in  diameter  than  on  a  metallic 
point,  since  the  former  is  able  to  receive  a  greater  amount  of  induced 
charge,  which,  by  the  well  known  law  of  attraction,  will  act  as  if  the 
whole  were  concentrated  at  the  center  of  the  sphere,  yet  the  intensity 
of  action  of  the  point,  and  its  tendency  to  open  a  passage  through  the 
air  is  so  great,  that  it  is  preferred  in  protecting  a  given  circumscribed 
space  from  lightning. 

The  question  has  been  agitated,  whether  one  point  or  a  number  on 
the  same  stem  are  to  be  preferred  ?  But  this  question  may  be  readily 
settled,  provided  the  reason  for  preferring  a  point  to  a  ball  or  a  globe 
is  legitimate,  since  the  surface  of  a  ball  itself  may  be  considered  as  made 
up  of  an  iniinite  number  of  points,  and  therefore  a  number  of  points 
close  together  must  react  upon  each  other,  and  thus  approximate  in 
result  the  effect  of  a  continuous  spherical  surface.     In  the  case  of  three 


METEOROLOGY.  513 

points  on  the  same  stem,  tlie  whole  amount  of  inductive  effect  which  is 
produced  in  the  rod  is,  as  it  were,  divided  into  three  parts,  and  is,  there- 
fore, less  concentrated  than  in  the  case  of  one  point;  and  although  at  a 
distance  the  effect  of  the  three  may  be  equally  energetic,  yet  the  one 
point  tends  more  effectually  to  rupture  the  air,  and  open,  as  it  were,  a 
passage  for  the  discharge  from  the  cloud. 

In  reference  to  the  subject  of  the  termination  of  rods  by  balls  or 
points,  much  discussion  took  place  in  the  early  introduction  of  the 
invention  of  Franklin,  and  the  subject  was  elucidated  by  a  very  inge- 
nious experiment  made  by  Beccaria,  in  1763,  which  is  quoted  by 
Arago.  On  the  roof  of  a  church  at  Turin  this  eminent  electrician 
erected  a  rod  of  iron  insulated  on  one  of  the  flying  buttresses.  The 
upper  part  of  this  rod,  which  was  terminated  by  a  single  metallic 
point,  was  hinged  a  few  inches  below  the  top,  so  that  merely  by  pull- 
ing a  string  the  point  could  be  directed  horizontally,  upwards  or  down- 
wards. When  the  point  was  pulled  downwards  during  the  presence  of 
a  thunder  cloud  in  the  zenith,  the  lower  end  of  the  rod  gave  no  sparks ; 
but  when  the  point  was  suddenly  directed  upward,  in  a  few  moments 
sparks  appeared.  When  the  point  was  downwards,  the  rod  presented 
a  blunt  termination  toward  the  sky;  when  upwards,  a  sharp  point.  It 
might  be  well  to  repeat  this  experiment  with  some  slight  variation  in 
the  apparatus,  in  order  to  establish  or  disprove,  by  direct  observation, 
the  inference  from  theory  that  a  single  point  acts  more  energeti- 
cally than  three  or  four  points,  terminating  the  same  rod.  The  sub- 
stance which  terminates  the  conductor  should  be  such  as  to  preserve 
its  form  when  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  weather^  and  be  infusible 
by  a  stroke  of  lightning.  The  first  requisite  is  found  in  the  tip  of  an 
iron  rod  gilded,  to  prevent  its  becoming  blunted  by  rust ;  but  a  point 
of  this  kind,  though  it  may  protect  a  building  from  the  first  discharge 
which  strikes  it,  will  be  melted,  and  the  intensity  of  its  action 
thereby  diminished  in  the  case  of  a  subsequent  explosion.  We 
now  usually  employ  for  terminating  the  lightning-rod,  a  small  coAe 
of  platinum  attached  to  a  copper  socket  which  fits  on  the  top  of  the 
rod,  made  conical  for  that  purpose.  Tips  of  this  kind  are  now  gene- 
rally offered  for  sale  in  the  large  cities.  The  quantity  of  platinum  on 
them,  however,  is  generally  too  small,  since  we  have  known  them  in 
several  instances  to  be  fused  by  a  discharge  of  lightning.  The  point 
itself  should  be  the  apex  of  a  solid  cone  of  platinum,  or  of  a  thick 
plate  of  that  metal,  fastened  by  screwing  or  soldering  to  the  copper 
socket. 

We  frequently  see  announcements  in  the  papers  of  great  improve- 
ments in  lightning-rods,  for  which  patents  have  been  obtained,  and 
among  these  boasted  improvements  have  been  the  application  of  mag- 
netized steel  points  to  receive  the  lightning ;  but  this  invention,  like 
most  of  the  others  which  have  been  given  to  the  public  for  the  same 
purpose,  is  the  result  of  some  vague  analogy  or  sheer  charlatanism.  It 
rests  upon  no  foundation  of  observation,  experiment,  or  theory.  The 
magnetization  of  a  bar,  so  far  as  it  has  any  effect,  tends  to  cause 
the  electrical  discharge  to  revolve  around  it,  and  to  render  the  iron 
very  slightly,  if  anything,  a  less  perfect  conductor. 

The  distance  from  a  rod  measured  horizontally  to  which  the  protect- 
33 A 


614  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

ing  influence  extends,  is  a  question  of  considerable  importance.  It 
has  generally  been  admitted  that  the  point  of  a  lightning-conductor 
protects  a  horizontal  circular  space  with  a  radius  equal  to  twice  its  own 
height ;  that  is^  if  the  elevation  of  a  rod  above  a  flat  roof  be  ten  feet, 
it  will  protect  a  circular  space  of  twenty  feet  radius,  or  forty  feet  diam- 
eter. But  this  rule  cannot  always  be  depended  upon  ;  for  although  it 
may  be  true  in  regard  to  buildings  of  stone  or  brick,  with  an  ordinary 
sloping  roof  covered  with  tiles  or  slate,  it  would  scarcely  hold  good 
if  considerable  masses  of  metal  formed  part  of  the  building  or  the  roof. 
Observations  have  been  recorded  of  parts  of  houses  being  struck  within 
the  limit  we  have  mentioned  as  that  of  protection  ;  but  there  are 
scarcely  any  of  them  satisfactory  in  determining  the  point,  since  it 
appears  from  the  evidence  that  in  several  cases  there  were  separate 
masses  of  metal  which  formed,  as  it  were,  independent  conductors,  and 
in  the  other  cases  there  was  no  evidence  that  the  rod  was  in  proper 
connection  with  the  earth.  In  order  to  protect  an  extensive  building, 
it  will  evidently  be  necessary  to  arm  it  with  several  lightning-con- 
ductors, and  the  less  their  height,  the  more  they  must  be  multiplied. 

In  the  case  of  a  high  steeple,  it  may  be  well  to  establish  points  at  dif- 
ferent elevations,  by  branches  from  the  main  rod;  for  if  it  be  true  that 
the  rod  merely  attracts  the  lightning  which  has  been  determined  by 
the  earth  itself,  or  some  material  under  the  ground,  the  discharge,  in 
its  passage  along  the  line  of  least  resistance  to  the  point  at  which  it 
was  aimed,  may  not  be  made  to  deviate  from  its  direct  course  by  the 
attraction  of  the  distant  elevated  point,  and  will  strike  a  lower  portion 
of  the  building.  Suppose,  for  example,  a  thunder  cloud  is  on  the  west 
side  of  a  high  steeple,  and  the  point  of  attraction,  which  may  be  damp 
earth,  a  pool  of  water,  or  other  conducting  material  on  the  surface  or 
under  the  ground,  at  the  east  end  of  the  church.  The  discharge  from 
the  cloud,  in  its  passage  to  the  point  of  attraction,  may  strike  a  lower 
portion  of  the  building,  the  action  of  the  elevated  point  not  being  suf- 
ficient to  deflect  it  from  its  course.  This  inference  is  in  accordance  with 
actual  observation.  Mr.  Alexander  Small  wrote  to  Franklin  from 
London,  in  1764,  that  he  had  seen,  in  front  of  his  window,  a  very 
vivid  and  slender  lightning  discharge  moving  low  down,  without  a 
zig-zag  appearance,  and  strike  a  steeple  below  its  summit. 

It  becomes  a  matter  of  interest  to  ascertain  whether  the  action  of 
an  assemblage  of  conductors,  such  as  is  usually  found  in  cities,  pro- 
duces any  sensible  effect  in  diminishing  the  electrical  intensity  of  the 
cloud,  or,  in  other  words,  whether  their  united  influence  produces  any 
sensible  diminution  of  the  destructive  effects  of  thunder  storms.  Late 
researches  have  shown  that  comparatively  but  a  small  amount  of 
development  of  electricity  is  sufficient  to  produce  great  mechanical 
effects!  Faraday  has  even  asserted  that  the  quantity  of  electricity 
necessary  to  decompose  a  single  grain  of  water,  and  consequently  the 
electricity  which  would  be  evolved  by  the  decomposition  of  the  same 
element,  would  be  sufficient  to  charge  a  thunder  cloud,  provided  the 
fluid  existed  in  the  free  state  in  v>^hich  it  is  found  at  the  surface  of 
charged  conductors.  A  similar  inference  may  be  drawn  from  the 
great  amount  of  electricity  developed  by  the  friction  of  the  small  quantity 
of  water  existing  in  steam,  as  the  latter  issues  through  an  orifice  con- 


METEOROLOGY.  OiO 

nected  with  the  side  of  the  boiler.  We  also  find  that  an  iron  rod  of 
three  fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  is  of  sufficient  size  to  transmit  to 
the  ea,rth  without  any  danger  to  surrounding  objects,  a  discharge 
from  the  clouds,  which  may  be  attended  with  a  deafening  explosion, 
and  with  a  jar  of  thunder  powerful  enough  to  shake  the  building  to 
its  foundation. 

The  intrepid  physicist,  De  Eaumer  sent  a  kite  up  into  the  air  to  the 
height  of  400  or  500  feet,  in  the  cord  of  which  was  inserted  a  fine  wire 
of  metal.  During  a  thunder  storm,  he  drew  from  the  lower  extremity 
of  the  cord  not  mere  sparks,  but  discharges  of  nine  or  ten  feet  long 
and  an  inch  broad.  IBeccaria  erected  a  lightning-rod  which  was 
separated  in  the  middle  by  an  opening,  the  upper  part  being  entirely 
insulated.  During  thunder  storms  intense  discharges  darted "  inces- 
santly through  the  opening.  So  constant  were  these,  that  neither  the 
eye  nor  the  ear  was  hardly  able  to  perceive  the  intermission. 

No  physicist,  says  Arago,  will  contradict  me  when  I  say  that  each 
spark  taken  singly,  would  have  given  a  shock  attended  with  pain,  that 
ten  sparks  would  have  numbed  a  man's  arm,  and  a  hundred  proved 
fatal.  Now  a  hundred  sparks  passed  in  less  than  ten  seconds,  and 
hence  in  every  ten  seconds,  there  was  drawn  from  the  cloud,  a  quantity 
of  fulminating  matter  sufficient  to  kill  a  man,  and  six  times  as  much  in 
every  minute.  Arago  calculates  in  this  way  that  all  the  lightning  con- 
ductors of  the  building  in  which  the  experiment  was  tried,  took  from  the 
clouds  as  much  lightning  as  would  have  been  sufficient  in  the  short  space 
of  an  hour,  to  kill  upwards  of  three  thousand  men.  From  the  forego- 
ing facts  and  conclusions,  we  may  infer  that  the  lightning-rods  of  a  city 
may  have  some  effect  in  silently  discharging  the  cloud,  and  in  pre- 
venting explosions  which  would  otherwise  take  place  ;  but  we  must 
recollect  that  on  account  of  the  upward  rushing  of  the  moist  air,  the 
electricity  of  the  cloud  is  constantly  renewed. 

We  cannot  suppose  that  the  sparks  observed  by  Beccaria  in  his 
experiment,  and  the  ringing  of  bells  by  Franklin,  were  due  entirely  to 
the  electricity  immediately  received  from  the  cloud.  By  the  power- 
ful induction  of  the  redundant  electricity  of  the  latter  and  the  negative 
action  of  the  earth  beneath,  the  natural  electricity  of  the  top  of  the 
rod,  would  be  forced  down  into  the  earth,  the  point  would  become  in- 
tensely negative,  and  in  this  condition  would  draw  from  the  air  around 
streams  of  electricity,  and  in  this  way  a  large  volume  of  air  around  the 
top  of  the  rod  would  become  negatively  electrified  ;  and  in  case  a  dis- 
charge of  lightning  took  jilace,  its  first  effect  would  be  to  neutralize  or 
fill  up,  as  it  were,  this  void  of  electricity  in  this  large  mass  of  air  sur- 
rounding and  above  the  top  of  the  rod,  before  the  remainder  of  the 
discharge  could  pass  to  the  earth.  The  peculiar  sound  which  is  heard 
when  a  discharge  from  a  thunder  cloud  is  transmitted  through  a  light- 
ning-rod may  possibly  be  attributed  to  this  cause. 

The  Smithsonian  building,  situated  in  the  middle  of  a  plain,  at  a 
distance  from  all  other  edifices,  with  its  high  towers,  is  particularly 
exposed  to  discharges  of  lightning,  and  we  have  reason  to  believe  that 
in  as  many  as  four  instances  within  the  last  ten  years,  the  lightning 
has  fallen  upon  the  rods  and  been  transmitted  innoxiously  to  the 
ground. 


516  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

In  two  of  the  instances  the  lightning  was  seen  to  strike  the  rod  on 
one  of  the  towers  ;  in  a  third,  a  bright  spark  due  to  induction  and  at- 
tended with  an  explosion  as  loud  as  that  of  a  pistol  was  perceived ;  and 
in  the  fourth  instance,  although  the  platinum  top  of  the  rod,  which 
was  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  from  the  surface  of  the  ground,  was 
melted,  the  discharge  was  transmitted  to  the  earth  without  any  other 
effort  than  a  slight  inductive  shock  given  to  a  number  of  persons 
standing  at  the  foot  of  the  tower.  In  three  of  the  cases,  the  peculiar 
sound  we  have  mentioned  was  observed  ;  first,  a  slight  hissing  noise, 
and  afterwards  the  loud  explosion,  as  if  the  former  were  produced  by 
the  effect  of  the  discharge  on  the  air  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
rod,  and  the  loud  noise  from  that  on  the  air  at  a  more  distant  point  of 
its  path. 

The  writer  of  this  article  was  led  to  reflect  upon  this  effect  of  the 
rod,  by  a  remarkable  exhibition  he  witnessed  during  a  thunder  storm 
at  night  in  1856.  He  was  in  his  office,  which  is  in  the  second  story  of  the 
main  tower  of  the  Smithsonian  edifice,  when  a  noise  above,  as  if  one  of  the 
windows  of  the  tower  had  been  blown  in,  attracted  his  attention ;  an 
assistant,  who  was  present,  was  requested  to  take  his  lantern  and  ascer- 
tain what  had  happened.  After  an  absence  of  some  time  he  returned, 
saying  he  could  discover  nothing  to  account  for  the  noise,  but  that  he 
had  heard  a  remarkable  hissing  sound.  The  writer  then  ascended  to  the 
top  of  the  tower,  and  stood  in  the  open  trap-door  with  his  head  pro- 
jecting above  the  flat  roof  within  about  twelve  feet  of  the  point  of  the 
lightning-rod.  No  rain  was  falling,  though  an  intensely  black  cloud 
was  immediately  overhead  and  apparently  at  a  small  elevation ;  from 
different  parts  of  this  lightning  was  continually  flashing,  indeed  the 
air  around  the  top  of  the  tower  itself  a]3peared  to  be  luminous.  But 
the  most  remarkable  appearance  was  a  stream  of  light  three  or  four  feet 
long  issuing  with  a  loud  hissing  noise  from  the  top  of  the  lightning-rod; 
It  varied  in  intensity  with  each  flash,  and  was  almost  continuous  during 
the  observation.  Although  the  whole  appearance  was  highly  inter- 
esting, and  produced  a  considerable  degree  of  excitement,  yet  the 
writer  did  not  deem  it  prudent  to  expose  himself  to  the  direct  or  even 
inductive  effect  of  a  discharge  under  such  conditions,  thinking,  as  he 
did,  with  Arago,  that  however  our  vanity  might  prompt  us  to  boast  of 
the  acquaintance  of  some  great  lords  of  creation,  it  is  not  always  desir- 
able to  seek  their  presence  or  court  much  familiarity  with  them.  The 
effect  in  this  case  of  the  rod  on  the  surrounding  air  and  on  the  cloud 
itself  by  invisible  induction  must  have  been  considerable. 

ACTION   OP   LIGHTNING-KODS. 

The  question  as  to  whether  the  lightning-rod  actually  attracts  the 
electricity  from  a  distance  has  been  frequently  discussed.  It  will  be 
found,  says  Sir  W.  Snow  Harris,  "that  the  action  of  a  pointed  conductor 
is  purely  passive.  It  is  rather  the  patient  than  the  agent;  and  such 
conductors  can  no  more  be  said  to  attract  or  invite  a  discharge  of 
lightning  than  a  water-course  can  be  said  to  attract  the  water  which 
flows  through  it  at  the  time  of  heavy  rain."  This  statement  does 
not,  as  it  appears  to  us  present  a  proper  view  of  the  case.     From  the 


METEOROLOGY.  517 

established  principles  of  induction,  it  must  be  evident  that  all  things 
being  equal,  a  pointed  rod,  though  elevated  but  a  few  feet  above  the 
ground,  would  be  struck  in  preference  to  any  point  on  the  surface,  and 
the  propositions  as  to  the  space  which  can  be  protected  from  a  discharge 
of  lightning  is  founded  on  the  supposition  that  the  direction  of  the 
discharge  can  be  changed  by  the  action  of  the  rod  at  a  distance,  and 
the  bolt  drawn  to  itself.  The  true  state  of  the  case  appears  to  us  to 
be  as  follows : 

1st.  An  elevated  pointed  rod,  erected  for  example  on  a  high  steeple, 
by  its  powerful  induction  diminishes  the  intensity  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  cloud,  and  therefore  may  lessen  the  number  of  explosive  discharges 
to  the  earth. 

2d.  If  an  explosive  discharge  takes  place  from  the  cloud  due  to  any 
cause  whatever,  it  will  be  attracted  from  a  given  distance  around  to 
the  rod,  and  transmitted  innoxiously  to  the  earth. 

A  too  exclusive  attention  to  either  one  or  other  of  these  actions  has 
led  to  imperfect  views  as  regards  the  office  of  the  lightning-rod.  On 
the  one  hand,  some  have  considered  the  whole  effect  of  the  rod  is  to 
lessen  the  number  of  discharges  in  the  way  we  have  described,  and 
have  considered  it  impossible  that  an  explosive  discharge  could  take 
place  on  a  pointed  conductor.  But  this  is  not  the  case,  as  was  shown 
by  Mr.  Wilson  many  years  ago  by  his  experiments  in  London.  It  is  true, 
that  when  a  needle  is  presented  to  a  charged  conductor,  the  electricity 
is  drawn  off  silently  without  an  explosion,  and  this  is  always  the  case 
if  sufficient  time  be  allowed  for  the  electricity  to  escape  in  this  way. 
But  if  the  point  be  suddenly  brought  within  striking  distance  of  the 
conductor  by  a  rapid  motion,  such  as  would  be  produced  by  the  move- 
ment of  a  horizontal  arm  carrying  the  point  immediately  under  the 
conductor  in  an  instant,  an  explosive  discharge  will  take  place.  In 
this  case,  sufficient  time  is  not  given  for  the  slower  transmission  of 
the  electricity  by  what  has  been  denominated  the  glowing  discharge, 
and  a  rupture  of  the  air  is  produced  as  in  the  action  of  a  conductor 
terminated  by  a  ball. 

It  would  follow  from  this,  that,  in  case  of  a  rapidly-moving  cloud 
across  the  zenith  of  a  rod,  there  would  be  a  greater  tendency  to  an 
explosive  discharge  on  the  point  than  when  the  cloud  was  nearly  sta- 
tionary. For  a  similar  reason,  if  a  point,  connected  by  a  wire  with 
the  earth,  be  directed  toward  an  insulated  conductor,  and  the  latter  be 
suddenly  electrified  by  a  discharge  from  a  second  conductor,  an  explo- 
sion will  take  place  between  the  first  conductor  and  the  point.  A 
similar  effect  would  be  produced  if  a  lower  cloud  received  a  sudden 
discharge  from  one  above  it,  a  case  which  probably  frequently  occurs^ 
in  nature.  Mr.  Wise  informs  us  that,  when  a  discharge  takes  place 
beneath  a  cloud  to  the  earth,  a  discharge  is  seen  to  pass  between  the 
upper  and  lower  part  of  the  cloud,  represented  by  Fig.  19.  We  are 
warranted  from  the  foregoing  facts,  as  well  as  from  the  numerous 
examples  in  which  lightning  has  actually  beeen  seen  to  fall  upon 
pointed  rods  explosively,  and  the  number  of  points  which  have  been 
melted,  to  conclude  that  the  rod,  under  certain  conditions,  does  actu- 
ally attract  the  lightning,  thjough  when  properly  constructed  it  trans- 
mits it  without  accident  to  the  earth. 


518  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT, 

It  has  been  denied  by  some  that  the  point  has  any  perceptible 
influence  in  lessening  the  number  of  strokes  from  a  cloud,  but  this 
proposition  can  scarcely  be  doubted  when  we  reflect  upon  the  fact  that 
it  is  not  necessary  entirely  to  discharge  a  cloud  in  order  to  prevent  a 
rupture  of  the  air,  it  being  only  necessary  to  draw  off  a  quantity  of 
the  fluid  sufflcient  to  reduce  it  just  below  that  which  is  required  to 
produce  the  explosion ;  and  for  this  effect  there  may  be  required  but  a 
very  slight  diminution  in  the  intensity  of  a  cloud  which  is  just  at  the 
striking  distance  to  prevent  an  explosion,  particularly  when  we  con- 
sider the  prodigious  number  of  sparks  which,  during  thunder  storms, 
were  silently  withdrawn  from  the  cloud  by  the  pointed  rod  erected  by 
Beccaria. 

Arago  has  collected  a  large  number  of  instances,  from  which  it 
appears  that  the  erection  of  a  rod  lessened  the  number  of  explosive 
discharges. 

The  campanile  of  St,  Marks,  at  Venice,  which  from  the  multitude 
of  the  pieces  of  iron  in  its  construction,  was  in  a  high  degree  obnox- 
ious to  danger  from  lightning,  and  had  been  in  fact  prior  to  1776, 
known  to  be  struck  nine  times.  In  the  beginning  of  that  year  a  con- 
ductor was  placed  upon  it,  and  since  that  time  the  edifice  has  been 
uninjured  by  lightning. 

Previous  to  1777,  the  tower  of  Sienna  was  frequently  struck,  and  on 
every  occasion  much  injured.  In  that  year,  it  was  provided  with  a 
conductor^  and  has  since  received  one  discharge,  but  with  no  damage. 

In  the  case  of  a  church  at  Corinthia,  on  an  average  four  or  five 
strokes  of  lightning  annually  were  discharged  upon  the  steeple  until 
a  conductor  was  erected,  after  which  one  stroke  was  received  in  five 
years.  At  the  Valentino  palace  the  lightning  conductors  established 
by  Beccaria,  caused  the  entire  disappearance  of  strokes  of  lightning 
which  were  previously  of  frequent  occurrence. 

The  monument  in  London,  although  only  accidentally  provided  with 
a  virtual  conductor,  appears  to  have  been  exempt  from  damage  by  light- 
ning for  nearly  one  hundred  and  eighty  years. 

The  action  of  the  rod,  however,  in  diminishing  the  intensity  of 
the  cloud,  can  only  be  of  a  very  temporary  character,  and  cannot,  as 
some  have  supposed,  affect  its  subsequent  state,  or  disarm  it  of  its  ful- 
minating power,  since  its  electricity  is  constantly  renewed;  a  fact 
sufficiently  demonstrated  by  the  observation  that  a  thunder  storm, 
through  its  whole  course  of  several  hundred  miles  in  extent,  contin- 
ually gives  discharges  to  the  earth.  Notwithstanding  the  instances 
given  by  Arago  of  the  diminution  of  discharges  of  lightning  after  the 
erection  of  the  rod,  the  fact  is  established  by  observation,  experiment, 
and  theory,  that  the  rod  does  attract  the  lightning,  and  receives  the 
discharge  not  alone  silently,  but  explosively.  The  points  of  the  con- 
ductors are  frequently  melted,  and  although  in  cases  in  which  this 
occurs,  the  discharge  passes  harmlessly  to  the  earth,  yet  in  some  in- 
stance the  explosion  might  not  have  taken  place  had  the  rod  not  been 
present. 

In  a  house  properly  provided  with  lightning-rods,  however  many 
discharges  may  fall  upon  it,  we  are  well  assured  from  full  experience  and 
established  principles,  no  damage  can  ensue  to  the  occupants  within. 


METEOROLOGY.  519 

There  is,  perliaps,  no  edifice  in  tlie  country  more  exposed  to  explo- 
sive discharges  of  lightning  than  the  Smithsonian  building.  It  is 
situated  on  a  plain,  at  a  considerable  distance  from  any  other  building, 
at  present  without  trees  near  it,  except  those  of  a  few  years  growth^ 
and  surmounted  with  nine  towers,  of  heights  varying  from  60  to  150 
feet.  Five  of  these  are  provided  with  lightning-rods  ;  and,  although 
we  should  have  advised  the  furnishing  a  rod  to  each  tower,  yet  thus 
far  the  building  has  escaped  unscathed,  although  several  explosive 
discharges  have  passed  down  the  rods. 

The  following  instructive  illustration  of  the  action  of  a  very  elevated 
conductor  in  transmitting  a  discharge  from  a  thunder  cloud,  is  fur- 
nished us  by  Mr.  Henry  J.  Kogers,  telegraph  engineer,  who  was  himself 
an  eye  witness  of  what  he  relates : 

"■Jn  accordance  with  my  promise,  I  will  endeavor  to  give  you  a  brief 
description  of  the  eifect  produced  by  atmospheric  electricity  at  the 
House  Telegraph  Mast,  erected  at  the  palisades  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Hudson  river,  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Lee,  New  Jersey,  and  distant 
about  ten  miles  from  the  city  hall.  New  York,  during  a  terrific  thunder 
storm  which  occurred  on  Friday,  June  17, 1853,  between  three  and  four 
o'clock,  p.  m.,  while  I  was  on  an  official  visit. 

'' Before  I  proceed  with  the  description,  it  will  be  necessary  to  ex- 
plain that  the  wires  of  the  House  and  Morse  telegraph  lines  cross  the 
Hudson  river  between  Fort  Washington  and  the  palisades,  inasmuch 
as  this  is  the  narrowest  part  of  the  river  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York ; 
and  the  elevation  of  the  land  at  the  palisades,  renders  it  a  desirable 
place  for  suspending  the  wires  from  one  shore  to  the  other,  so  as  to 
allow  vessels. of  large  size  to  pass  under  them  free  from  interruption. 

"The  mast  to  support  the  wire  was  266  feet  in  length,  and  was 
erected  on  the  top  of  the  columnar  wall  of  the  palisades,  which  at  this 
place  is  298  feet  above  the  river,  as  determined  by  trigonometrical 
measurement.  The  top  of  the  mast  was  therefore  564  feet  above  the 
water,  and  was  sufficiently  elevated  to  allow  for  the  unavoidable  swag 
of  the  telegraph  wire,  and  to  leave  sufficient  distance  for  vessels  to  pass 
beneath. 

' '  It  was  composed  of  three  pieces  of  heavy  timber  placed  one  above 
the  other  and  fastened  together  by  iron  bands,  to  which  were  attached 
long  iron  braces  or  guys,  secured  at  the  lower  ends  to  the  rock,  for  the 
purpose  of  sustaining  the  mast  in  its  perpendicular  position.  The 
braces  or  guys  were  formed  of  iron  rods  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  and  painted  black.  The  longer  or  outer  ones,  those  which 
were  attached  to  the  top  of  the  mast  along  which  the  electricity 
descended  to  the  earth,  terminated  about  32  paces  from  the  lower  end 
of  the  mast,  and  was  composed  of  pieces  of  iron  rod  of  thirteen  feet  in 
length,  and  each  piece  terminated  in  a  bolt  and  shackle,  thereby 
forming  a  series  of  links  30  in  number. 

''Alightning-rodsixfeetlong,  three  quarters  of  aninch  diameter,  paiujt- 
ed  white,  sharpened  to  a  point,  but  not  tipped  with  platinum,  and  secured 
at  its  lower  end  to  the  iron  band  to  which  were  attached  the  upper  set 
of  guys,  projected  about  two  or  three  feet  above  the  truck  of  the  mast. 
The  point  of  the  rod  was  at  the  time  in  the  center  of  a  cedar  bush  in 


620  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

full  foliage  which  had  been  placed  there  by  the  riggers  when  they 
completed  the  mast. 

"  At  3  p.  m. ,  when  the  storm  commenced,  I  placed  myself  in  the  rail- 
way house  at  Fort  Washington,  a  point  distant  about  three  quarters  of 
a  mile  from  the  mast  at  Fort  Lee,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river. 
From  my  position  I  could  distinctly  observe  the  gust  as  it  advanced 
from  the  southwest ;  and  from  the  heat  of  the  weather  and  appearance 
of  the  clouds  I  expected  to  witness  heavy  discharges  of  atmospheric 
electricity,  and  prepared  my  mind  to  observe  the  effects  of  the  storm 
on  the  mast  at  Fort  Lee,  having  frequently  expressed  a  desire  to 
witness  a  thunder  storm  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mast,  as  I  felt  assured 
the  iron  rod  and  guys  would  protect  it  from  injury. 

''As  the  gale  increased,  the  clouds  advanced  with  a  heavy  atmos- 
phere, and  accompanied  with  frequent  discharges  of  lightning  and  loud 
thunder.  When  it  approached  the  mast  the  foremost  cloud  assumed 
the  shape  of  an  inverted  cone  similar  to  those  I  have  witnessed  in  the 
gulf,  forming  a  water-spout ;  and  I  soon  observed  a  terrific  flash  of 
lightning  descend  by  the  southern  iron  guy  clearly  defining  its  form 
and  every  link  of  the  guy  as  though  it  were  a  rod  of  red-hot  iron ;  and 
this  appearance  continued  for  a  least  iour  seconds,  followed  by  three 
or  four  heavy  peals  of  thunder  m  rapid  succession,  during  which  time 
the  lightning  appeared  to  flow  in  a  continued  stream  of  fire  along  the 
iron  guy,  and  giving  off  during  its  progress  apparently  as  many  snaps 
of  electricity  as  there  were  links  in  the  guy,  and  which  I  supposed  to 
be  caused  by  the  resistance  offered  by  each  link  to  the  free  passage  of 
the  electricity. 

''These  discharges  were  succeeded  by  a  heavy  gush  of  rain,  which 
obstructed  my  view  of  the  palisades,  but  other  discharges  of  atmos- 
pheric electrity  followed  as  the  cloud  rustied  on  its  course  of  the  North 
river.     The  storm  lasted  about  half  an  hour. 

"  Within  50  paces  north  of  the  mast  described  stood  the  Morse-line 
mast,  which  is  about  40  feet  less  in  height  than  the  House  mast ;  and 
during  the  storm  there  was  no  indication  of  any  part  of  it  being  struck 
by  lightning,  although  there  is  attached  to  it  a  conductor  of  atmos- 
pheric electricity.  From  this,  I  infer  that  the  discharge  of  lightning 
passed  to  the  earth  along  the  iron  guys  of  the  House  mast,  owing  to 
its  greater  elevation,  and  its  being  nearer  south  in  the  direction  of  the 
storm. 

"Such  was  the  vividness  and  intensity  of  the  light  which  was  emitted 
along  the  guy  at  the  time  of  the  discharge  that  I  received  the  impres- 
sion that  the  iron  was  melted,  and  expected  every  moment  to  see  the 
mast  prostrated  by  the  wind,  but  was  much  surprised,  on  examining 
the  premises  next  day,  not  to  find  the  least  evidence  of  fusion  on  the 
rod,  or  marks  of  any  kind  along  its  surface,  to  indicate  the  passage  of 
the  electrical  discharge. 

"The  palisades  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mast  are  heavily  timbered,  and 
although  the  limbs  of  several  trees  are  in  contact  with  the  iron  guys 
running  from  the  mast,  not  the  slightest  damage  was  done  to  any  of 
these  trees ;  but  about  one  fourth  of  a  mile  south  of  the  mast  a  large 
tree  was  shattered  by  lightning  during  the  same  storm. 

"The  mast  stood  about  five  years,  and  during  that  time,  as  reported 


METEOROLOGY.  521 

by  those  having  charge  of  it,  was  struck  at  almost  every  violent  thunder 
storm  that  passed  over  the  place.  It  was  considered  by  persons  living 
in  the  neighborhood  as  a  protection  against  lightning. 

"Indeed  such  was  the  confidence  in  it,  that  the  telegraph  workmen 
did  not  hesitate  to  take  shelter  during  a  storm  in  a  house  15  feet  square, 
which  was  built  around  the  mast,  and  in  which  implements,  windlasses, 
&c.,  were  kept. 

''Henry  J.  Kogers. 

"Baltimore,  November  30,  1853." 

The  facts  presented  in  the  foregoing  narative  are  highly  instructive. 
The  descent  of  the  visible  vapor  in  the  form  of  an  inverted  cone  is  a 
phenomenon  which  will  be  considered  of  special  interest,  particularly 
by  those  who  ascribe  the  motive  power  of  a  tornado  entirely  to  elec- 
tricity. 

The  continuance  of  the  discharge  during  four  seconds  is  in  accord- 
ance with  other  instances  which  have  been  frequently  observed,  and  is 
to  be  attributed  to  a  series  of  discharges  in  rapid  succession  through 
the  same  path. 

The  appearance  of  light  along  the  whole  course  of  the  rods  forming 
the  guy  may  be  attributed  to  the  circumstance  that  the  metal  at  the 
time  of  the  discharge  was  covered  with  a  thin  stratum  of  water  into 
which  the  electricity  was  projected  by  its  self-propulsion,  and  on  ac- 
count of  the  imperfect  conductibility  of  the  liquid,  gave  rise  to  the 
phenomena  observed. 

This  may  be  illustrated  experimentally  by  discharging  an  electrical 
battery  through  a  slip  of  tin  foil  wetted  witli  a  thin  stratum  of  water. 
The  discharge  which  would  be  insensible  along  the  dry  metal  becomes 
luminous  through  its  whole  course. 

While  this  account  of  Mr.  Rogers  clearly  shows  the  attractive  power 
of  an  elevated  conductor  under  particular  circumstances,  it  also  proves 
the  fact  that  an  edifice  may  be  protected  from  harm,  provided  it  be 
furnished  with  a  suiE,cient  number  of  properly  constructed  rods. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  LIGHTNING-RODS. 

Electricity  as  we  have  seen  page  483,  tends  to  pass  at  the  surface  of 
a  conductor  of  a  sufficient  size,  but  it  does  not  follow  from  this  that 
every  increase  of  surface,  the  quantity  of  metal  being  the  same,  will 
tend  to  diminish  the  resistance  of  the  conductor  to  the  passage  of  a 
discharge.  From  an  imperfect  view  of  the  subject,  many  persons  have 
supposed  that  merely  flattenihg  the  lightning-rod,  and  thus  increasing 
the  surface  would  tend  to  increase  the  conducting  pow?r,  but  it  must 
be  evident  from  the  principle  of  repulsion,  that  in  diminishing  the 
distance  between  the  two  flat  surfaces,  we  tend  to  increase  the  repul- 
sion between  the  atoms,  which  would  pass  parallel  to  the  axis  along 
the  middle  of  each  flat  side,  and  thus,  though  the  surface  is  increased 
by  flattening  a  round  bar,  the  conduction  is  diminished,  and  a  greater 
intensity  is  given  to  the  electricity  at  the  edges,  tending  to  increase 
the  lateral  escape  of  the  fluid.  The  only  proper  way  of  diminishing 
the  resistance  to  conduction  in  a  cylinder  of  metal  of  a  given  capacity,  is 


522  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

to  mold  it  into  the  form  of  a  hollow  cylinder ;  a  gas-pipe,  for  example, 
will  offer  less  resistance  to  conduction  than  the  same  weight  of  metal 
in  the  form  of  a  solid  cylinder ;  hut  we  must  not  infer  from  this  that  a 
gas-pipe  an  inch  in  diameter  will  conduct  hotter  than  a  solid  rod  of 
iron  of  the  same  diameter.  There  is  no  known  law  of  electricity  which 
would  lead  us  to  suppose  that  by  removing  the  metal  from  the  interior 
of  a  rod,  we  increase  its  conducting  capacity.  On  the  contrary,  when 
the  charge  is  very  great  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  conductor,  it  is 
probable  that  the  discharge  penetrates  through  the  entire  mass.  The 
rod  should  be  of  sufficicent  size  to  transmit  freely  the  largest  discharge 
which  experience  has  shown  to  fall  on  a  building.  A  rod  of  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  of  round  iron  is  generally  considered  sufficient  for  this 
purpose,  since  a  conductor  of  this  capacity  has  in  no  case  been  found 
to  have  been  fused  by  a  discharge  from  the  clouds.  There  is  no  objec- 
tion on  the  score  of  electrical  action  to  using  a  larger  bar,  or  to  the 
same  weight  of  metal  in  the  form  of  a  hollow  cylinder ;  indeed  every 
increase  of  diameter  lessens  the  resistance  to  conduction,  and  the  ten- 
dency to  give  off  lateral  sparks. 

Lightning-conductors  are  frequently  constructed  in  this  country  with 
points  projecting  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  feet  through  their  whole 
length ;  this  plan  has  been  adopted  from  some  erroneous  idea  in  regard 
to  the  action  of  the  conductor,  and  of  the  proper  application  of  points. 
The  essential  office  of  the  conductor  is  to  receive  the  discharge  from 
the  cloud,  and  to  transmit  it  with  the  least  resistance  possible,  silently 
and  innoxiously  to  the  great  body  of  the  earth  below,  and  anything 
which  militates  against  these  requisites  must  be  prejudicial.  Now,  in 
the  passage  of  the  electricity  through  a  conductor,  it  retains  its  repul- 
sive energy,  and  hence  each  point  along  the  rod  in  succession  becomes 
highly  charged,  and  tends  to  give  off  a  spark  to  bodies  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. Besides  this,  the  irregularity  in  the  motion  of  the  electricity 
which  is  thus  produced,  must  on  mechanical  principles  interfere  with 
its  free  transmission.  The  points  along  the  course  of  the  rod  should, 
therefore,  be  omitted,  since  they  can  do  no  possible  good,  and  may 
produce  injury. 

We  may  conclude  what  we  have  said  in  regard  to  lightning-rods 
by  the  following  summary  of  directions  for  constructing  and  erecting 
them: 

1st.  The  rod  should  consist  of  round  iron,  of  not  less  than  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  A  larger  size  is  preferable  to  a  smaller 
one.  Iron  is  preferred  because  it  can  be  readily  procured,  is  cheap, 
a  sufficiently  good  conductor,  and  when  of  the  size  mentioned  cannot 
be  melted  by  a  discharge  from  the  clouds. 

2d.  It  should  be,  through  its  whole  length,  in  perfect  metallic 
continuity;  as  many  pieces  should  be  joined  together  by  welding,  as 
practicable,  and  when  other  joinings  are  unavoidable,  they  should  be 
made  by  screwing  the  parts  firmly  together  by  a  coupling  ferule,  care 
being  taken  to  make  the  upper  connection  of  the  latter  with  the  rod 
water-tight,  by  cement,  solder,  or  paint. 

3d.  To  secure  it  from  rust,  the  rod  should  be  covered  with  a  coating 
of  black  paint. 

4th.  It  should  be  terminated  above^  with  a  single  point,  the  cone  of 


METEOROLOGY.  523 

wliich.  should  not  be  too  acute,  and  to  preserve  it  from  the  weather  as 
well  as  to  prevent  melting,  it  should  be  encased  with  platinum,  formed 
by  soldering  a  plate  of  this  metal,  not  less  than  a  twentieth  of  an  inch 
in  thickness,  into  the  form  of  a  hollow  cone.  Usually  the  cone  of  pla- 
tinum, for  convenience,  is  first  attached  to  a  brass  socket,  which  is 
secured  on  the  top  of  the  rod,  and  to  this  plan  there  is  no  objection. 
The  platinum  casing,  however,  is  frequently  made  so  thin  and  the 
cone  so  slender,  in  order  to  save  metal,  that  the  point  is  melted  by  a 
powerful  discharge. 

5th.  The  shorter  and  more  direct  the  rod  is  in  its  course  to  the  earth 
the  better.  Acute  angles  made  by  bending  in  the  rod  and  projecting 
points  from  it  along  its  course  should  be  avoided. 

6th.  It  should  be  fastened  to  the  house  by  iron  eyes,  and  may  be 
insulated  by  cylinders  of  glass.  We  do  not  think  the  latter,  however, 
of  much  importance^  since  they  soon  become  wet  by  water,  and  in  case 
of  a  heavy  discharge  are  burst  asunder. 

7th.  The  rod  should  be  connected  with  the  earth  in  the  most  perfect 
manner  possible,  and  in  cities  nothing  is  better  for  this  purpose  than 
to  unite  it  in  good  metallic  contact  with  the  gas  mains  or  large  water 
pipes  in  the  streets ;  and  such  a  connection  is  absolutely  necessary  if 
the  gas  or  water  pipes  are  in  use  within  the  house.  This  connection 
can  be  made  by  soldering  to  the  end  of  the  rod  a  strip  of  copper,  which, 
after  being  wrapped  several  times  around  the  pipe,  is  permanently 
attached  to  it.  Where  a  connection  with  the  ground  cannot  be  formed 
in  this  way,  the  rod  should  terminate,  if  possible,  in  a  well  always 
containing  water,  and  where  this  arrangement  is  not  practicable,  it 
should  terminate  in  a  plate  of  iron  or  some*  other  metal  buried  in  the 
moist  ground.  It  should,  before  it  descends  to  the  earth,  be  bent  so 
as  to  pass  off  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  side  of  the  house,  and  be 
buried  in  a  trench  surrounded  with  powdered  charcoal. 

8th.  The  rod  should  be  placed,  in  preference,  on  the  west  side  of 
the  house,  in  this  latitude,  and  especially  on  the  chimney  from  which 
a  current  of  heated  air  ascends  during  the  summer  season. 

9th.  In  case  of  a  small  house,  a  single  rod  may  suffice,  provided  its 
point  be  sufficiently  high  above  the  roof,  the  rule  being  observed,  that 
its  elevation  should  be  at  least  half  of  the  distance  to  which  its  protec- 
tion is  expected  to  extend.  It  is  safer,  however,  particularly  in  modern 
houses  in  which  a  large  amount  of  iron  enters  into  the  construction, 
to  make  the  distance  between  two  rods  less  than  this  rule  would 
indicate  rather  than  more.  Indeed  we  see  no  objection  to  an  indefinite 
multiplication  of  rods  to  a  ho,use,  provided  they  are  all  properly  con- 
nected with  the  ground  and  with  each  other.  A  building  entirely 
inclosed^  as  it  were,  in  a  case  of  iron  rods  so  connected  with  the  earth, 
would  be  safe  from  the  direct  action  of  the  lightning. 

10.  When  a  house  is  covered  by  a  metallic  roof,  the  latter  should 
be  united,  in  good  metallic  connection,  with  the  lightning-rods ;  and  in 
this  case  the  perpendicular  pipes  conveying  the  water  from  the  gutters 
at  the  eaves  may  be  made  to  act  the  part  of  rods  by  soldering  strips  of 
copper  to  the  metal  roof  and  pipes  above,  and  connecting  them  with 
the  earth  by  plates  of  metal  united  by  similar  strips  of  coi^per  to  their 
lower  ends,  or  better  with  the  gas  or  water-pipes  of  the  city.     In  this 


624  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

case,  however,  tlie  cliimneys  would  be  unprotected,  and  copper  light- 
ning-rods  soldered  to  the  roof,  and  rising  a  few  feet  above  the  chimneys, 
would  suffice  to  receive  the  discharge.  We  say  soldered  to  the  roof, 
because  if  the  contact  was  not  very  perfect,  a  greater  intensity  of  action 
would  take  place  at  this  point,  and  the  metal  might  be  burnt  through 
by  the  discharge,  particularly  if  it  were  thin. 

11.  As  a  general  rule,  large  masses  of  metal  within  the  building, 
particularly  those  which  have  a  perpendicular  elevation,  ought  to  be 
connected  with  the  rod.  The  main  portion  of  the  great  building 
erected  for  the  world's  exhibition  at  Paris  is  entirely  surrounded  by  a 
rod  of  iron,  from  which  rises  at  intervals  a  series  of  lightning  conduc- 
tors, the  whole  system  being  connected  with  the  earth  by  means  of 
four  wells,  one  at  each  corner  of  the  edifice. 

The  foregoing  rules  may  serve  as  general  guides  for  the  erection  of 
lightning-rods  on  ordinary  buildings,  but  for  the  protection  of  a  large 
complex  structure,  consisting  of  several  parts,  a  special  survey  should 
be  made,  and  the  best  form  of  protection  devised  which  the  peculiar 
circumstances  of  the  case  will  admit. 

Various  patents  have  been  obtained  in  this  country  for  improved 
lightning-conductors,  but  as  a  general  rule  such  improvements  are  of 
minor  importance. 

An  improvement  in  the  form  of  the  lightning-rod,  which  was  recom- 
mended by  the  French  Academy  in  1823,  would  presuppose  some 
important  discoveries  in  electricity  having  a  bearing  on  the  subject ; 
but  after  the  lapse  of  thirty  years,  the  same  Academy  being  called 
upon  to  consider  the  protection  of  the  new  additions  to  the  Louvre, 
finds  nothing  material  to  change  in  the  principles  of  the  instructions 
at  first  given. 


TOBACCO. 


From  Charles  A.  Leas,  United  States  Consul 


Kevel,  Russia,  August  25,  1859. 

Tobacco  is  cultivated  in  the  Russian  governments  of  Paltowa, 
Tschernegow,  Saratof,  Bessarabia,  Charkow,  Orel,  Riazen,  Koursh, 
Kiew,  &c^,  portions  of  the  Crimea,  Siberia,  and  the  Trans-Caucasian 
provinces.  I  understand,  however,  that  in  consequence  of  the  failure 
to  produce  a  good  and  profitable  article,  its  cultivation  has  been  aban- 
doned in  some  of  the  above  governments.  It  is  all  of  very  inferior 
quality.  The  only  place  that  an  article  sufficiently  good  for  the 
manufacture  of  cigars  is  produced,  is  in  Bessarabia. 

The  government  of  Russia,  with  the  view  of  encouraging  and  im- 
proving the  cultivation  and  quality  of  tobacco,  had  seed  brought  from 
Turkey,  Germany,  Cuba,  and  the  United  States,  and  distributed  it 
free  ;  but  still  the  experiments  were  not  satisfactory.     She  then  in- 


TOBACCO.  525 

structecl  her  agents  in  those  countries  to  observe  carefully  the  cultiva- 
tion and  all  the  important  facts  connected  therewith,  and  transmit  the 
result  for  the  benefit  of  the  cultivator.  An  experienced  tobacco  grower 
was  also  brought  from  Grermany  to  impart  instruction.  After  all  this, 
as  above  stated,  an  article  sufficiently  good  for  cigars  could  not  be 
produced,  except  in  Bessarabia,  and  that  was  from  seed  brought  from 
the  United  States.  Its  cultivation  has  been  proved  tp  exhaust,  to  an 
enormous  extent,  the  strength  of  the  soil,  to  renew  which  the  strongest 
manures  must  be  used;  namely,  the  ordinary  barn-yard  manures.  It 
is  not  here  as  profitable  a  crop  as  the  ordinary  grains  ;  that  is  to  say, 
in  some  of  the  governments  alluded  to  the  cost  of  transporting  the 
surplus  grain  product  to  the  exterior  is  so  great,  that  the  cultivation 
of  tobacco  takes  its  place  from  necessity,  because  the  tobacco  can  be 
consumed  at  home.  But  there  is  little  doubt  that  when  Eussia  shall 
have  completed  her  great  net-work  of  railroads,  thus  giving  to  her 
people  a  cheap  and  speedy  outlet  for  the  surplus  grain  product,  tobacco 
will  cease  to  be  cultivated  to  any  considerable  extent,  and  the  demand 
from  foreign  countries  will  be  increased.  There  is  none  so  popular  in 
Eussia  as  the  American  tobaccco,  and  that  of  Maryland  is  preferred. 

At  present  about  one  hundred  and  eight  millions  of  pounds  is  pro- 
duced per  annum.     None,  I  believe,  is  exported. 

In  1857,  60,000,000  of  pounds  was  imported,  namely: 

Poods. 

From  America,  direct 422 

.From  Prussia 14,601 

From  Denmark 384 

From  Hanse  Towns 51,141 

From  Holland 44,544 

From  Belgium 16 

From  England,  direct 3,148 

From  France,  direct 636 

From  Sardinia,  direct 1 

From  Austria,  direct 154 

From  Turkey 56,458 

From  West  Indies  and  South  America 376 

From  all  other  countries 576 


172,457 
or  30,00a  English  tons.  - 

The  duty  on  tobacco  brought  into  this  country,  is,  on  raw  or  un- 
manufactured, six  rubles  and  thirty  kopecks  per  pood,  or  |308  57 
cents  per  ton,  being  fifteen  and  nearly  a  half  cents  on  the  pound,  or, 
as  will  be  seen  by  the  United  States  census  returns,  over  100  per  cent, 
on  the  cost  of  production  in  America. 

On  smoking  tobacco  the  duty  is  the  same.  On  cigars  it  is  about 
$1  50  per  pound. 

There  is  no  tobacco  made  or  used  for  the  purpose  of  chewing  in  this 
country.  Each  inhabitant  in  the  empire  consumes  an  average  of  two 
pounds  per  annum. 


626  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

The  land  produced  an  average  of  from  80  to  100  pounds  to  the  acre. 
The  price  to  the  producer  averaging  from  1  to  37  kopecks  per  pound, 
or  from  three  quarters  of  a  cent  to  about  28  cents  per  pounds. 


From  3.  Hammatt  Norton,  United  States  Consul. 

PicTOU,  Nova  Scotia,  July  25,  1859. 

Tobacco  is  not  grown  is  this  region  of  country.  About  100,000 
pounds  of  the  leaf  are  imported  yearly,  which  is  manufactured  and 
sold  in  this  vicinity. 

The  chief  articles  of  export  from  this  province  are  coal,  fish,  and 
potatoes.     Three  fourths  of  the  exportations  are  to  the  United  States. 


From  Daniel  E.  B.  Upton,  United  States  Consul  at  Batliurst. 

This  is  not  a  tobacco  producing  country,  and,  therefore,  the  only 
information  I  can  furnish  is  as  follows : 

The  amount  of  tobacco  imported,  according  to  the  customs  returns, 
for  the  year  ending  December  31,  1858,  was  497,360  pounds,  of  which 
251,980  were  direct  from  the  United  States ;  146,058  via  G-reat  Britain ; 
79,522  via  France;  and  19,800  by  way  of  G-oree,  a  neighboring  French 
port.  The  duties  on  tobacco  imported,  either  in  British  or  foreign 
bottoms,  are  four  per  cent,  on  invoice  cost,  and  a  half  penny  or  about 
one  cent  per  pound. 


From  S.  J.  Merrit,  United  States  Consul  at  Nassau,  Baliamas. 

What  amount  of  tobacco  is  j)roduced  per  annum  I  have  no  means  of 
ascertaining,  but  it  is  very  small,  and  for  domestic  use  only.  The 
quantity  imported,  in  pounds,  is  as  follows : 

Cuba^  1,680,  unmanufactured;  United  States,  89,040,  i.  e.,  60,928 
manufactured,  28,112  unmanufactured;  St.  D.omingo,  1,792,  unmanu- 
factured; British  West  Indian  Islands,  1,792,  manufactured  ;  received 
from  wrecked  vessels,  15,232,  manufactured;  total  109^536  pounds. 
This  is  exclusive  of  the  importations  of  cigars,  which  are  as  follows : 
From  the  Spanish  Islands^  210,000;  United  States,  17,000;  St.  Domingo, 
15,000;  total  242,000.  As  to  duties  no  distinction  is  made  between 
British  and  foreign  bottoms.  There  is  no  export  duty.  Import  duties 
on  manufactured,  14  shillings  sterling  per  112  pounds ;  unmanufac- 
tured 5  shillings  sterling  per  112  pounds;  cigars,  4  shillings  sterling 
jyer  1,000,  and  15  per  cent,  ad  valorem.  I  have  no  means  of  ascertain- 
ing the  number  of  cigars  made  per  annum,  but  it  is  small — probably 
about  500,000.  They  are  very  poor,  and  will  average  in  value  about  |6 
per  1,000.  There  is  no  other  manufacture  of  tobacco.  Some  cigars  are 
sold  at  $30  per  1,000.     The  average  price  is  about  $15.     Very  little 


TOBACCO.  627 

snuff  is  sold,  and  that  at  retail.     A  little  over  seven  pounds  of  tobacco 
are  consumed  per  annum  by  eacli  male  inhabitant. 


From  Egbert  Dowling,  United  States  Consul  at  Cork,  Ireland. 

About  600  hogsheads  of  tobacco  per  annum,  averaging  1,460  pounds 
each,  or  876,000  pounds,  are  imported  from  the  United  States  and 
Cuba,  but  none  exported,  except  small  quantities  as  ship  stores,  on 
which  no  duty  is  charged.  The  duties  charged  per  pound  on  unmanu- 
factured leaf  are  3  shillings,  (75  cents,)  and  on  manufactured  9  shil- 
lings, ($2  25,)  with  5  per  cent,  additional  in  each  case.  The  price  of 
cigars  per  100  is  about  18  shillings,  duty  paid,  (|4  50 ;)  that  of  tobacco 
prepared  for  smoking,  per  pound,  4  shillings  sterling,  and  of  snuff, 
per  pound,  8  shillings  sterling,  ($2.)  The  smokers  in  this  district  are 
chiefly  males,  who  consume,  on  an  average,  seventeen  pounds  of 
tobacco  per  annum,  or  three  fourths  of  an  ounce  per  day  each. 


From  Stephen  Kalli,  United  States  Vice-Consul  at  Odessa. 


There  are  no  means  of  ascertaining  what  has  been  the  ratio  of  in- 
crease or  decrease  in  the  amount  of  tobacco  cultivated  in  South  Kussia 
since  the  last  census,  for  accounts  of  this  description  are  not  kept  in 
this  country. 

The  government  of  Saratoff,  in  which  this  culture  is  the  largest, 
produces  about  1,800,000  or  2,000,000  pounds  per  annum.  What  the 
production  may  be  in  other  governments  cannot  be  determined. 

The  amount  imported  in  Odessa,  chiefly  from  Turkey,  is  about 
2,000,000  pounds  per  annum,  taking  one  year  with  the  other.  It  is 
imported,  also,  in  other  ports  bf  the  Black  and  Azoff  seas,  but  it  is 
difficult  to  know  the  quantity,  there  being  no  publications  in  this 
country  giving  such  or  any  similar  information. 

The  government  of  Saratoff  exports  about  360,000  pounds,  and 
sometimes  as  much  as  double  that  quantity  per  annum.  From  Odessa 
there  is  no  export. 

The  import  duties  are — 

For  tobacco  in  leaves,  14  cents  per  pound, 
''    cut  tobacco,  55|     "         " 

''    cigars,  |1  85; 

Beside  an  excise  duty,  but  which  is  not  important. 

The  price  of  cigars  made  in  Kussia  is  $7  50  to  $37  50  per  thousand. 
That  of  foreign  is  $45  to  $260  per  thousand. 

The  price  of  the  production  of  Saratoff  is  3  j-  cents  to  44-  cents  per 
pound.  Of  other  governments  it  is  83-V  cents  to  35  cents  per  pound. 
The  average  price,  however,  of  the  latter  may  be  put  down  at  16  cents 
per  pound. 

The  highest  price  of  Eussian  snuff — which  is  of  a  very  common 
kind — is  5^-  cents  per  pound. 


528  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

The  best  varieties  of  tobacco  cultivated  are  Turkish,  called  Dubeck 
and  Samsoun.  The  length  of  the  leaves  is  10^  inches,  and  the  num- 
ber of  leaves  to  a  plant  15  to  25.  The  yield,  per  acre,  is  about  650  to 
1,3(30  pounds. 

The  latest  frost  in  spring  is  in  March,  and  the  earliest;  i^i  autumn  in 
October;  both  old  style. 

The  tobacco  seed  is  obtained  from  Turkey,  and  the  price  is  $3  33^  ; 
from  America,  $2;  from  Havanah,  $7  30  ;  and  from  the  Cape,  $3  75. 
It  is  sown  in  the  month  of  March.  No  particular  attention  is  paid  to 
the  soil,  only  the  site  for  a  seed-bed  is  selected  where  sheep  have  been 
pasturing.  The  soil  is  generally  dug  deep.  The  seed  is  sown  on  the 
surface,  and  covered  over  lightly.  It  vegetates  in  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  days,  according  to  the  season. 

No  j)recautions  are  taken  against  accidents  by  frost  or  drought. 

The  most  suitable  size  of  plants  for  removing  to  the  field  is  when 
they  have  four  leaves. 

The  soil  where  sheep  have  been  pasturing  is  best  adapted  to  tobacco. 
Not  particular  about  aspect — preference,  however,  is  given  to  hilly 
places  not  exposed  to  the  north.  The  ground  is  dug  deep  for  plant- 
ing. Sheep  manure  is  used  by  letting  sheep  pasture  where  tobacco  is 
to  be  planted.  Their  urine  is  also  considered  to  be  very  good.  Trans- 
planting is  performed  in  the  month  of  June.  G-enerally  about  thirteen 
hundred  plants  are  allotted  to  the  acre.  They  are  put  in  rows,  one 
foot  two  inches  apart,  and  the  space  between  the  plants  is  seven  inches. 
The  crop  requires,  previous  to  "topping,"  no  other  culture  than 
cleaning.  The  maturity  of  the  leaves  begins  one  month  and  a  half 
after  planting.  If  the  season  is  very  hot_,  the  leaves  dry  in  the  course 
of  eight  days;  but  if  the  atmosphere  is  cool,  in  fifteen  days.  G-ener- 
ally they  string  as  many  leaves  as  they  can,  in  order  to  place  them  on 
sticks  of  the  length  of  11  feet  8  inches.  The  tobacco  is  exposed  only 
to  the  air  passed  through  a  string.  No  artificial  heat  is  employed. 
It  is  sufiiciently  dried  when  the  leaves  break  in  the  hand  and  can  be 
reduced  into  powder.  It  is  only  dried  in  the  open  air  and  in  the 
shade. 

After  collecting  the  crop,  they  proceed  to  strip  the  sticks  of  the 
leaves,  to  make  bundles  of  them.  The  sorting  is  of  four  kinds,  and  is 
packed  as  Turkish  tobacco,  in  bundles  of  from  one  hundred  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  leaves  each. 

All  the  expenses  for  cultivating  an  acre  of  tobacco,  ready  to  be 
offered  for  sale,  amount  to  about  $40.  The  largest  crop  of  an  acre  is 
about  1,300  pounds  ;  the  average  about  900  pounds.  Its  greatest 
value  per  pound  is  about  37  cents.  It  is  not  cultivated  for  seed.  Eus- 
sian,  of  Bessarabia,  is  sold  at  |1  60  per  pound.  The  stalks  are  sold 
to  the  German  colonists,  who  cut  them  for  smoking. 

Tobacco  is  an  exhauster  greater  than  any  other  crop.  It  is  usually 
cultivated  three  years  in  succession  on  the  same  land.  No  attention 
is  paid  to  rotation.  It  is  attacked  by  grubs,  for  the  ravages  of  which 
no  preventives  or  remedies  have  been  applied. 

Land  is  measured  in  Russia  by  sagenes  and  deciatines.  A  deciatine 
contains  2,400  square  sagenes  ;  the  acre  contains  889  square  sagenes. 
The  sagen  is  7  feet,  English,  consequently  a  deciatine  is  equal  to  2.70 


TOBACCO.  529 

acres.  An  archine  is  divided  into  16  verslioks,  and  is  equal  to  28 
inches.  The  pood  is  equal  to  36  pounds,  English  ;  the  silver  rouble  is 
equal  to  751-  cents.  It  is  upon  this  basis  that  the  foregoing  calcula- 
tions have  been  made. 


Report  of  Thomas  Savage^  United  States  Vice-Consul  General. 

Havana,  Cuba,  September  22,  1859. 

The  celebrated  tobacco  of  Cuba  is  produced  in  a  certain  portion  of 
the  western  part,  and  is  called  Vuelta  abajo.  Throughout  the  eastern 
part  of  Cuba  the  tobacco  raised  is  only  sorted  into  three  classes,  and  no 
effort  is  made  to  improve  its  quality,  or  even  to  put  it  up  in  a  way  to 
give  it  a  fair  appearance  for  the  purpose  of  insuring  a  ready  sale  at 
remunerative  prices.  Many  improvements  have  been  introduced  there : 
first,  in  the  loash  or  mixture  with  which  the  leaf  is  sprinkled  before 
packing  ;  secondly,  in  the  selection  or  sorting  of  the  leaves  into  six 
classes  ;  thirdly,  in  the  manner  of  making  and  tying  the  manajos  or 
hands  ;  and  finally,  in  the  form  of  the  bales  and  mode  of  placing  the 
manajos  in  them.  By  means  of  this  wa,sh,  the  inferior  leaf  of  the  east- 
ern part  of  Cuba,  or  Vuelta  arriba,  acquires  strength,  elasticity,  and 
softness,  (fit  to  twist  into  fair-looking  cigars,)  a  better  flavor,  finer  color 
and  appearance,  and  increased  aroma  and  fragrance ;  consequently  it 
brings  a  much  higher  price  in  the  market.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
tobacco  raised  in  the  district  of  Gibara,  and  brought  to  that  port  for 
embarkation,  is  about  the  most  inferior  article  raised  in  the  island  that 
is  ever  brought  to  market.  The  price  there  is  generally  $8  to  $10  per 
100  pounds,  in  bales  averaging  125  pounds  ;  the  same  article,  thus  pre- 
pared and  packed,  has  been  obtained  in  Havana  repeatedly,  per  bale, 
$51  for  firsts  and  seconds,  $40  for  thirds,  $34  for  fourtlis,  $25  to  $30 
for  fifths,  'and  $15  to  $16  for  sixths  and  sevenths,  as  seven  classes  have 
sometimes  been  sorted.  In  Matanzas,  at  a  time  when  tobacco  was  dull, 
$25  50  were  received  for  100  pounds,  assortment,  and  at  another  time 
S36. 


From  J.  B.  Hatne,  United  States  Consul. 

Turk's  Island,  West  Indies,  August  8,  1859. 

Tobacco  is  not  cultivated  on  this  island  or  its  dependencies.  I  have 
learned  from  the  exports  of  the  custom-house,  that  for  the  year  1858, 
three  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty-five  pounds  of  the  leaf,  costing 
about  $2,920,  were  imported  for  home  consumption,  about  half  of  this 
from  the  United  States,  and  the  rest  from  the  West  Indies. 

Of  the  manufactured  there  were  tAvelve  thousand  nine  hundred  and 
ninety-eight  pounds,  costing  about  $2,585,  imported  for  the  same  pur- 
pose; this  was  mostly  from  England,  and  English  ports  in  the  West 
Indies. 

The  inhabitants  here  smoke  and  chew  on  about  the  same  average 
34 A 


530  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

with,  tlie  same  number  in  tlie  United  States^  with,  perhaps,  a  degree 
of  more  moderation. 


From  Samuel  W.  Talbot,  United  Slates  Consul. 

Dublin,  Ireland,  Septemher  1,  1859. 

At  one  period  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  had  made  considerable  pro- 
gress in  Ireland,  the  soil  and  climate  being  very  favorable  to  its 
growth ;  but  about  forty  years  ago  its  culture  was  totally  prohibited 
by  government,  as  it  was  found  impossible  to  devise  any  plan  for  col- 
lecting the  duty  imposed  upon  it,  and  no  advantages  to  Ireland  could 
compensate  for  the  sacrifice  of  the  revenue,  which  yields  five  or  six 
million  of  pounds  sterling  annually. 

About  four  thousand  hogsheads  of  tobacco  are  imported  into  Ireland, 
of  whicli  three  thousand  five  hundred  come  from  Virginia,  and  five 
hundred  from  Kentucky,  none  being  imported  from  any  other  foreign 
country. 

A  duty  of  3s.  2d.  per  pound  is  charged  on  the  foreign  import. 

No  cigars  are  manufactured,  the  four  thousand  hogsheads  above 
named  being  made  into  twist  and  snuff. 

Cigars  are  sold  by  the  pound  weight  at  wholesale,  the  foreign  duty 
paid  at  25s.  per  pound  average,  and  the  English-made  sell  at  from  9s. 
to  15s.  per  pound. 

The  price  per  pound  of  tobacco  prepared  for  chewing  is  3s.  ^d. ;  of 
that  for  smoking,  3s.  %d. ;  and  of  snuff,  5s.  per  pound. 

It  is  impossible  to  answer  how  many  pounds  are  consumed  per  an- 
num, or  even  to  make  an  approximation  to  the  amount. 

The  value  is  8c?.  per  pound  for  leaf,  in  bond,  and  10c?.  per  pound  for 
strips,  in  bond,  the  purchaser  paying  the  duty. 

Snuff  is  made  of  the  stalks. 

With  regard  to  the  importation  of  tobacco  into  Ireland,  it  should  be 
very  dry  in  condition,  free  from  blister,  a  good  substance,  and  of  darkest 
color. 


From  Herbert  Davy,  United  States  Consul. 

Newcastle-on-Tyne,  England, 

August  24,  1859. 

In  1858,  62,217,705  pounds  were  imported  from  North  and  South 
America,  Germany,  &c.,  namely:  stemmed,  20,004,956;  unstemmed, 
39,638,824  pounds;  manufactured  and  snuffs,  2,573,925  pounds. 

In  the  same  year,  10,504,236  pounds  were  exported,  and  to  all 
countries  except  France. 

The  duties  charged  per  pound  on  tobacco  are  3s. ,  and  five  per  cent, 
if  cleared  for  home  trade;  if  for  export,  no  duty;  on  manufactured. 
9s. 

The  price  of  cigars  per  thousand  is  250s.  per  thousand,  in  bond;  and 
as  low  as  60s. ;  while  the  greatest  and  average  price  per  pound  of  tobacco 


TOBxVCCO.  531 

prepared  for  chewing,  is  8<s.  5d.,  As.,  and  3s.  4d.;  that  of  tobacco  pre- 
pared for  smoking,  8s.,  4s.,  and  3s.  4d.;  and  the  highest  of  snuff  per 
per  pound,  2s.,  5s.,  and  4s.  the  average. 

The  number  of  pounds  of  tobacco  consumed  jier  annum,  on  an  aver- 
age, by  each  male  inhabitant  of  Great  Britain,  in  1853,  was  19  ounces; 
in  Ireland,  12  ounces,  being  one  half  greater  in  the  former  than  in 
the  latter. 

The  greatest  and  average  value  of  pressed  tobacco  per  pound,  for 
cutting  purposes,  is  about  6s.  and  4s. 

Rnuif  is  made  of  the  stalks. 

The  consumption,  it  will  be  perceived,  is  very  great,  and  is  undoubt- 
edly increasing. 


From  R.  S.  Ne'^vbold^  Acting  United  States  Consul. 

Port  of  Spain,  Trinidad, 

September  12,  1859. 

This  is  not  a  tobacco  growing  island,  there  being  but  a  very  small 
quantity  grown  in  one  section  of  the  country,  and  entirely  for  local 
consumption.  The  greater  portion  of  the  tobacco  imported  into  this 
island  is  the  production  of  the  United  States,  and  may  be  estimated  at 
between  2,000,000  and  3,000,000  pounds  per  annum,  of  Kentucky 
leaf. 

The  duty  on  tobacco  imported  into  this  colony  is  as  follows  :- 

On  unmanufactured,  9  cents  per  pound. 

On- chewing  tobacco  and  snuff,  12  cents  per  pound. 

On  cigars,  18  cents  per  pound. 

The  actual  number  of  hogsheads  imported  from  the  United  States  in 
1858  was  203,  which  would  give  3,000,000  pounds. 


From  John  Black,  United  States  Commercial  Agent. 

Galle,  Ceylon,  September  29,  1859. 

The  cultivation  of  tobacco  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  natives,  for 
local  consumption,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  quantity,  unmanu- 
factured, exported  to  Stavancore. 

Tobacco  is  cultivated  chiefly  at  Jafnapatam,  at  the  north  end  of  the 
island.     The  coarser  kinds  appear  to  be  best  adapted  to  the  soil. 

A  few  years  ago  experiments  were  made  at  the  south  of  the  island, 
a  few  miles  from  Galle,  by  Europeans  ;  the  seeds  used  being  from 
Cuba.     This^  however,  proved  a  I'ailure,  and  the  work  was  abandoned. 

I  am  unable  to  furnish  even  an  estimate  of  the  quantity  cultivated, 
as  no  revenue  is  obtained  from  this  article. 

Cigars  are  imported  from  Manilla  and  China. 


532  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


From  W.  H.  Morse,  United  States  Consul  at  Cape  de  Verds. 

In  tliis  group  of  islands  only  about  5,000  pounds  of  tobacco  are 
produced  per  annum.  Sixty  thousand  pounds  are  imported,  only 
from  the  United  States.  There  is  no  exportation  whatever.  All  to- 
bacco pays  eleven  cents  per  pound  on  importation.  No  cigars  are 
manufactured.  Their  greatest  and  average  price  per  thousand  is  from 
|16  to  $30;  and  of  tobacco  prepared  for  chewing,  per  pound,  twenty 
cents.  No  snuff  is  imported  into  these  islands.  The  native  manu- 
factured sells  at  sixty  cents  per  pound.  About  one  pound  of  tobacco 
is  consumed  per  annum,  on  an  average,  by  each  of  the  male  inhabi- 
tants. The  variety  grown  here  I  cannot  name.  It  receives  no 
especial  care.  The  leaves  are  short  and  few.  The  temperature  is 
from  68°  to  80°.  Tobacco  will  grow  any  month  during  the  year.  It 
is  generally  cultivated  in  August,  September,  and  October.  The  seed 
is  obtained  from  America — the  average  cost  being  12  cents  per  pound. 
It  is  generally  sown  down  during  the  rains ;  but  any  time  is  proper 
where  the  soil  can  be  irrigated.  The  site  selected  is  near  houses,  and 
sheltered  from  the  sun,  in  a  rich  soil.  The  ground  is  simply  well 
hoed,  as  a  preparation  for  planting.  The  greatest  and  average  value 
])er  pound  of  the  leaf  is  from  16  cents  to  10  cents. 


From  G.  H.  Goundie,  United  States  Consul  at  Zurich,  Sioitzerland. 

Switzerland  produces  very  little  tobacco.  It  is  only  raised  in  one 
of  the  22  cantons,  and  there  only  in  small  quantities.  I  have  for 
several  years  past  supplied  them  with  seed  from  the  United  States ; 
but  it  appears  that  the  tobacco  which  I  introduced  in  the  palatinate  in 
1846-47 — now  raised  in  all  parts  of  Germany  where  tobacco  is  grown, 
and  called  by  order  of  the  government  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden 
"  Goundie  tobacco" — is  greatly  preferred  here  in  Switzerland  also. 
It  brings  from  4  to  10  florins  more  than  any  other  kind. 


From  Henry  Pemberton,  Consular  Agent  of  fJie  United  States  at  Quebec, 

Canada. 

Only  a  little  tobacco  is  grown  here,  for  their  own  use,  by  the  farmers. 
220,000  pounds  are  imported  (all  from  the  United  States)  into  Quebec, 
3,340,000  pounds  into  the  Canadas.  A  duty  of  30  per  cent,  is  charged. 
The  greatest  and  average  price  of  cigars  per  1,000  is  from  |5  to  |80. 


TOBACCO. 


533 


The  price  of  tobacco,  bj  tlie  pound,  for  chewing,  varies  from  10  cents 
to  40  cents;  and  the  price  of  that  prepared  for  smoking  varies  from  5 
cents  to  20  cents.  The  greatest  and  average  price  of  snuff  per  pound 
is  from  10  to  20  cents.  Import  very  small.  Small  farmers  sow  the 
seed  for  their  own  use  in  May.  The  tobacco  stalks  are  ground  into 
snuif.  A  great  deal  of  tobacco  is  grown  in  the  most  western  parts  of 
Canada  West,  but  I  am  not  aware  that  any  returns  of  the  quantities 
are  kept.  All  the  imported  tobacco  comes  from  the  United  States,  and 
nearly  all  in  a  manufactured  form. 


From  L.  H.  Hatfield,  United  States  Consul  at  Bombay. 

The  quantity  of  tobacco  imported  into  Bombay  amounts  to  1,732,833 
pounds  per  annum,  and  the  countries  from  which  it  is  imported  are  as 
follows : 

United  Kingdom,  Aden,  African  coast,  America,  Arabian  gulf, 
Cape  of  Grood  liope,  Ceylon,  Hong-Kong,  China,  France,  Manilla, 
Mauritius,  Penang,  Singapore,  Persian  Grulf,  Suez,  Madras,  Malabar, 
Canara,  Cutch,  Groa,  Damaun,  Dieu,  Calcutta,  and  Goojerath. 

The  quantity  exported  amounts  to  315,733  pounds  per  annum,  and 
the  countries  to  which  it  is  exported  are  as  follows : 

United  Kingdom,  Aden,  Arabian  Gulf,  Hong  Kong,  Mauritius, 
Penang,  Singapore,  Persian  Gulf,  Malabar,  Canara,  African  coast, 
Madagascar,  Hamburg,  Suez,  Madras,  Cutch,  Goa,  Damaun,  and 
Dieu. 

On  the  imports  of  tobacco  from  foreign  ports,  a  duty  of  20  per  cent, 
is  charged  on  its  market  value,  and  a  further  duty,  at  the  rate  of  7| 
rupees  per  Indian  maund  of  82.28  pounds,  is  levied  when  the  same  is 
taken  into  town  for  consumption.  Export  tobacco  is  free,  as  are  also 
all  its  preparations. 

The  above  remarks  apply  equally  to.  tobacco  imported  in  foreign  or 
other  bottoms. 

The  greatest  and  average  price  of  cigars  per  1,000  is  as  follows: 


Brands. 


Greatest  price. 


Havana 

Manilla,  No.  2 

Trichinopoly,  ]st  sort 
Trichinopoly,  2d  sort. 
Calcutta 


The  price  of  country  tobacco  used  for  chewing  varies  from  5  to  6 
annas  per  pound,  Avhile  the  American  averages  from  12  to  16. 

The  average  price  of  country  tobacco  used  for  smoking  is  from  4  to 


634  AGRICULTIIRAL    REPORT. 

5  annas  per  pound,  and  its  greatest  price  never  exceeds  6.     The  price 
of  the  Americap  varies  from  12  to  16. 

The  price  at  which  country  snuff  is  generally  sold  varies  from  8  to 
16  annas  per  pound,  according  to  quality,  while  Macoba  and  Musili- 
patam  bring  as  much  as  2  rupees  per  bottle,  of  1|  pounds. 

Independently  of  the  different  descriptions  of  tobacco  imported  from 
various  countries,  the  best  varieties,  of  what  is  called  the  country 
tobacco,  cultivated  in  the  province  of  Gujeerath  and  over  the  Ghants, 
are  mentioned  below,  in  the  order  of  their  quality : 

Melao,  Jode,  reddish-brown. 

Yurtal,  Merjee  Ghatty^  dark-brown. 

Vara,  do. 

Bhooka,  do. 

Kala,  or  black,  do. 

The  last  description  comprises  a  great  variety,  distinguished  by  the 
names  of  the  towns  and  villages  near  which  it  is  cultivated.  The 
following  are  a  few  of  the  Kala,  or  black: 

Chachwa, 

Paley,_ 

Dhamie, 

Vursal,  Khanpoor, 

Dessarc,  cutch, 
And  a  great  number  of  others,  which,  not  being  imported  here,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  specify. 

With  regard  to  the  character,  dimensions,  and  average  number  of 
leaves  to  a  plant,  it  is  difficult  to  give  any  correct  information.  They 
depend,  in  a  great  measure,  on  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  manure 
used,  and  the  water  and  climate  of  the  country.  The  leaves  of  the 
Melao  and  Jode  are  short,  being  about  a  foot  long  by  6  or  7  inches 
broad,  and  very  pungent  in  flavor.  When  dried,  they  assume  a 
reddish-brown  tinge,  and  are  from  8  to. 15,  and  sometimes  more,  in 
number.  The  leaves  of  the  Vurtal  and  Vara  are  sometimes  larger, 
and  less  pungent,  than  those  of  the  Melao  or  Jode.  The  largest 
leaves  are  2  feet  in  length,  by  1^  in  breadth,  and  are  generally  to  be 
met  with  in  one  or  other  of  the  different  varieties  under  the  head  of 
Kala,  or  black  tobacco.  The  leaves  of  this  description  are  bitter  in 
taste.  The  plant,  when  full  grown,  is  from  3  to  4  feet  in  height. 
The  annual  yield  of  the  different  kinds  varies  from  2,100  to  6,000 
pounds  per  acre,  according  to  the  information  furnished  by  the  dealers. 
The  following  is  the  annual  production,  per  acre,  of  each  of  the  several 
kinds  mentioned  below: 

Melao 2,100  to  2,700pounds. 

Vara 4,200  to  5,400       '' 

Bhooka 4,200  to  5,400       '' 

Dhamie 6,300  " 

Vursal  and  Khanpoor,  each 5,100  " 

Chachwa 3,000  to  4,200       " 

Paley 4,200  '' 

Much  additional  information  might  be  23rocured  on  this  subject^,  and 
also  on  various  branches  of  agriculture,  horticulture,  &c.     Valuable 


MISCELLANEOUS.  OdO 

and  interesting  researches  might  also  be  made  in  this  vicinity  on 
relics,  caves,  &c.,  of  great  antiquity,  and  geological  formations;  hut 
it  would  he  attended  with  considerable  expense,  and  I  am  not  in- 
structed by  government  to  appropriate  anything  in  this  way.  I 
would  most  cheerfully  make  such  researches  and  furnish  full  reports. 

Comparative  statement  of  the  fall  of  rain  at  Bomhay  for  the  four  years 
past,  ending  September  30. 

Year.  Inches. 

1856 n 

1857 79 

1858 61 

1859 81 


ISCELLANEOUS. 


GRAPE  CULTURE   IN  ILLINOIS. 


BY    JAMIS    a.     SOULARD,     OF    GALENA. 


After  ten  years  cultivation  of  the  Catawba  and  Isabella  grapes  in 
the  vicinity  of  St.  Louis,  and  twenty  years  near  this  city,  I  am  con- 
vinced that  the  high  lands  in  the  neighborhood  of  Galena  and  Du- 
buque, (and  I  may  extend  this  opinion  to  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
high  clay  soils  in  Northwestern  Illinois,  and  in  the  central  parts  of 
Iowa,  bordering  on  the  Mississippi,)  are  much  superior  for  the  grape 
culture  to  the  environs  of  Cincinnati,  St.  Louis,  or  Hermann,  in  Mis- 
souri. 

There  an  average  of  one  half  of  their  Catawba  and  Isabella  crops  is 
lost;  even  admitting,  as  I  have  been  informed,  that  Norton's  Virginia 
seedling,  Lenoir,  Missouri  bird  eye,  and  some  other  varieties,  have 
been  entirely  free  from  the  rot  around  Hermann  and  other  places. 

Now,  on  my  farm,  a  few  miles  from  this  city,  I  never  saw  the  rot  in 
twenty  years  in  a  little  vineyard  of  Catawba  and  Isabella,  and  a  few 
plants  of  other  varieties,  except  during  three  very  wet  summers,  when 
it  exhibited  itself  in  a  sporadic  form,  and  then  only  on  a  narrow  de- 
pression of  the  ground,  where  there  was  a  great  excess  of  moistures 
during  the  whole  summer. 

In  the  first  six  years  of  my  experiment  here,  I  did  not  cover  the 
vines  in  winter.  They  were  killed  to  the  ground  three  winters.  But 
the  three  seasons  they  resisted,  they  yielded  well.  I  then  adopted  the 
low  culture;  starting  new  wood  each  preceding  year  from  the  ground,- 


636  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

cutting  oil  all  tlie  old  wood,  covering  after  pruning  every  fall  with  a 
one-horse  plow,  and  uncovering  in  the  spring  with  the  same  implement 
and  a  six-pronged  fork.  This  can  he  done  very  rapidly.  During  the 
fourteen  years  that  I  pursued  covering  in  this  manner,  with  earth  only, 
I  met  with  but  one  failure;  it  was  total,  however,  and  caused  by  con- 
tinued cold  rain  and  foggy  weather,  which  destroyed  the  blossoms. 
The  ground  had  a  very  gentle  eastern  slope.  Except  this  failure, 
every  year  produced  a  crop ;  say,  four  years  light ;  six  years  abundant ; 
two  years  enormous ;  one  year  the  heaviest  I  ever  saw,  and  one  year 
the  above  failure. 

The  yield  was  very  large  in  1857,  but  most  of  the  Catawba  did  not 
ripen  well,  though  the  berries  on  each  bunch  advanced  equally  toward 
maturity,  I  never  saw  here  uneven  ripening;  that  is,  green  and  ripe 
berries  in  the  same  bunches,  nor  the  vine  shedding  its  leaves  during 
summer.  Still,  many  bunches  remained  entirely  green.  My  vines 
were  planted  from  four  and  a  half  to  five  feet  apart.  I  found  the  same 
unripe  condition,  that  year,  on  ground  similarly  situated,  around  St. 
Louis.  I  believe,  even  in  that  season,  upon  high  and  steep  southern 
declivities,  though  not  too  steep  to  plow  well,  they  would  have  ripened 
in  this  locality.  Continued  rain,  cool,  cloudy  weather,  and  very  wet 
ground  through  the  summer,  caused  their  tardiness. 

Covering  the  vines  entirely  with  earth  in  the  fall  is  indispensable  to 
success,  for  two  reasons:  to  protect  them  against  cold  winters,  and  the 
blossoms  from  late  spring  frosts.  They  should  not  be  uncovered  until 
the  season  is  sufficiently  advanced,  keeping  the  vines  thus  protected  as 
long  as  the  vegetation  of  the  buds  will  permit,  without  danger  to  the 
crop.  Great  care  should  be  taken  at  this  time  to  examine  them,  on 
several  vines,  in  diiferent  positions,  regularly  every  two  or  three  days. 

I  give  the  duration  and  manner  of  my  experiments,  that  all  may 
know,  how  in  this  northern  climate,  I  arrive  at  such  a  favorable  and 
generally  unexpected  conclusion.  This  locality,  favored  with  dry,  clear 
summers  and  fells,  having  a  pervious,  friable,  clay  stratum  underly- 
ing, to  a  considerjible  depth,  our  fertile  light  soil,  affording  easy  per- 
colation to  any  superabundance  of  water,  is  unsurpassingly  congenial 
to  the  perfect  production  of  the  grape.  The  Catawba,  whether  for 
table  or  wine  use,  for  abundance  and  regularity  of  yield,  and  hardi- 
ness of  plant  and  fruit,  is  unsurpassed  in  this  country,  among  either 
native  or  European  varieties,  while  this  neighborhood  is  at  least  equal, 
and  I  think  superior,  for  the  culture  of  the  grape,  to  any  other  section 
of  the  Union  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains. 


From  H.  W.  Ravenal. 


Aiken,  S.  C,  November  13^  1859. 
I  am  now  engaged  in  an  investigation  into  the  characters  of  all  our 
native  vines,  with  a  view  to  their  classification  as  descendants  of  some 
or  other  of  our  pure  native  species.  I  would  prefer  waiting,  therefore, 
until  I  could  complete  my  plan.  I  have  made  a  beginning  in  a  paper 
which  I  read  before  the  ''Aiken  Vine-growing  and  Horticultural  As- 
sociation," at  a  late  meeting,  and  which  has  been  since  published  in 


MISCELLANEOUS.  537 

the  ''Farmer  and  Planter."  I  send  you  witli  this  a  copy.  My  object 
in  having  it  published  now  is  to  get  the  aid  and  cooperation  of  other 
vine-growers,  and  all  the  information  possible  on  the  subject.  On 
looking  it  over,  should  you  think  it  proper  to  give  it  an  insertion,  it 
may  bo  the  means  of  affecting  my  object  and  of  obtaining  additional 
information. 

With  the  view  of  clearing  up  the  nomenclature  of  our  native  culti- 
vated grapes,  which  has  been  brought  to  a  state  of  great  confusion,  we 
have  it  in  contemplation  by  the  "Aiken  Association"  to  invite  a  con- 
vention of  vine-growers,  to  meet  us  next  summer,  from  all  quarters  of 
the  United  States,,  in  order  to  unite  upon  some  definite  arrangement, 
and  reduce  the  synonyms  to  some  intelligible  form. 


PAPER  ON  GRAPES. 

Reoxlhefore  the  '^ Aiken  Vine-growing  and  Horticultural  Association," 
September  15,  1859,  hy  H.  W.  Eavenel. 

The  grape,  like  all  other  domesticated  plants  long  subjected  to  cul- 
tivation, has  formed  innumerable  varieties,  differing:  First,  in  size, 
flavor,  color,  and  time  of  rijoening  its  fruit.  Second,  in  shape  and  size 
of  leaf.  Third,  in  general  thriftiness  and  vigor  of  growth.  These 
variations  are,  however,  confined  within  certain  limits ;  and,  through 
all  their  varieties,  they  yet  preserve  their  specific  identity,  and  reveal 
their  parentage  and  origin. 

There  are  certain  bounds  within  vdiich  Nature  seems  to  revel  in  pro- 
ducing changes  and  combinations  of  various  forms  and  qualities,  but 
these  bounds  are  never  overstepped.  , 

Species  in  Nature  are  primordial  forms  whose  characters  remain  con- 
stant through  all  time,  and  which  are  capable  of  propagating  their  kind. 
Within  the  limits  of  these  specific  characters  there  may  be  variations. 
in  minor  points,  occurring  sometimes  in  the  wild,  state,  but  oftener 
through  the  effects  of  high  culture  and  artificial  treatment.  Thus,  in 
the  United  States  we  have  a  certain  number  of  species  of  wild  grape. 
According  to  the  best  authorities,  the  number  is  reduced  to  four  east 
of  the  Mississippi.  From  one  or  the  other  of  these  four  species  are  de- 
scended all  our  indigenous  varieties.  Of  these  there  are  now  upwards 
of  one  hundred  in  cultivation  in  the  United  States,  and  their  number 
will  go  on  increasing,  as  seedlings  of  good  Cjualities  are  brought  into 
notice.  Many  of  them,  no  doubt,  will  prove  valuable  acquisitions, 
either  for  the  table  or  wine-making,  but  a  large  number  will  be  thrown 
aside.  There  is  such  a  strong  temptation  to  multiply  varieties,  either 
as  a  source  of  profit  to  sellers  of  the  vine,  or  as  a  matter  of  pride  to 
amateur  cultivators,  that  the  only  corrective  for  the  evil  will  be  a  .pub- 
lication, at  stated  periods,  of  a  list  of  condemned  varieties,  as  is  now 
done  by  the  United  States  Pomological  Society,  in  the  matter  of  fruit 
trees. 

I  am  not  aware  of  any  attempt  to  classify  these  indigenous  varieties, 
and  trace  them  to  their  proper  parentage,  to  one  of  the  four  native 
species;  nor,  perhaps,  has  the  time  arrived  yet  when  it  can  properly 


538  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

be  done,  from  tlie  want  of  general  dissemination,  and  the  difficulty  of 
obtaining  many  of  the  latest  varieties. 

I  will,  however,  give  an  enumeration  of  our  four  American  species, 
with  the  varieties  of  each,  so  far  as  our  information  permits: 

NATIVE,    OR   INDIGENOUS    GRAPES. 

1.  ViTiSLABRUSCA,  LiNN^us. — Mx.;  Ph.;  Ell.  Sk.  Torr.  &  Gr.;  DeCand.; 

Prod. 

Fox  Grape. — Stem  of  a  pale  brown  color,  the  bark  more  readily  ex- 
foliating than  in  the  other  species;  and  the  internodes  or  joints  rather 
longer.  Leaves  large,  three  to  five  lobed,  dark  green  above_,  densely 
tomentose  or  woolly  beneath,  the  tomentum  whitish  or  rusty.  Bunches 
are  not  very  compact  nor  shouldered.  Berries  large,  dark-blue,  with 
a  thickish  skin,  and  always  pulpy,  with  a  musky  flavor.  From  this 
s|)ecies  are  descended  the  following  cultivated  varieties : 

Isabella  or  Laspeyre,  Mary  Isabel,  Catawba,  Bland's  Madeira,  Con- 
cord, Diana^  Eebecca,  To-Kalon,  Anna,  Hartford  Prolific,  Ontario, 
Catawissa,  Northern  Muscadine,  Minor  or  Venango,  Garrigues,  Stet- 
son's Seedling,  York,  Madeira  or  Canby's  August,  Hyde's  Eliza, 
Union  Village,  Early  Chocolate,  Early  Black,  Harvard,  Green  Prolific, 
Kilvington,  Ives,  Charter  Oak,  Schuylkill  or  Alexander,  Shaker, 
Sweet  Water  or  Early  Muscadine. 

2.  ViTis  .^STrvALis,  MiCHAUX. — Ph.;  Ell.  8h.;  Torr.  dGr.;  DeCand.; 

Prod. 

Summer  Grape. — Stem  stout  and  of  a  reddish  brown,  with  the  inter- 
nodes generally  shorter  than  in  the  preceding.  Leaves  broadly  cordate, 
three  to  five  lobed,  or  sinuately  palmate;  when  young,  downy,  with 
cobwebby  hairs  beneath ;  smoothish  when  old ;  of  a  lighter  green  than 
the  preceding.  Bunches  shouldered  and  compact.  Berries  small, 
round,  black,  rather  acid,  never  pulpy.  From  this  species  are  descended 
the  following : 

Warren,  (Herbemont,)  Pauline  or  Burgundy,  Guignard,  Clinton, 
Delaware,  Lenoir,  (Blade  July^  Lincoln,  Thurmond,  Sumpter,  Deve- 
reux,)  Marion,  Traveling,  Long  Grape  or  Old  House,  Elsinborough, 
Seabrook,  King^  Ohio  or  Cigar  Box,  Missouri,  Norton's  Virginia. 

3.  ViTis  CORDIFOLIA,  MiCHAUX. — Ph.;  Torr.  &  Gr.;  DeCand.;  Prod. 

Winter  or  Frost  Grape. — Leaves  thin,  smaller  than  the  preceding, 
glabrous  on  both  sides,  with  broad  mucronate  teeth.  Berries  small, 
nearly  black,  ripening  late,  and  very  tart.  There  are  no  varieties  of 
this  m  cultivation  that  I  am  aware  of. 

4.  ViTis  vuLPiNA,  LiNNJSus. — V.  rotundifoUa  Mx.;  Ph.;  Ell.;  Sk. 

Bullace,   Bullet,  or  Bull  grape,  known  in  Florida  and  Texas  as 

"Mustang." 


MISCELLANEOUS.  639 

Stem  whitish,  the  wood  more  compact  and  close-grained  than  in  the 
other  species.  Leaves  cordate,  shining  on  both  surfaces,  somewhat  three 
lohed,  coarsely  toothed,  smaller  than  any  of  the  other  species.  Berries 
in  loose  clusters,  scarcely  exceeding  five  or  six,  changing  from  reddish 
brown  to  black  in  ripening,  with  a  thick  skin  and  large  pulp. 

The  only  cultivated  variety  is  the  ''Scuppernong,"  so  called  after  a 
lake  in  Eastern  North  Carolina,  where  it  was  first  discovered.  There 
may  be  more  than  one  variety  in  cultivation  under  this  name,  as  the 
so-called  "  Scuppernong"  has  been  found  in  other  native  localities 
since. 

The  Vitis  rupestris ,  Scheele,  is  found  in  Texas,  about  the  Upper  Gua- 
daloupe,  near  New  Braunfels,  and  is  there  known  as  the  ''Mountain 
Grape."  It  is  said  to  have  been  found  also  in  Arkansas.  Professor 
Gray,  in  his  description  of  the  plants  of  Texas,  found  by  Lind- 
heimer,  says  of  this  s|)ecies:  "It  does  not  climb,  but  the  stems  are 
upright,  and  only  two  or  three  feet  high.  The  branches  are  small, 
and  the  berries,  of  the  size  of  peas  only,  are  black,  very  sweet,  and 
the  most  grateful,  as  well  as  the  earliest  ripened  grape  of  Texas." 

The  following  comprise  a  list  of  native  cultivated  grapes,  which  I 
know  only  by  name,  not  having  had  access  to  any  means  of  informa- 
tion by  which  they  may  be  classified.  They  are  all,  most  probably, 
descendants  of  V.  labrusca  or  V.  cestivalis,  and  some  may  be  syno- 
nyms of  those  already  enumerated  : 

Norton's  Seedling,  Logan,  Eock-house  Indian  or  Waterloo,  Little 
Ozark,  Graham,  Miller's  Seedling,  Burton's,  Early  August,  Sage, 
Early  Amber,  Clermont,  Jane,  Harris,  Long,  Baldwin's  Early,  Louisa, 
Mary  Ann,  Clapier,  Canada  Chief,  Secerd's  Sweet-Water,  Golden  Clin- 
ton, Senior,  Archer,  Monteith,  Huber. 

These  are  names  of  grapes  taken  from  various  sources ,  and  men- 
tioned as  native  or  indigenous  seedlings.  After  being  better  known, 
and  with  full  opportunities  for  examination  of  their  fruit,  leaves,  and 
habit,  doubtless  we  shall  be  able  to  classify  them,  and  trace  their  pa- 
rentage to  one  or  other  of  the  four  American  species. 

How  far  the  effects  of  high  culture  and  the  propagation  of  new  seed- 
lings from  these  improved  varieties  may  cause  them  to  deviate  from 
their  typical  state,  it  is  impossible  to  foresee ;  but  if  our  botanists  are 
correct  in  their  limitation  of  species,  these  variations  must  be  within 
the  specific  characters  assigned  to  the  species  respectively. 

There  is  one  prominent  character  which  distinguishes  the  grapes  of 
the  United  States  from  those  of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  and  that  is  in 
the  infiorescence.  All  the  species  of  American  grapes  are  dioecia  po- 
lygamous, that  is,  some  of  the  vines  bear  staminate  or  barren  flowers 
only,  and  are  forever  sterile.  Others  bear  perfect  flowers,  and  are 
fruitful. 

All  the  species  of  the  eastern  hemisphere  are  Hermaplirodite,  that 
is,  every  vine  bears  perfect  flowers,  containing  stamen  and  pistils,  in 
the  same  corroUa,  and  are  fruitful.  In  the  absence  of  other  evidence, 
this  fact  would  be  conclusive  of  the  parentage  of  an  unknown  seedling, 
whether  it  be  of  exotic  or  indigenous  origin. 


540  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


FOREIGN   GRAPE, 

Of  the  vast  numlter  of  varieties  of  the  foreign  grapes  now  in  culti- 
vation in  Europe  and  the  United  States,  all  are  referred  to  the  single 
species,  Vitis  vinifera,  lAnnceus,  a  native  of  the  southern  parts  of  Asia. 

It  has  been  under  cultivation  more  than  a  thousand  years,  and  was 
known  under  many  varieties  hy  the  ancients. 

Upwards  of  thirty  years  ago,  when  Chaptal  was  minister  of  the  in- 
terior, there  were  fourteen  hundred  varieties  enumerated  in  the  Lux- 
emburg catalogue,  obtained  from  France  alone.  The  Geneva  catalogue 
numbered  six  hundred.  Doubtless  they  have  been  much  increased 
since ;  and,  as  in  the  propagation  of  varieties  of  other  fruits  by  seed- 
lings, there  is  no  limit  to  the  number  that  may  be  brought  into 
existence. 

De  Candolle,  in  his  'Trodromus,"  enumerates  and  gives  descrip- 
tions of  eleven  other  species  of  vine  from  the  Old  World,  mostly 
natives  of  the  southeastern  part  of  Asia;  but  none^pf  these  have  been 
cultivated  extensively.  The  grape  of  Europe  is  one  sioecies,  but  of 
numberless  varieties. 

Most  of  the  early  attempts  at  grape  culture  in  this  country  were  with 
the  foreign  grapes;  but  all,  without  exception,  have  been  failures. 
The  foreign  grapes  (varieties  of  Vitis  vinifera)  seem,  from  their  con- 
stitution, unfitted  to  our  soil  and  climate.  (I  here  allude  to  open  air 
culture — under  glass  they  appear  to  thrive  very  well.)  How  they  will 
succeed  when  grafted  upon  the  hardy  native  vine,  remains  to  be  proved. 
Partial  experiments,  made  in  Florida  and  in  this  vicinity,  are  promis- 
ing of  success. 

If  the  cause  of  failure  is  the  greater  humidity  of  our  climate,  graft- 
ing on  the  wild  vine  will  scarcely  prove  a  corrective,  as  the  leaf  and 
fruit  are  still  ex|)osed  to  the  atmospheric  influence.  If  the  cause  pro- 
ceeds from  uncongeniality  of  soil,  then  grafting  upon  the  wild  stock 
will  most  probably  be  successful.  As  this  mode  of  increasing  a  vine- 
yard for  wine-making  must  necessarily  be  more  tedious  and  expensive 
than  by  cuttings,  it  is  our  policy,  as  well  as  true  philosophy,  to  en- 
deavor, by  the  raising  of  seedlings,  to  obtain  varieties  best  suited  to 
our  soil  and  climate. 

Every  encouragement  should  be  given  for  the  accomplishment  of 
this  end,  and  our  association  has  consulted  the  true  interest  of  all  vine- 
growers  in  offering  handsome  premiums  towards  that  object. 


From  William  A.  Forward,  of  Falatha,  Florida. 

Palatka,  Florida,  January  4,  1859. 

I  feel  it  due  to  Mr.  Townend  Glover  that  I  should  bear  testimony 
to  his  usefulness  in  the  duties  assigned  him  at  this  place. 

He  experimented  upon  my  orange  grove,  and  I  consider  he  has 
saved  it.  His  syringing  of  the  trees  regenerated  them,  and  destroyed 
the  insect,     I  have  no  doubt  his  remedy  is  a  thorough  one.     It  has 


MISCELLANEOUS.  541 

certainly  proved  so  in  my  grove,  and  others  in  tliis  town,  wherever 
practiced.  I  feel  that  now  we  have  nothing  to  fear  from  the  orange 
insect. 


From  S.  M.  Baird,  of  Albuquerque,  New  Ilexico. 

Albuquerque,  New  Mexico,  September  16,  1859. 

I  know  of  nothing  in  this  Territory  so  embarrassing  to  agriculture 
and  horticulture  as  insects.  They  swarm  here  during  the  entire  grow- 
ing season  in  quantities  and  kinds  almost  innumerable.  One  species 
or  another  attacks  vegetation  from  the  root  to  the  blossom.  Wheat, 
however,  is  free  from  Aveevil  and  the  fly.  It  has  been  found  nearly 
impossible  to  grow  potatoes,  and  many  other  vegetables  in  the  Kio 
Abajo,  in  consequence  of  insects,  and  hence  the  introduction  here  of 
any  means  of  destroying  them  would  be  a  great  blessing. 

This  is  the  climate  and  country  for  the  alpaca  and  cashmere  coat.  I 
would  also  call  your  attention  to  the  Eocky  mountain  goat,  or  sheep, 
as  it  is  called  by  the  mountaineers,  most  of  whom  contend  that  it  is  a 
sheep,  though  Colonel  Bonneville  says  it  is  a  goat.  I  have  seen 
nothing  of  it  except  its  horns,  a  pair  of  which  I  have  known  to  weigh 
twenty  or  thirty  pounds.  Doubtless  naturalists  by  this  time  have 
thoroughly  examined,  and  properly  classified  it,  though  in  the  "^Ame- 
rican Encyclopedia,"  which  contains  the  only  written  description,  I 
have  found  under  this  name  only  an  account  of  the  antelope  instead 
of  the  Eocky  mountain  goat.  With  the  former  I  am  well  acquainted, 
even  to  the  flavor  of  its  meat.  Old  mountaineers  inform  me  that  the 
latter  sometimes  grows  to  the  size  of  three  hundred  or  foi^r  hundred 
pounds,  that  they  are  very  hardy ;  the  flesh  fine  for  the  table;  the  skin, 
when  dressed  of  a  superior  quality,  and  that  beneath  the  long  shaggy 
hair,  it  produces  a  dense  coat  of  wool,  as  fine  as  silk  or  fur,  to  use 
their  own  language.  The  immense  horns  would  be  made  useful  in  the 
arts. 

Should  not  this  animal  be  domesticated,  if  possible?  The  moun- 
taineers say  they  used  to  catch  the  lambs,  or  kids  for  pets,  and  they 
■were  easily  domesticated.  Through  the  agency  of  the  army  now  dis- 
persed, or  rather  located  in  the  mountains  throughout  New  Mexico, 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  Utah,  California^  and  Oregon,  if  the  object  be 
desirable,  any  number  required  could  be  ptrocured.  Were  this  animal 
domesticated,  it  would  surely  be  superior  to  anything  of  the  kind  noAv 
known.  The  antelope  also  evidently  belongs  to  the  goat  family,  and 
I  think  it  might  be  domesticated  v/ithout  difficulty. 


Note. — It  is  a  common  error  to  confound  the  Eocky  mountain  sheep, 
Ovis  inontana,  which  inhabits  the  whole  chain  of  the  Eocky  mountains 
on  their  highest  peaks  down  to  California,  and  the  Eocky  mountain 
goat,  Capra  americana,  wdiich  is  also  found  there,  and  on  the  head 
waters  of  the  Mackenzie,  Columbia,  and  Missouri  rivers. 


542  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

These  animals  have  a  numher  of  synonyms.  The  sheep  have  been 
called  "wild  sheep  of  California/'  "big-horned  sheep,"  "big  horn/' 
&c.;  the  goat,  "Antelope  americana,"  "Antelope  lanigera,"  "Capra 
americana,"  &c. 

Of  the  Capra  americana,  Audubon  says:  "The  coat  is  composed  of 
two  kinds  of  hair,  the  outer  and  longer  considerably  straighter  than 
the  wool  of  the  sheep,  but  softer  than  that  of  the  common  goat ;  the 
long  hair  is  abundant  on  the  shoulders,  back,  neck,  and  thighs;  on 
the  chin  there  is  a  thick  tuft,  forming  a  beard,  like  that  of  the  latter 
animal.  Under  the  long  hairs  of  the  body  there  is  a  close  coat  of  fine, 
white,  silky  wool,  quite  equal  to  that  of  the  Cashmere  goat  in  fineness. 
The  resemblance  to  some  of  the  antelopes,  the  chamois,  the  goat,  and 
the  sheep,  caused  it  to  be  placed  by  some  authors  under  several  genera." 

Of  the  Ovis  montana:  "The  hair"  (of  the  male)  "bears  no  resem- 
blance to  wool,  but  is  similar  to  that  of  the  American  elk  and  reindeer. 
It  i;i  coarse,  but  soft  to  the  touch,  and  slightly  crimped  throughout  its 
"whole  length.  The  hairs  on  the  back  are  about  two  inches  in  length; 
those  on  the  side,  one  and  a  half  inches.  At  the  roots  of  these  hairs, 
especially  about  the  shoulders  and  sides  of  the  neck,  a  small  quantity 
of  soft  fur  is  perceptible.  The  legs  are  covered  by  short,  compact 
hairs.     The  horns  of  the  male  are  of  immense  size. 

"The  female  Rocky  mountain  sheep  resembles  some  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  the  common  ram.  Its  neck  is  a  little  longer,  as  are  also 
the  head  and  legs,  and,  in  consequence,  it  stands  much  higher.  Its 
horns  resemble  more  those  of  the  goat  than  of  the  sheep,  in  fact.  Whilst 
the  fine,  erect  body  of  the  male  reminds  us  of  a  large  deer,  with  the 
head  of  a  ram,  the  female  looks  like  a  fine  specimen  of  the  antelopo." 


From  C.  R.  Buckalew,  Minister  Besident. 


Quito,  Ecuador,  January  16,  1859. 

Great  importance  has  been  attached  to  the  cinchona  tree,  which 
furnishes  the  Peruvian  or  fever  bark.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
some  parts  of  our  country  are  adapted  to  its  cultivation. 

It  is  found  in  Ecuador,  as  well  as  in  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  New  Grena- 
da, and  its  value  as  an  article  of  commerce  has  very  greatly  increased 
during  the  last  half  century.  In  this  country  it  formerly  sold  at 
forty  dollars  per  hundred,  while  its  present  price  is  one  dollar  per 
pound.  These  prices  are  in  Ecuadorian  currency,  to  reduce  which  to 
United  States  money  requires  a  deduction  of  about  one-fifth.  In  Ecua- 
dor the  tree  is  found  at  elevations  of  from  six  to  eight  thousand  feet, 
and  where  the  temperature  ranges  from  60°  to  66°.  But,  as  Hum- 
boldt observes,  a  comparison  between  the  climate  of  these  regions  and 
others  is  not  satisfactory,  and  it  does  not  follow  that  the  tree  will  not 
flourish  in  temperatures  quite  difierent.  Within  a  few  years,  seeds  of 
the  tree  have  been  sent  to  England  and  propagated,  in  order  to  be  for- 
warded to  India.  The  j)lants  are  forwarded  thither  in  boxes,  glass- 
covered,  with  what  success  remains  to  be  seen. 

The  seed  is  diminutive,  and  may  be  sent  by  post  to  remote  countries. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  543 

In  ISTortliern  Ecuador,  and  west  of  the  mountains  and  of  Quito,  the 
inferior  kind  is  found.  The  red  bark  variety,  which  is  most  valuable, 
is  everywhere  becoming  scarce  before  the  depredations  of  the  hunters, 
and,  as  no  care  is  exercised  in  its  cultivation  or  preservation,  it  may^ 
after  some  years,  unless  attention  is  turned  to  the  subject,  become 
nearly  extinct.  The  most  valuable  and  extensive  forests  of  the  tree 
are  situated  in  Southern  Ecuador,  in  the  vicinity  of  Loxa,  and  it  is 
from  that  quarter,  so  far  as  this  country  is  concerned,  that  supplies  are 
drawn. 

Information  regarding  the  cinchona  tree  may  be  found  in  Humboldt's 
Personal  Narrative,  volume  1,  page  138,  and  more  pa,rticularly  in  his 
Views  of  Nature,  (Bohn's  translation,  1850,)  pages  280,  390,  and  422, 
in  note. 

From  my  position  here,  I  enjoy  peculiar  facilities  for  obtaining  the 
seed  of  the  tree  and  information  regarding  its  culture,  and,  in  concert 
with  the  Patent  Office,  would  take  efficient  steps  towards  its  introduc- 
tion into  tlie  United  States. 


From  S.  B.  Parsons,  at  Lausanne. 

I  have  been  seeking  for  the  Italian  bees  which  I  was  desired  to  pro- 
cure by  the  Agricultural  Division  of  the  Patent  Office.  I  found  that  a 
mixed  breed  could  easily  be  obtained  throughout  Lombardy,  and  that 
little  care  is  taken  to  preserve  them  pure.  I  succeeded,  however,  in 
finding  an  enthusiastic  bee  cultivator  in  Mr.  Hermann,  of  Tamins, 
who  makes  frequent  incursions  in  Lombardy,  and  selects  wherever  he 
can  find  them,  the  pure  (^ueens  of  this  breed  impregnated  by  pure 
males.  They  are  easily  distinguishable  by  a  broad  yellow  band  across 
the  abdomen.  The  proboscis  is  also  longer,  enabling  them  to  feed  on 
many  plants  which  are  beyond  the  reach  of  common  bees.  They  are 
also  about  one  fifteenth  larger  than  the  ordinary  breed.  A  small  hive 
will  make  sixty  to  seventy,  and  an  old  hive  one  hundred  to  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty  pounds  of  honey  in  a  season.  Mr.  Hermann's  expe- 
rience in  shipping  bees  renders  reliable  his  decided  opinion  that  they 
can  be  safely  sent  to  America  only  in  the  autumn,  and  that  it  is  essen- 
tial to  send  them  by  steamer^  as  they  would  not  endure  a  long  voyage. 

I  have  purchased  of  Mr.  Hermann  ten  hives,  to  be  forwarded  from 
Havre.  In  order  to  insure  their  safety,  I  purchased  old  hives.  I  will 
furnish  a  more  detailed  report  on  these  bees,  including  drawings.  It 
will  describe  the  best  mode  of  educating  the  queens,  of  preserving  their 
purity,  and  increasing  their  number.  Until  spring,  the  only  attention 
these  hives  will  require  will  be  that  which  is  given  to  ordinary  bees. 

It  will  be  expedient  to  make  no  distribution  before  another  year,  as 
I  can  describe  a  mode  by  which  these  large  hives  can  be  increased  to 
six  hundred  small  ones,  each  with  a  queen,  and  each  of  which  can  be 
placed  in  a  box  six  inches  square  for  more  convenient  transportation 
over  the  country. 

I  appreciate  very  highly  the  value  of  these  bees.  I  think  that  their 
acquisition  alone  would  have  merited  a  special  mission  from  America. 


544  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

I  am  in  receipt  of  a  letter  from  fhe  director  of  the  botannic  garden 
at  Odessa,  in  whicli  he  states  that  ''the  industrial  vine  culture  of  the 
Crimea  is  principally  of  well  known  European  kinds,  while  there  are 
to  he  found  also  some  varieties  which  are  native  to  the  country,  and 
some  obtained  from  the  Trans- Caucasian  provinces,  from  China,  Persia, 
and  the  river  Amoor.  Of  such,  however,  it  would  be  impossible  to 
obtain  five  thousand  cuttings  in  the  space  of  one  season.  Tire  culture 
of  the  olive  is  very  limited  in  Southern  Eussia.  For  some  time  the 
demand  for  young  plants  has  been  only  from  the  Trans-Caucasian  prov- 
inces. That  demand  has  now  nearly  ceased,  and  the  nurseries  have  so 
small  a  stock  on  hand,  that  they  could  not  furnish  this  year  more  than 
four  hundred  or  five  hundred  plants.  The  remaining  four  thousand 
five  hundred  can  be  supplied  in  the  autumn  of  1861." 

This  state  of  things  renders  useless  any  visit  to  the  Crimea,  and  I 
wrote  him  that  I  should  not  wish  the  vines  of  western  Europe,  as  they 
are  already  abundant  with  us,  but  that  he  might  send  as  large, a  part 
of  the  five  thousand  cuttings  as  can  be  obtained  this  year,  and  the 
remainder  another  season,  all  to  consist  of  sorts  from  the  Trans-Cauca- 
sian provinces,  from  Chiva,  Persia,  and  the  river  Amoor.  I  requested 
him  also  to  send  one  hundred  scions  of  each  Crimean  variety  of  apples, 
pear,  cherry,  currant  and  quince.'  I  wrote  him  that  I  wished  the 
novoli  of  the  olive.  He  wrote  only  of  plants,  and  I  have  therefore 
requested  him  to  send  five  hundred  now,  and  I  would  write  him  this 
winter  whether  the  remaining  four  thousand  five  hundred  would  be 
desired  another  year. 


WINE-MAKING  IN  NEW  YORK. 

Ithaca,  Tompkins  County,  New  York, 

January  18,  1860. 

Sir  :  I  received  from  the  Patent  Office,  about  a  year  ago,  a  tin  case, 
with  two  grape-vines  inclosed  in  moss,  marked  "  grapes  from  Hunga- 
ry." These  I  set  in  a  pot,  in  the  latter  part  of  February,  1859,  and 
early  in  May  took  them  out,  and  set  the  younger  and  most  thrifty  of 
t]-.e  two  in  a  favored  spot  on  the  south  side  of  my  house.  By  cold 
weather  last  fall  it  Imcl  grown  two  main  vines,  one  four  feet  seven 
inches,  and  the  other  five  feet  two  inches  ripe  wood.  This  vine  is  short- 
jointed  ;  eyes,  or  buds,  prominent ;  leaf  cleft,  and  resembles  most  for- 
eign grapes  in  appearance  ;  have  cut  away  two-thirds  of  the  ripe  wood, 
and  distributed  the  cuttings  to  my  neighbors.  So  far  it  has  stood  out 
of  doors,  borne  3°  Fahrenheit  below  zero,  and  appears  hardy,  and  unin- 
jured by  the  frosts  of  this  winter.  The  other  vine  was  old  wood — at 
least  two  or  three  years  old  ;  appears  like  the  other  ;  grew  badly,  (only 
some  sixteen  or  eighteen  inches;)  ripened  the  wood  badly.  Trans- 
planted at  the  same  time,  (May,)  but  to  a  richer  soil,  in  a  less  sunny 
spot. 

As  to  wine-making,  let  me  add  that  this  valley,  three  hundred  to 
eight  hundred  feet  deep,  at  the  head  of  Cayuga  Lake,  has  always  been 
noted  for  its  fruit.     The  vintage  of  this  town,  in  1858^  was  about  1,000 


MISCELLANEOUS.  645 

gallons,  of  wliicli  over  600  gallons  were  made  by  my  press.  Tlie  result 
has  been  some  700  to  800  gallons  of  wine  that  will  compare  very  favor- 
ably witli  any  of  Europe  or  America.  Especially  do  tlie  still  Catawba 
and  Isabella  mixed  compare  with  the  bland  German  and  French  wines 
brought  home  by  travelers  in  their  trunks  ;  that  is,  a  sweet,  mild, 
spiritous,  bland  wine,  suited  to  the  sick  chamber,  sacramental,  and  table 
use.  If  asked,  as  a  chemist  and  manufacturer,  from  my  experience  now 
of  fifteen  years  in  wines  here,  how  can  wine  be  made  in  Central  New 
York  ?  I  should  reply,  that  the  variety  made  of  the  same  grapes  can  be 
very  great_,  and  by  the  mere  manipulation  you  can  produce  variety  in 
color  and  roughness  and  quantity  of  spirit.  As  the  Catawba  usually 
ripens  poorly,  a  fine  wine  is  made  here  by  one-third  half-ripened  Ca- 
tawba, and  two-thirds  ripe  Isabella,  and  if  the  manipulation  has  been 
correctly  made,  cannot  easily  be  told  from  the  best  Catawba. 

Again,  the  manipulation  can  vary  the  quality  to  suit  the  time  of  sale 
and  use.  I  speak  all  the  while  of  no  additions  of  any  substance  what- 
ever, except  sugar  or  refined  syrup.  The  wines  soonest  ripened  will 
not  keep  the  best  or  longest. 

A  fine  wine,  ripe  for  use  in  six  months,  may  be  made  by  crushing 
half  a  bushel  of  grapes  at  a  time  in  a  butter  (Orange  county  pack- 
age) firkin,  with  a  handle  (broom  or  hoe  handle)  inserted  into  a  round 
block  of  hard  wood,  sawed  off  square  at  both  ends,  a  style  I  prefer,  and 
putting  thirty  gallons  so  crushed  in  a  forty-five  gallon  alcohol  barrel 
for  a  fermenting  tun.  Add  two  pounds  of  sugar  to  the  gallon,  and 
ferment  as  long  as  the  color  deepens.  The  moment  the  color  ceases  to 
deepen,  put  to  press,  transfer  the  pure  juice  immediately  to  a  close 
cask,  and  let  the  fermentation  go  on  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Keep  the 
room  so  hot  that  it  shall  not  be  over  twenty  days  before  the  fermenta- 
tion ceases  spontaneously.  Then  put  into  a  cool  cellar,  and  when  clear, 
a  strong  red  wine  will  result.  If  you  have  succeeded  in  the  manipula- 
tion, this  wine  can  be  used  at  once,  and  will  give  good  satisfaction  to 
the  palate.  It  is  much  admired  for  its  rich,  splendid  colors,  like  Bo- 
hemian red-stained  glass,  clear  and  pure.     But  it  will  not  keep  well. 

Probably  the  best  wine  we  can  make  in  this  valley  of  Cayuga  Lake 
is  by  the  following  manipulation.  Use  the  hoe,  or  broom-handled 
block,  round,  with  square  ends — say  a  piece  of  locust,  five  inches  in 
diameter  and  six  inches  long;  crush  just  hard  enough  in  your  butter 
firkin  to  mash  the  pulp  and  lacerate  the  skins  of  the  grapes,  but  not 
crush  the  seeds,  half  a  bushel  at  a  time,  putting,  as  before,  30  gallons 
into  an  alcohol  cask,  with  one  head  out  for  a  fermenting  tun.  To 
every  gallon  add  one  pound  of  sugar,  or  equivalent  of  clarified  syrup. 
If  sugar  is  used,  boil  in  sufficient  water  or  wine  to  dissolve  it' — the 
longer  the  better,  before  you  add  to  the  mashed  grapes — making  30  or 
35  gallons  in  your  40  or  45-gallon  fermenting  tun.  Ferment  rapidly, 
by  maintaining  such  heat  that  you  can  hear  the  bubbling  and  a  hissing 
sound  from  the  tun  all  over  the  room.  The  color  will  deepen,  and 
then  fade^  when  the  supernatant  skins  and  pulp  have  become  dingy 
and  muddy,  and  the  must  or  liquor  pale  reddish  amber  color,  put  to 
press,  and  pour  the  must  or  grape-juice  into  the  cask,  where  it  is  to 
ripen.  Ferment  again  rapidly,  so  that  not  over  twenty-five  days  shall 
elapse  before  the  fermentation  shall  cease  spontaneously — that  is, 
35- A 


546  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

twenty-five  days  from  the  time  of  crusMng  the  grapes.  Put  in  a  cold, 
dry  cellar,  and  bung  uptight.  Eack  in  February  and  again  in  April, 
or  just  before  the  "sweating  in"  commences.  Complete  the  "sweating 
in,"  or  the  second  fermentation,  in  fifteen  days  if  you  can — that  is, 
so  regulate  the  heat  that  it  will  be  over  spontaneously  in  that  time. 
Allow  it  to  clear  by  standing  two  months  ;  rack  and  let  it  stand  one 
month,  and  rack  again,  adding  at  this  last  racking  as  much  sugar  as 
will  suit  your  taste — say  one  to  one  a  half  pounds  to  the  gallon.  I 
you  have  succeeded  in  the  rackings  just  named,  no  further  fermenta- 
tion will  take  place ;  and  if  the  fermentation  has  been  good,  the  wine 
will  be  sweet  enough  to  suit  any  one,  at  a  pound  and  a  half  to  the 
gallon.  You  can  pass  it  off  to  any  one  as  the  most  delicious,  bland, 
foreign  wine  that  can  be  named.  In  color,  it  is  amber,  or  reddish 
amber ;  mild  and  bland  in  taste,  high  in  its  aroma,  sets  quietly  on  the 
stomach,  produces  no  flatulency,  and  is  a  wine  every  way  worthy  of 
the  name.  Of  the  vintage  of  1858,  I  treated  twelve  casks  on  this 
principle,  and  failed  only  in  three  of  them.  One  became  vinegar,  the 
other  two  somewhat  acid ;  the  graj)es  were  from  five  or  six  different 
graperies.  The  vinegar  cask  was  unripe  Isabellas;  the  other  two 
mixed,  unripe  Catawba  and  unripe  Isabella. 

The  New  York  State  Agricultural  Society,  in  1858,  took  strong 
ground  against  the  addition  of  sugar.  Tiie  committee  on  wines  call 
sugared  wines  "cordials,"  and  not  wines.  I  simply  add,  that  I  have 
a  dozen  samples  made  without  sugar  in  various  ways,  of  careful,  un- 
adulterated manipulation.  A  flat,  tart,  insipid,  high-colored  (red  or 
straw-colored)  fluid  is  thus  made.  This  wine  can  be  remedied  by  the 
addition  of  "acetic  ether"  and  "ethereal  oil  of  wine."  If  these  gen- 
tlemen say  they  add  no  sugar,  but  do  add  the  gluten  of  wheat  and 
starch,  they  are  probably  not  aware  that  they  use  sugar  in  disguise. 

In  judging  of  wines,  and  to  suit  the  common  taste,  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  we  are  not  a  wine-drinking  people.  The  mass  of  the 
nation  form  their  ideas  of  wine  by  that  used  at  the  sacramental  tables 
of  our  churches.  And  in  these  a  factitious  mixture  of  wine,  brandy, 
or  alcohol,  drugs,  and  especially  "acetic  ether"  and  "ethereal  oil  of 
wine" — an  oil  made  from  the  distillation  of  alcohol — is  the  main 
element  that  reaches  the  taste,  and  then  only  when  excessively  sweet- 
ened. Hence,  if  a  rare  and  choice  bottle  of  foreign  wine  is  care- 
fully brought  home  by  a  traveler,  and  tasted  by  an  American,  it  is 
condemned.  So,  too,  of  a  choice  native  wine  in  most  cases.  The 
drugs  that  make  the  decided  taste  on  the  tongue  are  not  there;  neither 
is  the  excess  of  sugar.  I  have  known  the  choicest  wine  of  Palestine 
condemned  as  no  wine  at  all,  .ind.  the  Hock  of  Germany  pronounced 
as  without  character,  because  of  this  false  opinion  thus  formed. 

Henceforth,  wine-making  will  assume  more  and  more  importance. 
Lastly,  I  would  add,  that  a  market  is  the  main  demand  of  our  valley. 
Of  the  wines  of  1858,  we  probably  have  in  town  over  600  gallons  ripe 
and  for  sale.  With  unreasonable  susj^icion  we  can  find  no  ready  sale, 
but  in  time  this  will  be  overcome. 

I  would  say  to  the  novice  in  wine-making,  avoid  putting  the  unfer- 
mented  wine  in  casks  in  a  cold  cellar,  and  thus  avoid  the  slow  fer- 


'miscellaneous.  547 

mentation  in  the  cask  for  from  three  to  six  months.  Such  wines  never 
ripen  ;  we  have  them,  thus  treated,  of  1854,  1856,  and  1857,  yet  un- 
ripened  and  acid.  All  our  wines  tend  to  a  claret.  I  am  inclined  to 
the  belief  that  the  best  "stumming"  of  casks  is  to  fill  them  with  weak 
lime  water,  and  let  them  stand  two  or  three  weeks  ;  the  addition  of 
pulverized  lime  stone  to  the  mash  would  be  useful  to  prevent  acidity. 
In  my  experiment  it  fell  in  crystals  to  the  bottom  of  the  cask  in  a  year 
to  a  year  and  a  half. 

EespectfuUy, 

S.  J.  PAEKER,  M.  D. 
Hon.  William  D.  Bishop, 

Commissioner  of  Patents. 


From  the  Union  Horticultural  Society,  Penn  Yan,  Yates  county,  New 

York. 

The  grape  commands  the  attention  of  our  horticulturists,  many  of 
Vv^hom  liave  already  advanced  far  in  its  cultivation.  In  this  vicinity 
there  have  been  not  less  than  one  1,636  gallons  of  wine  made.  The 
amount  of  grapes  sold  at  distant  markets  is  10,960  pounds,  and  prob- 
ably as  much  more  consumed  or  kept  for  home  consumption.  Over 
20,000  vines  will  be  set  out  during  the  coming  season  in  this  county, 
and  an  equal  number  in  the  neighboring  country.  Wine  has  been 
made  from  nearly  all  our  varieties  of  grapes,  with  varying  success,  as 
may  be  expected-  when  inexperienced  men  engage  in  a  new  enterprise. 
The  business  is  extending,  and  is  destined  to  become  important. 

The  native  grape  has  been  converted  into  wine  with  good  results. 
The  vine  is  hardy  and  thrives  well,  and  the  fruit  is  dark-colored,  rich, 
and  pulpy.  It  is  tart  in  a  high  degree.  For  heavy  wine,  it  seems 
admirably  adapted,  and  its  rich  pulp  will  admit  sugar  without  render- 
ing it  light  and  insipid.  It  will,  no  doubt,  be  sought  for  to  color  and 
flavor  wine  of  other  varieties. 

In  our  latitude,  42°  40",  with  our  variety  of  soils  and  climate ;  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Seneca  Lake,  which  is  about  450  feet  above  tide-water, 
and  never  freezes ;  also  of  the  Crfoked  Lake,  720  feet  above  tide-water; 
with  our  slopes  and  highlands,  800  feet  above  the  lakes,  and  with  our 
valleys  and  exposures  to  all  points  of  the  compass,  we  have  natural 
facilities  to  become  acquainted  with  the  habits,  properties,  and  modes 
of  cultivation  of  every  kind  of  grape.  Such  varied  circumstances  will 
make  the  study  pleasing  and  the  result  profitable.  We  have  in  our 
vicinity  the  climate  of  the  lake  country  and  its  breezes,  and  the  climate 
of  the  river  countries,  with  their  sunshine,  frost,  fogs,  and  mist.  Near 
the  lakes,  it  is  true,  are  places  effected  by  fog  and  mist  in  autumn, 
where  the  rot  or  mildew  will  be  a  most  certain  destroyer ;  but  at  others, 
only  a  few  miles  distant,  fog  is  seldom  seen,  and  the  autumn  frost  is 
slow  to  appear. 


648  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

SILK  CULTURE.     • 

By  L.  Constant,  of  Gat  Springs,  Austin  County,  Texas. 

Familiar  with  tlie  climate  of  Southern  Europe,  and  for  twelve  years 
a  resident  of  Texas,  I  had  my  attention  directed  long  ago  to  silk  cul- 
ture. Several  attempts  to  import  eggs,  via  Bordeaux,  proved  unsuc- 
cessful, the  worms  having  already  left  their  eggs,  when  I  came  into 
possession.  At  a  later  period  I  ordered  from  Bolzani,  a  silk-raiser  in 
Berlin,  and  received  them  in  a  perfect  state,  though  transported  in 
winter.  They  were  well  packed  in  linen.  Without  paying  them  any 
special  attention,  I  kej)t  the  eggs,  still  so  packed,  in  a  drawer,  from 
the  1st  of  January  to  the  10th  of  May,  without  injury.  At  an  average 
temperature  of  74°  F.  I  soaked  the  eggs  for  some  six  hours  in  a 
mixture  of  brandy  and  water,  wiped  them  well  with  a  piece  of  smooth 
linen,  and  put  them  into  a  small,  flat,  wooden  box^  exposing  it  to 
the  rays  of  the  sun,  covered  slightly  v^^ith  a  few  mulberry  leaves, 
which,  as  they  withered,  were  constantly  substituted  by  fresh  ones. 
During  the  nights,  I  kept  the  box  warm  by  putting  some  cotton  loosely 
around  it.  By  this  method,  differing  altogether  from  that  used  in 
Europe — where  the  eggs  are  hatched  either  in  rooms  of  an  equal 
temperature,  or  on  the  bosom  of  females — I  succeeded  very  well.  After 
six  days  all  the  vigorous  worms  had  left  their  eggs,  appeared  very 
lively,  and  partook  freely  of  the  young  leaves  of  Morus  multicaulis. 
The  feeding  was  done  on  the  usual  wicker-work,  placed  in  my  room, 
which  was  kept  open  by  day  and  shut  at  night.  When  a  warm  and 
equal  temperature  began,  which  lasted  during  the  whole  month  of 
June,  it  was  a  very  favorable  period  to  the  worms ;  yet  I  was  surprised 
at  the  extraordinary  facility  displayed  by  them  in  completing  their 
four  changes,  and  pleased  to  find  that,  on  the  twenty-eighth  day 
after  their  birth,  the  transformation  into  the  chrysalis  had  already 
begun.  On  the  sixth  day  after  their  birth  I  transferred  part  of  the 
worms  into  the  open  air,  removing  them  from  the  wicker-work  to  the 
mulberry  trees,  by  fixing  there  the  branches  of  those  leaves  already 
occupied,  from  which  they  soon  spread.  They  continued  in  good 
health,  appeared  lively,  and  became  fnore  vigorous  than  those  kept  in 
the  room.  I  did  not  supply  the  former  with  any  huts,  in  which  to  go 
through  the  process  of  changing  into  the  chrysalis ;  but  those  ke23t  in 
the  room  were  furnished  with  shocks  made  of  fine  straw,  and  sim- 
ilar to  small  brooms,  without  a  handle.  On  the  thirty-second  day 
after  their  birth  they  had  already  involved  themselves,  or  begun  their 
spinning.  I  possessed  one  fourth  of  an  ounce  of  grains,  the  fourth 
part  of  which  was  hatched,  and  the  rest  I  threw  away,  so  as  not  to 
raise  worms  of  different  ages.  They  produced  somewhat  over  a  pound 
of  cocoons,  which,  either  together  with  their  huts  or  collected  from  the 
trees,  were  put  into  a  box  lined  with  coarse  linen,  and  j)laced  in  a  dark 
corner  of  the  room.  After  ten  days  the  insects  crept  out,  and  within 
four  days  laid  seven  eighths  of  an  ounce  of  eggs,  which  kept  very  well 
until  next  spring ;  but,  on  the  occasion  of  a  heavy  rain,  they  became 


MISCELLANEOUS.  549 

wet  and  unfit  for  use,  simply  because  the  miscliief  done  had  not  "been 
noticed  until  too  late.  From  the  close  attention  I  devoted  to  them,  I 
found  that  not  a  single  worm  became  sick  or  died  in  the  course  of  their 
development ;  and  almost  without  an  exception  they  went  through  the 
changing  process  with  ease  and  rapidity.  They  were  fond  of  the  leaves 
of  the  Morus  multicaulis,  eating  them  with  avidity;  but  refused  those 
of  the  wild  mulberry  of  this  region.  The  worms  raised  in  the  open 
air  were  vigorous,  and  their  cocoons  beyond  all  objection.  The  silk 
was  equal  to  the  best  obtained  from  Turin,  the  thread  of  the  cocoon 
being  some  500  to  YOO  yards  in  length.  It  is  my  intention  to  continue 
these  experiments. 


THE  RADISH,  AND  FRUITS  OP  JAPAN. 
By  ToWNSEKD  Harris,  United  States  Consul,  Simoda. 

The  statements  in  the  "World  in  Miniature,"  concerning  the  Ja- 
pan radish,  are  much  exaggerated.  It  is  true,  that  radishes  are  grown 
in  every  part  of  Japan,  but  nowhere  are  they  a  principal  article  of 
food;  they  are  merely  an  adjunct  to  rice,  wheat,  and  barley,  which  are 
the  great  staples  of  the  country. 

I  ordered  the  best  specimens  of  the  long  radish  to  be  brought  to  me 
when  I  first  visited  Yedo ;  the  longest  were  less  than  thirty  inches, 
and  about  one  inch  in  diameter.  This  radish,  when  dried,  loses  more 
than  three-fourths  of  its  bulk,  and  looks  very  like  a  wdiip-thong. 
Specimens  of  another  kind  were  also  brought  to  me.  These  were 
shaped  like  our  parsnip ;  the  largest  measured  eighteen  inches  in  the 
length,  and  fifteen  in  circumference,  and  weighed  four  pounds  and  five 
ounces,  avoirdupois. 

All  the  radishes  of  Japan,  when  used  as  a  salad,  are  inferior  to  the 
garden  radish  of  the  West,  being  tough,  and  not  of  an  agreeable  flavor. 
When  boiled  they  are  quite  insipid,  having  nothing  of  the  flavor  of  the 
white  turnip  or  rutabaga. 

Only  trifling  attention  is  paid  to  the  cultivation  of  fruit  in  this 
country ;  cherry  and  plum  trees  produce  magnificent  blossoms,  but 
bear  very  little  fruit,  and  that  little  worthless.  Peaches  are  far  infe- 
rior to  those  of  China,  being  quite  bitter ;  and  the  same  remark  will 
apply  to  the  apricot. 

I  have  seen  only  one  variety  of  pears ;  they  resemble  in  shape  and 
color  a  russet  apple,  but  are  unfit  to  eat  raw,  and  when  cooked  are 
quite  insipid.  The  best  grapes  of  Japan  are  like  the  Catawba  in  ap- 
pearance, but  inferior  to  that  variety. 

The  only  fruit  that  I  have  seen  in  Japan  that  particularly  merits 
notice,  is  the  Kaki,  a  variety  of  Diospyros,  and  belonging  to  the  order 
Ehenacece.  It  is  really  worthy  of  being  introduced  into  the  United 
States.     Many  kinds  have  been  brought  to  me.     One  has  a  skin  as 


550  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

thin  as  tissue  paper,  and  the  pulp  resembles  in  flavor  the  Egyptian 
fig.  Another  variety  has  a  thick  rind  and  a  finer  pulp,  while  the 
taste  strongly  reminds  me  of  the  delicious  mango  of  Siam  and  Bombay. 
The  tree  is  very  ornamental,  and  of  rapid  growth  ;  it  would,  no  doubt 
succeed  in  any  part  of  the  United  States  south  of  3'7°  of  latitude. 
Unlike  the  persimmon  of  the  United  States,  there  is  very  little  astrin- 
gency  in  the  skin  of  the  fruit,  and  frost,  which  matures  ihe  persim- 
mon, greatly  injures  the  kaki.  This  fruit  varies  in  size,  but  is  always 
larger  than  its  American  relative,  and  some  are  seven  inches  in  diam- 
eter ;  it  is  in  season  nearly  three  months.  The  Japanese  dry  it,  when 
it  will  keep  for  some  four  months,  and  has  a  taste  like  that  of  the  dried 
Smyrna  fig. 


From  Beverly  L.  Clarke,  United  States  Minister  Resident  to  Guate- 
mala. 

VEGETABLE  TALLOW, 

Known  to  botanists  by  the  name  of  myristica  sebacea,  comes  from  a 
nut  about  the  size  of  a  nutmeg,  full  of  meat,  which,  being  melted, 
produces  a  yellowish  tallow,  excellent  for  candles,  but  until  now  very 
little  used  or  known  even  here.  I  have  no  doubt  this  article  might  be 
collected  and  exported  with  considerable  profit.  It  is  grown  upon  a 
bush  or  shrub,  in  its  wild  or  uncultivated  state,  in  immense  quantities, 
in  the  southern  departments  and  in  Vera  Paz.  It  is  susceptible  of  such 
high  purification  as  to  resemble  the  finest  sperm,  is  solid,  and  quite  as 
transparent.  A  sample  of  this  production  in  the  nuts,  in  the  form  of 
tallow,  is  forwarded  with  this  report. 


ORCHARD-HOUSE  CULTURE. 

By  Dr.  George  Pepper  Norris,  near  Wilmington,  Delaioare. 

Orchard-house  culture,  recently  introduced  into  the  United  States, 
bids  fair  to  give  great  satisfaction.  Many  varieties  of  fruits  cannot  be 
grown  in  the  open  air,  on  account  of  insect  pests,  and  this  plan^  by 
the  construction  of  proper  houses,  will,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years, 
effect  a  great  change  in  the  manner  of  growing  fruits.  No  work  on 
this  subject  has  yet  a23peared  in  our  country,  but  horticulturists  are 
much  indebted  to  the  editor  of  a  prominent  journal  on  horticulture, 
for  republishing  Mr.  Eivers's  book  relating  to  it. 

This  mode  of  culture  has  been  successfully  tried  in  England,  and  a 
number  of  houses  have  been  constructed  adjoining  our  large  cities. 
One  in  Philadelphia,  that  of  Mr.  Levering,  is  two  hundred  feet  long, 
and  although  but  a  short  time  in  operation,  has  already  produced  the 
most  satisfactory  results. 

Orchard-house  culture,  with  us,  will  probably  be  confined  to  the 
peach,  plum,  apricot,  and  nectarine.     The  ttjee  latter  fruits  are  now 


MISCELLANEOUS.  551 

almost  entirely  neglected  in  this  vicinity,  on  account  of  the  ravages  of 
the  curculio.  Fruits  of  the  hinds  above  named  are  intended  to  he 
grown  as  dwarfs,  in  pots,  and  by  a  proper  course  of  pruning  and 
summer  pinching,  with  liquid  manure,  will  succeed  in  producing  fine 
crops.     A  house  for  this  kind  of  culture  may  he  thus  described  : 

Suppose  one  to  be  desired  30  feet  long.  Stake  out  the  ground,  30 
feet  by  12  feet  6  inches  wide  ;  place  6  cedar  or  chesnut  posts  3  feet 
deep,  leaving  7  feet  6  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  soil.  This  is 
for  the  back  row.  Plant  another  row  of  posts  12  feet  6  inches  in 
front  of  these  back  posts,  to  project  above  the  ground  3  feet.  Nail 
strips  along  the  top  of  the  back  and  front  rows,  for  the  rafters  to 
rest  on.  The  rafters  will  be  14  feet  long,  and  the  roof  to  be  made 
of  glass,  permanently  fixed,  in  the  manner  adopted  by  all  nursery- 
men for  their  grape  and  pruning-houses,  with  two  additional  posts 
at  each  side,  for  doors.  It  is  now  ready  to  board  up.  The  front, 
back,  and  sides  should  be  finished  with  well-seasoned  l-incli  plowed 
and  grooved  plank.  This  gives  us  a  house  30  feet  long  by  12  feet  6 
inches  wide  ;  7  feet  6  inches  high  at  the  back,  (probably  7  feet  9  inches 
with  the  back  plank,)  and  3  feet  3  inches  high  in  the  front.  It  is 
nothing  but  a  lean-to  glass-roofed  house,  made  perfectly  tight,  but 
capable  of  being  all  thrown  open,  as  will  presently  be  described. 

Everything  will  depend  on  the  ventilation.  Glass  shutters,  3  feet  long 
by  20  inches  in  width,  should  alternate  in  the  roof,  to  be  raised  up.  The 
boards  along  the  front  should  be  on  hinges,  to  let  down.  There  should 
be  6  shutters,  on  grooves,  3  feet  by  1  foot  2  inches,  near  the  top,  2  half- 
way down,  and  2  at  the  bottom.  This,  with  two  doors,  one  at  each  end, 
will  give  the  requisite  air.  It  will  be  understood  that  a  house  is  desired 
capable  of  being  made  perfectly  tight,  when  necessary ;  at  the  same  time, 
we  can,  by  opening  all  the  shutters  and  doors,  give  an  abundance  of  air. 
The  walk  through  the  center  of  the  house  is  made  by  sinking  the  path 
18  inches  below  the  surface,  and  planking  up  the  sides.  The  front 
row  of  trees  will  now  be  placed  in  pots  directly  beneath  the  glass,  and 
3  feet  apart ;  the  back  will  require  to  be  raised  according  to  the  size 
of  the  trees.  Pot  fruit  trees  require  a  strong,  hot  sun,  with  plenty  of 
air,  and  protection  from  cold  spring  winds.  The  cost  of  such  a  house 
as  I  have  described  should  not  be  over  $120,  and  by  careful  manage- 
ment may  be  built  for  considerably  less.  Mr.  Kivers's  estimate  is  under 
■|80  for  these  dimensions,  but  is  too  low.  Pot  fruits  are  now  for  sale 
by  all  the  prominent  nurserymen,  with  instructions  how  to  prune  and 
cultivate.  Five  years  will,  in  all  probability,  witness  very  numer- 
ous houses  of  this  kind  throughout  the  country.  A  plan  in  detail  will 
be  found  in  the  Horticulturist,  for  June,  1859  [published  by  Saston, 
New  York.] 


THE  HANG-WORM. 


Maryland  Agricultural  College, 
Prince  George's  county,  Maryland,  December  21,  1859. 
Sir:  I  am  sorry  I  did  not  receive  Mr.  Chambers's  interesting  com- 
munication to  the  Agricultural  Division  of  your  office  until  a  few  days 
ao;o,  it  havinar  been  misdirected. 


552  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Mr.  C.  C.  Chambers,  of  Flemington,  East  Florida,  complains  of  the 
ravages  committed  upon  tlie  cotton  crop  in  his  neighborhood  by  a 
species  of  caterpillar,  unknown  to  either  himself  or  the  planters  in  his 
immediate  vicinity,  but  which,  from  his  clear  and  lucid  description, 
(the  specimen  inclosed  in  his  letter  being  unfortunately  lost,)  I  have 
very  little  hesitation  in  pronouncing  to  be  a  species  of  the  Oiketicus 
coniferiim,  commonly  known  in  this  State  as  the  hang  or  drop-worm. 
This  name  has  been  given  to  it  from  the  peculiar  habit  the  caterpillar 
has  of  forming  a  case,  and  hanging  suspended  from  the  leaves  or 
branches  of  the  trees  and  shrubs  upon  which  it  feeds.  As  the  natural 
history  and  instincts  of  our  Oiketicus,  or  hang-worm,  are  most  prob- 
ably much  the  same  as  the  Florida  species,  and  may  prove  interesting 
to  Mr.  Chambers,  I  will  endeavor  to  describe  them,  in  as  plain  lan- 
guage as  possible. 

The  eggs  are  deposited  at  the  lower  end  of  the  hard  brown  envelop, 
or  apparent  chrysalis  of  the  female  insect,  and  inside  of  what  Mr.  C. 
terms  the  "cocoon,"  which  "case"  also  serves  as  a  protection  for  the 
insect  when  in  the  soft-bodied,  caterpillar  state,  and  is  formed  of  silk, 
interwoven  with  pieces  of  stalk  and  leaves,  upon  which  the  caterpillar 
feeds.  The  interior  is  carefully  lined  with  a  fine  floss-like  silk,  to 
protect  the  naked  skin  of  the  caterpillar  from  the  rough  ends  of  its 
outer  envelop.  When  the  warm  weather  commences,  these  eggs, 
having  remained  in  the  case  all  winter,  hidden  from  the  prying  eyes 
of  insectivorous  birds  and  protected  from  the  cold,  hatch,  and  the 
young  worms  emerge  into  the  case  from  an  aperture  in  the  anterior 
part  of  the  female  chrysalis  case,  caused  by  a  splitting  open  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  hard  and  shelly  material  forming  the  outer  envelop 
of  the  female.  The  young  worms  then  find  their  way  into  the  outer 
world  through  a  hole  purposely  left  in  the  lower  end  of  the  leafy  case, 
and  beginning  to  feed  upon  the  tree,  immediately  form  a  minute  case 
adapted  to  their  small  size,  from  the  gnawed  fragments  as  before 
stated,  and  which  they  gradually  enlarge,  from  time  to  time,  as^  they 
grow,  until  the  autumn,  when  they  attain  their  full  and  perfect  size ;  in 
the  meantime  merely  protruding  their  heads  to  feed  and  six  fore  feet 
to  crawl  from  place  to  place.  Still,  however,  they  retain  their  case  or 
movable  house,  firmly  attached  to  their  naked  bodies  by  means  of  their 
hinder  feet,  which  grasp,  or  retain  hold  of  the  case  with  such  tenacity 
as  hardly  to  be  capable  of  being  dislodged  without  tearing  the  worm 
to  pieces.  When  the  caterpillar  of  the  male  is  full  grown,  it  casts  the 
caterpillar  skin  and  assumes  the  form  of  a  pupa,  in  the  same  manner 
as  other  Lepidojpterous,  or  scale-winged  insects,  and  remains  in  this 
state  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  according  to  the  state  of  the  weather. 
It  finally  pushes  itself  out  of  the  lower  end  of  the  case,  through  the 
opening  left  purposely  by  the  caterpillar,  the  minute  spines  on  its 
body  facilitating  this  mode  of  exit ;  and  the  anterior  part  splitting 
open,  a  small  black  four-winged  fly  or  moth  makes  its  ap23earance, 
having  the  body  black  and  hairy,  and  wings  transparent  wherever  the 
down  or  scales  have  been  accidentally  rubbed  off.  This  moth  might 
readily  be  mistaken  for  a  fly  from  its  singularly  fly-like  appearance 
and  transparent  wings  ;  but,  in  reality,  belongs  to  the  urder  oi  Lepidop- 
tcra,  or  butterflies  and  moths,  the  same  m  th§  cotton  caterpillar  and  boll- 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


653 


worm.  Tlie  male  insect  having  wings,  immediately  seeks  out,  and  pairs 
with  the  first  female  he  finds,  quietly  reposing  in  her  case,  which  she 
never  leaves — this  serving,  at  different  times,  first  as  her  house,  then 
as  her  nest,  and  finally,  as  her  cofi&n.  Pairing  being  over,  the  male 
dies,  the  female  deposits  her  eggs  in  the  case,  as  before  stated,  and 
likewise  dies,  leaving  the  eggs  to  be  hatched  by  the  genial  heat  of  the 
next  season's  sun.  Late  in  the  fall,  and  during  the  winter,  many 
small  cases  or  cocoons  maybe  seen  suspended  on  the  leafless  branches, 
each  with  a  black  chrysalis  case  protruding  from  its  lower  extremity ; 
these  are  the  cases  of  the  males,  that  have  undergone  their  transform- 
ations, and  paired  with  the  females.  The  larger  cocoons  are  those  of 
the  females,  and  contain  the  dried  up  body  of  the  insect,  in  the  poste- 
rior part  of  which  may  be  found  from  seven  hundred  to  one  thousand 
eggs;  embedded  in  and  covered  on  the  upper  part  with  a  thick  layer  of 
brownish  dust,  apparently  composed  of  the  down  of  the  mother's 
body.  These  eggs,  if  not  destroyed,  will  all  hatch,  and  in  a  short 
time  defoliate  all  the  trees  in  the  neighborhood,  the  young  worms 
being  so  light  as  to  be  carried  by  the  wind  from  tree  to  tree,  with  the 
greatest  facility,  as  I  have  found  them  on  almost  every  shade  tree  in 
Washington,  not  even  accepting  the  flat  cedar.  They  do  not  appear 
to  be  very  choice  in  their  selection  of  food. 

I  wish  I  could  procure  from  him  as  many  as  a  dozen  cocoons,  to 
hatch  the  eggs  therein  contained,  and  compare  the  perfect  insect  with 

our  own,  as  I  have  already  figured 
one  Oiketicus  or  hang-worm  found  on 
the  cotton  plant  in  Greorgia,  and  was 
satisfied  that  it  was  almost,  if  not 
absolutely  tlie  same  as  our  own  Oiketi- 
cus conifencm,  or  case-bearing  hang- 
worm,  if  I  may  so  term  it.  Last  year 
I  found  two  specimens  on  pine  in 
Florida,  but  of  a  much  larger  size, 
and  may  probably  be  the  same  species 
as  that  found  by  Mr.  Chambers,  as 
there  were  cotton  fields  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity.  As  I  have  spent  so 
much  time  in  describing  the  insect,  I 
must  touch  upon  the  most  important 
part    to   the    agriculturist,   the   best 

Male,  with  chrysalis  skin  Female,  with  head  and  mCanS  of  destroying  it.       As  the  iuSCCt 
protruding.  six  tore  feet  out,  crawl-  „  .  i      ,  i  i 

ing.  fastens  its  cocoon  securely  to  a  branch 

or  twig,  when  about  to  change,  and  as  in  winter,  the  trees  here  are 
entirely  defoliated,  and  these  pendant  cocoons,  also  containing  the 
eggs,  are  plainly  visible,  they  should  be  torn  off  and  immediately 
burnt.  Each  female  case,  as  I  have  before  stated,  contains  from  seven 
hundred  to  one  thousand  embryo  worms,  and  if  not  destroyed  in  time, 
might  increase  so  fast  as  to  do  much  damage  to  the  crops.  I  would 
here  remark,  that  this  fall,  I  found  a  peculiar  small  black  and  yellow 
banded  Ichneumon  fly,  very  busy  depositing  her  eggs  in  these  cocoons. 
The  parent  fly  deposits  one  or  two  eggs  in  the  body  of  the  hang-worm 
inside,  and  hatching  into  pale  yellowish  white,  footless  grubs,  devour 


654  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

the  interior  of  the  rightful  possessor  of  the  case,  leaving  untouched 
only  the  hard  shelly  covering  of  the  female,  in  which  they  change  into 
pupae,  and  afterward,  in  the  spring,  gnaw  their  way  out  of  the  mur- 
dered insect,  and  hrood,  as  perfect  four-winged  flies,  having  a  slight 
resemhlance  to  a  very  small  hlack  wasp,  marked  on  the  hind  body  with 
light  yellow  hands.  I  regret  that  I  have  no  specimens  of  these  flies  at 
hand,  in  order  to  he  able  to  describe  them  in  a  more  intelligible  man- 
ner. I  have  also  observed  other  smaller  ichneumon  flies  destroying  the 
hang-worm,  in  a  manner  somewhat  similar;  and  merely  mention  these 
facts  in  order  to  warn  Mr.  Chambers  not  to  mistake  the  beneficial  par- 
asite for  the  really  noxious  insect,  should  he,  or  his  neighbors,  choose 
to  watch  their  transformations  and  habits  another  season,  as  I  hope 
they  will  do,  and  report  to  the  office  the  results  of  their  experiments. 
It  is  generally  from  practical  planters  that  we  learn  the  true  history 
of  the  insects  destructive  to  their  crops.  As  to  Mr.  C.'s  theory  of  the 
cotton  caterpillar,  I  confess  I  am  unable  to  judge  about  their  appear- 
ance, at  stated  intervals,  like  the  locust,  {Cicada  leptendecim ;)  but, 
from  what  I  have  seen,  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  seasons  have  more 
to  do  with  it  than  he  imagines.  A  slight  frost  will  kill  the  chrysalis 
in  its  loosely-spun  cocoon,  and  I  have  been  unable  to  find  either  eggs 
or  perfect  insects  in  the  winter,  not  having  remained  the  whole  year 
in  the  South. 

I  remain  with  respect,  your  obedient  servant, 

TOWNEND  GLOVER. 

Hon.  William  D.  Bishop, 

Commissioner  of  Patents,  Washington. 


Letter  from  N.  H.  Morague,  M.  D.,  of  Palatka,  Florida. 

Palatka^  Florida,  January  10,  1859. 

Mr.  Townend  Glover,  late  entomologist  of  the  Agricultural  Division 
of  the  Patent  Office,  and  myself,  commenced  last  summer  a  series  of 
experiments  upon  my  orange  grove  for  the  purpose  of  eradicating  the 
insects;  ''insignificant  animalcules"  as  they  appear  to  the  eye  unas- 
sisted by  the  microscope,  yet  they  were  devastating  my  trees  in  such  a 
manner  that  I  had  almost  resolved  to  abandon  the  culture. 

After  trying  various  experiments  with  but  little  success,  such  as 
sulphur  and  lime,  aloes  and  whisky,  coal-tar,  soda,  syrup,  &c.,  we 
came  to  the  conclusion  to  try  Peruvian  guano,  and  made  a  solution 
according  to  the  following  proportions : 

To  a  barrel  of  soap-suds  acid  a  common  bucket  of  guano. 

I  may  here  remark  that  the  instrument  used  in  applying  these 
remedies  was  a  tin  syringe,  with  numerous  minute  holes  perforated  in 
the  end ;  a  number  of  which  instruments  Mr.  Glover  was  kind  enough 
to  have  made  and  presented  to  several  persons  in  this  community. 
We  syringed  my  trees  once  a  week  for  a  month  or  two,  and  I  am  happy 
to  say  with  complete  success.  Although  my  grove  was  literally  covered 
vvrith  the  coccus,  not  one  can  now  be  found  alive. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  556 

If  they  return,  I  sliall  pursue  the  same  plan,  satisfied  that  I  shall 
gain  a  two-fold  object :  first,  ridding  the  trees  of  the  insect,  at  least 
for  a  time,  and  secondly,  benefiting  the  trees  very  much  by  the  wash 
and  drippings  of  the  guano. 


FROST. 
BY  WILLIAM  H.  BREWER. 

The  frosts  of  June  of  1859  were  so  very  disastrous  to  the  crops  of  this 
county  that  I  have  thought  the  subject  of  sufficient  interest  to  record 
for  future  reference.  They  were  unsurpassed  and  even  unequaled  by 
any  that  ever  occurred  in  this  country,  (so  far  as  I  can  ascertain,)  if 
we  consider  the  great  extent  of  territory  affected,  the  lateness  of  the 
season,  and  the  magnitude  of  their  disastrous  results. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  month  of  June  was  several  degrees 
lower  than  usual  in  most  of  the  Northern  States,  and  at  some  places 
where  records  have  long  been  kept,  (as  at  Eochester,)  several  degrees 
lower  than  ever  before  noticed. 

The  4th.  of  the  month  was  generally  the  coldest  day,  and  at  the 
Toronto  Observatory,  (Canada,)  the  coldest  of  any  day  in  June  for  over 
twenty  years,  while  similar  notes  came  from  other  points.  The  night 
was  still  colder,  and  brought  a  disastrous  freezing  frost.  Snow  fell 
during  the  day  at  Toronto^,  Niagara,  Forbes,  Buffalo,  Syracuse,  &c. 
In  many  places  in  Western  New  York,  as  at  Avon,  the  ground  was 
white.     Scattering  flakes  also  fell  in  parts  of  Ohio. 

The  mean  temperature  here  for  the  day  was  20°  F.,  the  evening 
observation  being  34°  in  a  sheltered  place.  The  night  was  perfectly, 
clear ;  how  low  the  thermometer  sank  I  have  no  means  of  knowing 
accurately,  but  probably  to  about  25°,  or  even  lower,  which  is  23° 
below  the  lowest  temperature  for  June,  1857.  On  the  morning  of  the 
5th  a  frost-like  snow  generally  covered  the  ground,  while  the  bare 
surface  was  frozen  to  the  depth  of  over  one  fourth  of  an  inch,  and  ice 
formed  on  the  water  in  the  most  exposed  positions  over  one  fourth  of 
an  inch  in  thickness.  This  was  the  frost  that  did  the  most  of  the 
damage  here  and  in  the  adjoining  counties,  but  in  some  places  it  was 
less  disastrous  than  the  succeeding  ones.  Probably,  also,  it  spread 
widest,  having  been  felt  over  a  large  part  of  New  England,  where  it  did 
but  little  injury.  Over  the  most  of  New  York  it  was  very  severe, 
especially  in  the  central  and  western  parts,  and  did  much  damage  in 
Ohio  and  Pennsylvania — these  three  States  suffering  particularly.  It 
extended  south  to  Maryland,  being  further  south  on  the  east  than  on 
the  west  side  of  the  mountains,  affected  also  the  most  of  Michigan, 
much  of  Illinois  and  Indiana,  Kentucky,  (as  far  south  as  Lexington,) 
Missouri,  Wisconsin,  Canada,  and  Iowa,  probably  to  the  Missouri 
river.  A  diminution  of  temperature  was  felt  as  far  as  North  Carolina, 
and  perhaps  further  south.  In  some  places  the  frost  made  its  appear- 
ance on  the  night  of  the  3d,  as  in  Berks  county,  Pennsylvania  ;  but 
this  was  not  usual,  and  even  in  those  cases  the  day  of  the  4th  was  the 
cold  day. 


656  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

In  parts  of  New  York  a  heavy  frost  followed  on  tlie  night  of  the  5th, 
in  various  places,  on  the  night  of  the  6th,  then,  extensively  on  the 
night  of  the  7th,  which  was  severe  in  Northern  New  York.  It  was  felt 
m  Vermont  and  Massachusetts ;  I  know  not  how  wide.  Again,  on  the 
aight  of  the  8th  it  was  severe  in  places  in  Northeast,  especially  in 
Maine.  On  the  night  of  the  10th,  it  was  most  severe  in  places  in  New 
York ;  on  the  11th  and  12th,  there  was  frost  here_,  the  first  very  slight ; 
that  of  the  12th  severe  enough  to  destroy  much  which  the  first  frost 
had  spared.  In  some  other  places  ice  formed  of  considerable  thickness, 
but  none  here.  Frost  followed  in  still  other  places  on  the  night  of  the 
13th.  From  this  last  date,  the  weather  here  steadily  grew  warmer, 
until  the  28th,  when  it  reached  94°,  about  the  hottest  of  the  season,  and 
then  cooled  again  until  we  had  a  slight  frost  on  the  morning  of  the 
4th  of  July. 

In  this  series  of  frosts,  the  region  of  greatest  disaster  may  be  defined 
as  a  belt  extending  from  Auburn,  New  York,  to  Columbus,  Pennsyl- 
vania, the  northern  edge  of  this  belt  curving  considerably  to  the  south, 
in  Western  Pennsylvania,  but  severe  damage  was  done  outside  of  this 
in  certain  localities,  embracing  the  most  of  New  York,  north  and  west 
of  the  Catskill  mountains,  the  most  of  Pennsylvania  west  of  the 
mountains,  the  most  of  Ohio,  and  parts  of  Michigan,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Wisconsin,  Massachusetts,  and  Canada.  If  we  take  its  entire  range, 
it  included  also  all  of  New  England,  east  to  the  Atlantic,  south  to 
Maryland,  parts  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  the  States  before  enumer- 
ated, west  to  the  Missouri  river,  (possibly  further,)  and  north  to  an 
unknown  distance. 

The  effects  were  generally  less  severe  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
large  bodies  of  water.  A  slight  fog  rising  from  the  Ohio  protected  the 
immediate  valley  near  here ;  a  strip  along  the  northern  shore  of  Lake 
Erie  was  protected  in  a  similar  manner ;  in  fact,  this  was  observed 
along  many  other  bodies  of  water,  as  Seneca  and  Cayuga  Lakes,  and 
the  other  lakes  of  Central  New  York.  But  a  partial  exception  was 
seen  around  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Michigan.  In  the  vicinity  of 
Chicago  the  injury  was  very  severe. 

The  effects  of  elevation  and  exposure  were  various  and  remarkable. 
In  some  situations,  even  in  this  vicinity,  the  valleys  and  sheltered 
places  suffered  least;  in  others,  not  distant,  the  reverse  was  the  case. 
Some  fields  of  wheat  seemed  to  have  been  frozen  by  the  wind,  which 
protected  others,  and  often  localities  quite  near  each  other,  suffered 
very  unequally. 

The  different  states  of  advancement  of  the  crops  in  different  localities 
was  another  cause  of  divers  effects.  At  no  place  where  the  tempera- 
ture sank  so  low  was  vegetation  further  advanced  than  here,  hence  no 
locality  suffered  more.  Throughout  the  country  wheat  was  in  full 
flower,  some  fields  beyond  that  stage,  other  grains  proportionately 
advanced,  apples  over  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  ripe  cherries  had  been 
in  market  from  the  vicinity  for  several  days,  while  other  fruits  had 
duly  progressed. 

It  may  be  well  to  notice  some  of  the  immediate  effects  and  appear- 
ances. Corn,  of  course,  was  killed,  as  far  as  it  was  frozen,  that  which 
was  furthest  advanced  being  entirely  lost.     Wheat  was  injured  most 


MISCELLANEOUS.  557 

by  freezing  in  the  soft  parts  of  the  stalk,  generally  in  the  sheath  of 
the  upper  joint,  and  the  stalk  immediately  below  the  head.  Hundreds 
of  acres  were  thus  totally  destroyed,  but  in  some  cases  it  seemed  as  if 
the  damage  had  been  done  in  the  head  itself,  although  it  was  rare  at 
harvest  to  find  a  head  partially  killed ;  in  probably  ninety-nine  cases 
in  a  hundred  the  head  was  entirely  killed,  or  escaped  nearly  unharmed ; 
that  is,  produced  its  full  number  of  grains,  though  often  less  plump 
than  usual. 

From  many  microscopical  examinations  made  the  next  and  succeed- 
ing days,  I  am  convinced  that  the  young  grain  and  the  flower  could 
and  did  stand  the  cold  better  than  the  succulent  parts  of  the  stalk. 
Consequently,  in  certain  cases,  it  was  extremely  difficult  to  tell  the 
extent  of  the  damage,  until  about  two  days  after.  In  some  cases  the 
young  grain,  or  ovule  would  have  a  perfectly  normal  appearance,  and 
the  pollen  grains  preserve  a  natural  color  and  shape ;  yet  the  head  be 
subsequently  found  to  be  entirely  killed  by  freezing  below.  In  other 
cases  the  grain  and  parts  of  the  flower  soon  showed  the  injury,  the 
ovule  becoming  more  pulpy,  and  at  first  a  deeper  blue  than  its  natural 
color,  and  the  hairs  which  enveloped  the  plants  and  anthers  would  all 
show  cells  ruptured  or  withered  by  the  freezing. 

As  before  remarked,  it  was  rare  to  find  a  head  with  a  few  perfect 
grains,  and  the  rest  blasted,  but  much  more  frequently  the  grains  that 
were  left  filled,  but  imperfectly,  as  if  the  stalk  had  but  partially  trans- 
mitted the  sap. 

The  other  cereal  grains  suffered  less,  early  barley  the  most.  North 
of  us,  where  the  grain  was  not  so  advanced  in  growth,  much  less 
damage  was  done. 

In  sections  of  New  York,  where  ice  formed  half  an  inch  thick,  and 
where  the  wheat  was  but  just  coming  in  head,  little,  if  any,  injury 
resulted,  and  better  crops  than  usual  were  harvested. 

Forest  and  other  trees  were  much  affected.  A  vigorous  growth  of 
young  wood  had  been  formed,  still  succulent,  and  the  more  tender 
parts  were  killed,  both  of  the  cultivated  evergreens,  even  hardy  kinds, 
and  the  native  and  the  cultivated  deciduous  trees.  Of  the  native 
forest,  the  white  ash  and  locust  suffered  most.  The  former  had  its 
leaves  and  fruit  entirely  killed,  and  many  of  the  young  trees  died ;  the 
older  ones  put  forth  new  foliage.  The  locust  fared  scarcely  better ; 
by  the  10th  or  12th  the  trees  were  bare,  and  the  ends  of  the  young 
wood  killed,  but  towards  the  close  of  the  month,  fresh  foliage  put  forth, 
and  about  the  11th  of  July,  many  put  forth  a  second  crop  of  flowers, 
especially  the  younger  trees.  The  inflorescence  was  much  more  sparse 
than  at  the  usual  date,  yet  sufficiently  abundant  to  be  quite  con- 
spicuous. 

Most  forest  trees  here  have  produced  little  or  no  fruit  this  summer. 
Hay  was  not  heavy,  but  good,  and  buckwheat  an  unusually  good  crop. 
Apples,  such  as  escaped,  grew  well,  but  have  shown  a  great  tendency 
to  rot,  even  the  more  durable  kinds. 

A  supposed  effect  has  been  the  destruction  of  insects.  Whether 
this  be  the  case  or  not,  it  is  a  fact  that  insects  of  all  kinds  have  been 
unusually  sparse  the  past  summer,  especially  those  kinds  most  inju- 
rious to  the  farmer.      The  wheat  midge  has  been  everywhere  less 


658  AGRICULTURAL  REPORT. 

destructive  than  last  season,  wlierever  the  frost  reached,  and  parts  of 
"Western  New  York  have  reaped  a  plentiful  wheat  harvest,  the  first 
for  many  years. 

The  aggregate  damage  to  the  farmer  of  this  county  can  now  he  better 
estimated  than  hefore.  Those  most  comj^etent  to  judge,  estimate  that, 
instead  of  selling  as  usual,  the  county  must  buy  at  least  $250,000 
worth  of  breadstuffs ;  and  that  the  total  loss  to  the  farming  interest 
will  amount  to  upwards  of  $1,500,000. 


From  William  Muir,  ofLdborville,  Melrose  Post  Office,  St,  Louis  county, 

Missouri. 

November  29,  1859. 

The  Meramee  Horticultural  Society  of  this  county  numbers  forty-one 
active  members,  beside  honorary  and  corresponding  members  in  differ- 
ent portions  of  the  Union,  Its  first  year  is  nearly  closed,  and  has  been 
signally  successful.  Conducted  on  the  itinerant  plan,  its  meetings  are 
held  once  a  month  at  the  houses  of  members  in  different  parts  of  the 
township. 

Our  first  fair,  at  Allenton,  was  well  attended. 

I  obtained  from  a  nurseryman  two  small  tubers  of  the  Chinese  yam, 
the  refuse  of  his  season's  sales,  which,  although  late  in  June,  I  planted. 
They  received,  no  culture,  except  keeping  down  the  weeds.  In  the 
spring,  when  I  took  them  out  of  the  ground,  where  they  had  remained 
during  a  severe  winter,  without  mulch  or  other  protection,  they  died 
off  eight  inches  from  the  surface,  the  remainder  being  quite  good. 
Their  average  length  was  twenty-six  inches,  circumference  at  the  base 
five  inches,  and  weight  six  ounces,  some  being  thirteen  ounces.  I  re- 
planted four  tubers  entire,  to  see  how  much  they  would  increase  ;  cut 
the  others  into  two  hundred  pieces,  trenched  the  earth  three  s]3ades 
deep,  and  made  a  bed  one  foot  higher  than  the  surrounding  ground. 
I  then  planted  the  sets  one  foot  apart  each  way,  and  two  inches  deep. 
They  did  well,  and  became  fully  as  large  and  heavy  as  the  former.  I 
have  obtained  2,500  bulbs  from  three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter 
to  the  size  of  a  pea.  The  plants  had  no  manure,  and  the  ground  had 
only  been  three  years  free  from  timber,  with  a  clay  subsoil.  A  little 
more  culture  would  produce  larger  yams.  This  piece  gives  at  the  rate 
of  16,335  pounds  to  the  acre,  with  no  labor  but  to  weed  after  planting. 

We  have  cooked  the  tubers  in  various  ways :  plain  boiled,  good — 
superior  to  the  common  potato ;  fried  in  dripping,  very  good;  plain 
baked  in  the  oven,  and  eaten  with  or  without  butter,  pepper,  and  salt, 
excellent ;  grated,  and  made  into  pudding,  pronounced  superior  to  sago, 
tapioca,  or  any  of  the  kindred  articles  in  common  use  for  puddings.  I 
intend  cultivating  the  yam  largely,  and  to  make  a  series  of  experiments, 
Vv'hich  I  will  record  and  forward. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  659 


From  Eev.  James  T.  Barclay,  Jaffa. 

Apeil  12,  1859. 

One  large  box  and  a  barrel  of  seeds,  &c.,  were  this  day  shipped  on 
board  the  French  steamer  for  Beirut,  where  my  son  will  transfer  them 
to  the  vessel  about  to  sail  for  the  United  States,  as  also  another  box  of 
articles  that  he  has  collected  at  that  port. 

Very  much  to  my  regret,  the  departure  of  the  vessel  from  Beirut  was 
postponed  to  so  late  a  period  that  vegetation  was  far  too  much  advanced 
to  justify  the  transmission  of  cuttings,  slips,  bulbs,  &c.,  although  I 
had  procured  tin  cases  of  various  capacities,  and  made  every  arrange- 
ment for  sending  the  larger  portion  of  the  articles. 

Believing  that  hedge-plants  for  live-fences  are  very  much  needed  in 
some  portions  of  the  United  States,  and  quite  desirable  everywhere,  I 
have  devoted  special  attention  to  this  subject,  and  am  much  pleased 
with  the  result,  as  I  trust  you  will  be,  also,  on  receiving  the  cuttings. 
Finding  several  varieties  of  wheat  in  this  country,  differing  very  mate- 
rially from  each  other,  and  a,ll,  I  think,  superior  to  those  at  home  with 
which  I  am  acquainted,  I  propose  sending  a  barrel  or  two  of  each  kind 
from  the  present  growing  crop. 

Among  the  varieties  of  grapes  with  which  this  land  abounds  is  the 
seedless  species  of  Hebron — excellent  both  for  raisins  and  wine — which 
will  probably  succeed  well  in  many  portions  of  the  United  States,  and 
will  accordingly  be  sent.  The  Sultan  is  supplied  with  water-melons 
from  Lake  Gallilee,  said  to  be  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  of  the  seeds 
of  this  variety  I  shall  procure  a  good  supply. 


From  0.  R.  Buckalew,  Minister  Resident. 

Quito,  Ecuador,  April  20,  1859. 
I  send  you  seeds  of  the  following  Ecuadorian  plants : 
l.Tliihaudia  acuminata.  A  very  beautiful  shrub,  of  four  to  five 
feet,  found  only  in  ravines,  toward  the  base  of  Pichincha.  Its  flower 
is  tubular,  elongated,  crimson,  but  white-pointed,  lustrous,  and  pro- 
duced in  clusters.  The  berry  is  globular,  dark  purple,  pea-size,  and 
edible.  Leaf  oval,  but  extremely  pointed,  from  which  the  specific 
name.  The  tender  shoots  and  young  leaves  are  re.ddish.  It  is  mostly 
found  in  rocky  situations,  which  may  indicate  its  treatment  in  culti- 
vation. It  is  not  knovv^n  that  it  is  domesticated  anywhere,  although 
among  the  most  ornamental  shrubs.     Hardy  and  evergreen. 

2.  BJiexia  (genus.)  This  is  a  fine,  hardy  shrub,  of  four  feet,  found 
abundantly  on  Pichincha,  at  elevations  of  from  ten  to  thirteen  thous- 
and feet.  The  flower  is  white,  but  has  a  red  cup.  The  leaf  is  small, 
wrinkled,  and  pretty.     Evergreen. 

3.  Melastoma  (genus.)  This  is  one  of  the  very  finest  of  the  Andean 
plants.  A  hardy,  evergreen  shrub.  The  leaf  is  elegant  in  form,  and 
lustrous.  Flower  white^  small,  and  fragrant.  The  berries  are  pea- 
size,  and  pleasant  to  eat.     Height,  four  to  five  feet. 


560  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

4.  Alstroemeria  caldasii.  This  plant  was  named  "by  Humboldt  in 
honor  of  Caldas,  a  New  Granadian  naturalist.  It  is  a  climber  and 
twiner,  of  eight  to  twelve  feet,  hardy  and  perennial.  The  flowers  are 
produced  in  bunches  of  twenty  to  fifty  ;  are  orange-colored,  spotted  in 
the  inside,  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  and  are  showy.  They  are  fol- 
lowed by  curious  pods,  of  triangular  form,  which  eventually  burst, 
and  present  clusters  of  red  berries,  (the  seeds,)  reputed  to  be  a  dog 
poison.  The  plant  also  produces  tubers,  by  which  it  may  be  propa- 
gated. I  obtained  the  seed  of  this  interesting  plant  at  twelve  thous- 
and five  hundred  feet  on  Pichincha. 

Elevation  of  Quito,  9,500  feet.  Eange  of  thermometer  from  48°  to 
69°  Fahrenheit  during  the  year. 


From  David  L.  Gregg,  Consul  at  Honolulu,  Hawaiian  Kingdom. 

The  cotton  plant  or  shrub  is  found  on  many  parts  of  the  Hawaiian 
islands,  growing  wild.  It  is  supposed  to  be  analogous  to,  if  not  iden- 
tical with  what  is  commonly  called  Sea  Island  Cotton.  About  the 
year  1837  its  systematic  cultivation  was  attempted  on  Hawaii  by  Gov- 
ernor Kuakini,  (John  Adams,)  but  he  did  not  persevere  for  a  long 
time,  owing  to  the  want  of  proper  information  and  skill  in  preparing 
his  crops  for  market. 

Mr.  F.  A.  Oudinot,  formerly  of  Kentucky,  is  now  trying  the  ex- 
periment of  raising  cotton  near  Lahaina,  on  the  island  of  Mani. 
When  he  took  possession  of  his  farm  there,  a  few  years  since,  he  found 
quite  a  number  of  shrubs,  or  trees  as  he  calls  them,  in  a  wild  state; 
some,  as  near  as  could  be  ascertained,  from  fifteen  to  twenty  years  old ; 
all,  however,  in  full  vigor,  continually  displaying  their  blossoms,  and 
at  the  same  time  opening  their  matured  bolls.  He  has  inclosed  and 
planted  a  small  field,  and,  thus  far,  has  found  it  to  do  well.  In  dry 
seasons  he  thinks  the  shrub  produces  much  better  by  "  topping  it." 

He  has  furnished  me  with  several  specimens  taken  from  shrubs 
respectively  five  months,  five  and  a  half  months,  one  year,  two  and  a 
half  years,  and  fifteen  years  old.  I  take  the  liberty  of  inclosing  a 
small  quantity  from  those  of  five  and  a  half  months  and  fifteen  years 
growth.  Specimens  to  any  moderate  extent,  or  seeds,  can  be  for- 
warded if  it  should  be  deemed  desirable. 

At  Lahaina,  where  the  soil  and  climate  are  perhaps  as  favorable  as 
anywhere  in  the  whole  Archipelago,  Mr.  Oudinot  supposes  the  pro- 
duction may,  by  careful  cultivation,  be  made  to  reach  as  high  as  one 
thousand  pounds  per  acre  in  the  course  of  a  year.  This  estimate  may 
seem  high — and  it  is  undoubtedly  beyond  any  probable  average  of 
crops — but  I  do  not  entertain  a  doubt  that  cotton  can  be  produced  suc- 
cessfully and  profitably  in  nearly  all  the  sheltered  valleys  of  the 
kingdom. 

The  fineness  of  the  fiber  is  supposed  to  diminish  with  the  age  of  the 
shrub  on  which  it  is  grown.  This  the  samples  in  my  possession  seem 
to  prove  beyond  all  question. 

No  especial  pains  appears  to  be  required  in  the  cultivation  of  the 


MISCELLANEOUS.    '  561 

cotton  slirub  beyond  plowing  the  ground  thoroughly  in  the  first 
instance,  and  subsequently  keeping  it  clear  of  weeds  and  undergrowth. 
The  distance  apart  at  which  the  seeds  should  be  planted  depends,  of 
course,  somewhat  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  position. 

A  great  proportion  of  the  surface  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  is  moun- 
tainous. Not  more  than  three  eighths,  at  the  utmost,  is  susceptible 
of  easy  cultivation,  and  of  this  but  a  moderate  part  is  included  in 
valley  ranges,  or  so  situated  as  to  be  sheltered  from  the  strong  winds 
which  prevail  during  most  of  the  year. 

This  kingdom  can  never  produce  largely  of  anything  which  enters 
into  commerce.  As  yet  its  resources  are  in  their  infancy.  It  unques- 
tionably possesses  the  elements  of  a  fair  degree  of  prosperity,  but  the 
strong  hand  of  industry  is  required  to  develop  them. 


WOODEN  SEIOES. 


Experience  has  shown  that  a  number  of  diseases,  often  resulting  in 
impaired  constitutions,  and  even  in  the  loss  of  life,  have  been  con- 
tracted by  a  portion  of  the  farming  and  laboring  population  in  conse- 
quence of  wearing  leather  shoes,  when  engaged  in  their  operations 
during  cold  weather,  or  in  wet  situations.  To  prevent  those  evils  to 
some  extent,  wooden  shoes  are  extensively  worn  in  France  and  Ger- 
many, They  are  highly  recommended  by  the  agricultural  societies 
and  governments  of  Europe.  Impressed  with  their  importance,  the 
board  of  commerce  and  trade  of  Wirtemberg  called  a  practical  work- 
man from  France  to  give  instruction  in  their  manufacture.  The  per- 
son now  recommended  by  the  board  of  agriculture  of  Wirtemberg  is 
Wilhelm  Baumann,  of  Obersontheim,  Oberambt  Gaildorf,  Wirtem- 
berg. Not  allowing  water  to  penetrate,  as  leather  shoes  do,  they  are 
naturally  dryer,  capable  of  keeping  the  feet  warmer,  prevent  diseases, 
by  promoting  the  requisite  and  salutary  perspiration,  and  are  regarded, 
to  a  great  extent,  as  life-preservers,  even  in  such  cases  where  salt 
baths,  the  use  of  wheys,  and  other  medicaments,  proved  quite  ineffec- 
tual. There  is  hardly  an  operation  on  the  farm  and  about  the  farm- 
house in  which  they  could  not  be  profitably  used.  They  are  most 
economical  about  stables,  where  leather  shoes  are  exposed  to  the  de- 
structive attacks  of  dung-water^  in  plowing,  mowing,  harvesting,  in 
doing  earth-work  in  vineyards,  chopping  wood,  and  in  marketing. 
With  these  advantages,  in  a  salutary  point  of  view,  they  combine  such 
durability  as  to  last  almost  a  lifetime.  They  are  light  and  easy  to 
wear,  being  provided  with  a  small  cushion  on  the  ujDper  side,  within, 
so  as  to  obviate  any  pressure  on  that  part  of  the  foot.  They  are  of  a 
neat  and  pleasant  appearance,  either  of  their  natural  color,  or  black- 
ened or  varnished.  Their  size  is  large  enough  to  allow  the  wearing 
of  comfortable  stockings;  in  addition  to  which  they  are  provided  with 
leather  straps.  Their  price  ranges  from  fourteen  to  thii-fcy-six  cents — • 
shoes  for  children  being  still  less.  These  advantages  will  certainly 
entitle  them  to  the  attention  of  a  portion  of  the  farming,  manufac- 
turing, and  laboring  population  of  the  country. 

36 A 


562  AGRICULTUEAL    REPORT. 


From  Hon.  Joseph  Wright,  Minister  to  Prussia. 

United  States  Legation, 

Berlin,  llarch  22,  1859. 

Sir:  Yours  of  the  22cl  of  February,  witli  the  eight  boxes  of  seeds, 
has  come  to  hand.  The  Prussian  minister  of  agriculture.  Count 
Piickler,  who  has  taken  charge  of  most  of  the  seeds,  and  given  notice 
to  all  the  experimental  schools  in  anyway  connected  with  agriculture 
throughout  Prussia  of  their  receipt  at  his  office,  assures  me  that  he 
will  see  that  they  are  properly  distributed,  and  that  a  fair  trial  be 
given  them. 

He  states,  also,  that  he  will  most  cheerfully  have  prepared  by  the 
fall  a  collection  of  such  seeds  as  you  may  wish  to  be  forwarded  to  your 
department. 

I  have  sent  a  portion  of  ^the  various  articles  presented  by  you  to  the 
celebrated  agricultural  school  of  Hohenheim,  as  well  as  to  Hanover, 
Brunswick,  Saxony,  and  other  parts  of  the  Zollverein.  I  shall  be 
most  happy  to  make  such  collections  of  seeds,  as  you  may  suggest,  to 
be  transmitted  next  fall  or  early  in  the  ensuing  spring. 

I  have  received  from  the  Hohenheim  Agricultural  College,  one  of 
the  oldest  in  Europe,  copies  of  their  reports,  exhibiting  its  system  and 
management.  If  furnished  with  a  list  of  the  agricultural  colleges  and 
schools  of  our  country,  I  will  forward  to  you  for  their  use  these  reports, 
with  all  the  statistics  which  I  may  hereafter  obtain  from  the  various 
agricultural  institutions  in  Germany.  I  am  anxiously  awaiting  copies 
of  the  last  Eeports  of  your  department. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be,  most  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

JOSEPH  WRIGHT. 

J.  Holt,  Esq., 

Commissioner  of  Patents. 


From  A.J.  Smith,  United  States  Consul. 

Laguayra,  Venezuela,  June  8,  1859. 

I  transmit  to  you  the  seeds  of  a  few  choice  fruits  of  this  country. 
These  are  such  delicious  fruits  that  it  is  worth  a  trial  to  grow  them, 
even  in  a  hot-house.  The  large  seeds  are  from  the  fruit  called  mama, 
which  resembles  in  flavor  a  fine  clingstone  peach.  I  have  seen  them 
eight  inches  in  diameter.  They  are  almost  round,  and  in  the  market 
have  the  appearance  of  the  balls  used  at  ten-pin  alleys.  The  trees 
producing  them  attain  an  immense  size,  and  are  the  finest  for  shade  to 
be  found  in  this  country.  The  morag  seed,  shaped  like  a  small  shell, 
is  a  very  pleasant  fruit  also,  and  unique-looking ;  the  seed  grows  j^artly 
out  and  partly  in  the  fruit,  and  has  the  appearance  of  pods  of  red  and 
yellow  pepper.  The  chillemoha,  or  cherimoya,  as  it  is  pronounced,  is 
certainly  the  most  delicate  in  its  flavor  of  all  the  fruits  in  the  world, 


MISCELLANEOUS.  563 

and  at  tlie  same  time  very  healthy.     I  find,  indeed,  that  all  fruit  is 
healthy  to  a  person  who  does  not  drink  spirits  of  any  kind. 

These  frnits  would  grow  in  Florida,  Texas,  or  even  Louisiana,  if 
taken  care  of  until  they  start  properly,  when  they  will  become  very 
hardy.  They  are  found  on  the  tallest  mountains,  in  the  greatest 
abundance,  and  bear,  in  this  climate,  all  the  year  round.  The  interior 
of  this  country  abounds  with  a  great  variety  of  fruits  and  cereals, 
which  would  be  a  decided  acquisition  to  the  fields  and  gardens  of  the 
Southern  States.  I  have  seen,  since  my  arrival  here,  both  vegetables 
and  animals  of  which  I  never  saw  specimens,  even  in  our  museums. 


From  Ernest  Volger,  United  States  Consul. 

Barcelona,  Spain,  August  18,  1859. 

The  algaroba  is  a  very  useful  tree  in  this  country,  nearly  related  to 
the  sweet  locust  or  honey  locust  tree  of  the  Southern  States.  Its  pods 
are,  however,  larger  and  sweeter,  and  contain  more  than  sixty  per 
cent,  of  sugar.  They  are  broken  to  pieces,  when  horses,  mules,  jacks, 
and  other  cattle  are  fed  on  them.  There  is  no  better  and  cheaper  food 
for  them,  and  the  tree  can  be  planted  on  the  most  sterile,  rocky,  and 
sandy  land.  I  remark,  however,  that  this  tree  does  not  prosper  where 
it  is  not  exposed  to  the  exhalation  of  the  sea.  All  along  the  coast  of 
Catalonia  and  Valencia  it  is  never  found  beyond  the  first  ridge  of 
hills.  The  shores  of  our  Southern  States  would  therefore  be  best 
adapted  to  make  the  experiment  of  acclimatizing  this  very  useful  tree. 


From  William  Story,  of  Jamestoivn,  Fentress  county,  Tennessee. 

I  send  you  a  full  Account  of  my  experiment  with  the  Hungarian- 
grass. 

On  the  10th  of  June,  1858,  I  received  a  pint  of  Hungarian  grass 
seed  from  the  Patent  Office,,  and  on  the  11th  I  sowed  it  on  a  piece  of 
rich  clay  land.  I  at  first  plowed  the  ground  with  a  shovel-plow, 
which  left  the  surface  very  rough  and  uneven.  I  then  took  a  harrow 
and  ran  over  about  one  fourth  of  the  patch,  leveling  the  surface  very- 
smooth  and  even.  After  sowing  the  seed  on  all  the  ground,  I  again 
harrowed  the  patch.  The  ground  was  very  dry,  and  the  weather  con- 
tinued hot  for  about  three  weeks ;  consequently  it  was  sometime  before 
the  seed  came  up.  When  they  began  to  appear,  I  was  soon  sorry  that 
I  had  not  harrowed  all  the  ground  before  sowing,  for  where  I  had 
omitted  this  operation,  but  few  seed  came  up;  in  the  uneven  places 
they  were  covered  too  deep. 

Notwithstanding  the  extreme  heat  of  the  sun,  the  grass  grew  aston- 
ishingly fast,  branched  out  beyond  all  expectation,  looked  nutritious, 
luxuriant,  and  green,  and  grew  about  waist-high  by  the  1st  of  August. 
It  was  headed  out  like  millet,  though  seeming  more  vigorous  and 
hardy. 


564  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

By  tlie  10th  of  August,  tlie  heads,  which  were  from  one  to  six  inches 
in  length,  were  all  turned  of  a  golden  yellow  color;  and  the  blades, 
which  were  very  soft,  long,  and  thick,  and  set  on  the  straw  from  the 
ground  to  the  head,  were  of  the  same  hue.  I  then  cut  it  and  hound 
it  in  sheaves,  like  wheat  or  oats.  After  it  had  cured  a  few  days,  I 
threshed  off  the  seed,  cleaned  them  neat  and  clear  of  chaff,  and 
measured  them.  I  had  sixty-three  pints  of  seed  from  one  pint  sown. 
I  am  confident  that  not  more  than  half  of  the  seed  came  up,  and  con- 
sequently the  sixty-three  pints  were  the  product  of  half  a  pint  of  seed. 

I  gave  some  of  the  hay  to  my  horses  and  cattle ;  they  all  seemed  as 
fond  of  it  as  of  sheaf  oats.  The  seed  was  very  heavy,  and,  I  think,  far 
superior  to  threshed  oats  for  feed,  as  they  appear  to  he  more  oily  and 
nutritious.  The  hay,  without  the  seed,  will  probably  be  excellent 
feed  for  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep.  Unthreshed,  it  will  likely  be 
superior  as  feed  to  the  best  of  sheaf  oats. 

In  Tennessee,  it  should  be  sown  about  the  first  week  in  May,  on 
clean  and  loose  ground,  harrowed  smooth  before  sowing,  and  then 
harrowed  or  brushed  after.  One  bushel  of  seed,  I  think,  will  sow 
three  acres.  It  should  not  be  cut  till  the  heads  get  yellow,  if  the  seed 
is  to  be  sown.  I  recommend  the  Hungarian  grass  to  be  the  best  and 
most  nutritious  of  all  grasses,  and  I  shall  rejoice  when  our  State  is 
well  supplied  with  its  seed. 


From  0.  H.  Kelley,  Corresponding  Secretary  of  the  Nortliwood  Far- 
mers' Club,  Wright  county,  Minnesota. 

The  distribution  of  seeds,  received  from  the  Paterit  Ofiice  the  past 
season,  has  resulted  in  the  formation  of  one  of  the  most  efficient  or- 
ganizations of  farmers  of  which  our  new  State  can  boast.  Having 
been  chosen  as  corresponding  secretary  of  the  same,  I  will  describe  the 
plan  which  has  been  adopted  for  future  distribution  of  seeds.  Owing 
to  the  small  quantities  contained  in  the  parcels  of  wheat,  oats,  &c., 
making  it  considerable  labor  to  save  enough  for  subsequent  trials,  all 
that  may  be  received,  say  of  wheat  of  one  variety,  is  given  to  one  far- 
mer, another  variety  to  a  sfecond,  and  so  on.  At  the  end  of  the  season, 
and  after  the  grain  is  threshed,  it  is  to  be  left  at  the  secretary's  office 
for  the  inspection  of  all  the  members  of  the  club.  If  the  result  is 
favorable,  the  same  person  has  the  privilege  of  sowing  the  whole  an- 
other season,  and  half  the  product  then  becomes  the  property  of  the 
club,  and  is  distributed  as  they  see  fit.  So  with  corn,  and  all  seeds 
that  may  mix  by  being  planted  in  too  close  proximity  with  seeds  we 
now  raise.  By  this  method  we  can  keep  the  seed  pure;  and,  as  nearly 
all  our  members  are  practical  farmers,  we  shall  take  great  pains  to 
give  each  variety  of  seeds  a  fair  and  impartial  trial. 

We  now  number  some  thirty  members,  and  intend  to  hold  meetings, 
during  the  winter,  one  evening  of  each  week,  for  discussions  upon  agri- 
cultural topics.  Samples  of  every  kind  of  grain  and  other  crops  are 
left  with  the  secretary,  at  his  ofiice,  for  public  insi^ection. 

With  most  of  the  seeds  received  the  past  season,  our  success  has 
been  good,  and  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 


MISCELLANEOUS.  565 

Melons. — The  ice-cream  watermelon  proved  to  be  very  fine,  and  is 
■well  worth  cultivation. 

The  Green  Citron. — This  did  not  produce  so  well  as  we  wished ;  hut 
will  give  it  further  trial.  We  have  had  a  very  poor  season,  as  far  as 
the  weather  is  concerned,  for  rij^ening  melons,  owing  to  much  rain. 

China  Beans. — These  did  very  well,  ripening  early. 

The  distribution  of  King  Philip  corn  and  Chinese  sugar-cane  has 
given  to  the  farmers  of  Minnesota  two  of  the  most  valuable  crops  we 
can  raise.  Of  the  corn  we  must  speak  in  the  highest  terms ;  it  matures 
the  last  of  August  or  the  first  Aveek  of  September,  and  we  finished 
husking  the  first  of  October.  With  proper  attentit)n,  it  yields  an  ave- 
rage of  seventy  bushels  per  acre,  on  sandy  soil ;  husks  very  easy ;  and 
the  meal  is  considered  far  superior  to  any  other  kind,  for  making  bread. 
It  is  sure  to  be  out  of  the  way  of  early  frosts,  and  can  be  all  housed 
long  before  cold  weather  sets  in. 

The  sugar-cane  must  prove  a  valuable  gift  to  us.  Most  of  it  raised 
this  season  was  planted  too  late  to  allow  the  seed  to  mature ;  though  I 
secured  about  a  quart  from  my  lot,  well  ripened.  The  result  of  an 
experiment  with  the  cane,  as  made  by  Mr.  Cooley,  is  as  follows: 

He  planted  one  acre  and  one  fourth  with  cane.     The  greater  part  o 
the  seed  was  sorghum,  and  the  rest  imphee.     He  gives  a  decided  pre- 
ference to  the  imphee.     His  product  of  syrup  was  about  350  gallons. 

A  large  number  of  our  farmers  will  send  to  Chicago  this  winter  for 
seed  of  the  sugar-cane,  and  we  anticipate  a  large  crop  next  season ;  so 
that,  in  all  probability,  syrup  will  sell  in  the  fall  of  1859  for  twenty- 
five  cents  per  gallon — a  price  which  will  pay  the  manufacturer,  as  the 
consumption  of  the  article  will  very  much  increase.  At  the  present 
rates  of  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  cents,  it  is  cheaper  than  Louisiana 
molasses  has  been  with  us  for  several  years. 

Whatever  prejudice  may  exist  against  the  distribution  of  seeds  from 
the  Patent  Ofiice,  many  of  us  in  Minnesota  feel  under  great  obligations 
to  your  Ofiice  for  such  valuable  gifts. 

Chufas,  or  Earth  Almonds. — These  prove  to  be  indigenous  to  our 
soil  and  climate,  being  found  in  rich  bottom  lands,  and  on  the  borders 
of  some  of  our  marshes.  The  cultivated,  however,  are  much  larger 
than  the  wild,  and  are  eagerly  sought  by  the  gophers,  which  devoured 
the  larger  share  of  my  crop.  As  a  substitute  for  cofi'ee,  they  are  good  ; 
though  I  consider  peas  to  be  equal,  and  they  are  harvested  much 
cheaper.  Chufas,  moreover,  will  probably  prove  to  be  a  bad  plant  to 
spread  in  cultivated  ground.* 

Kohl  Rahi. — This  species  of  the  turnip  is  certainly  a  beautiful  plant 
when  growing,  and  will  be  valuable  for  feeding  to  stock. 

Cabbages. — The  numerous  varieties  received  did  well,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Couve  tronchuda.  This  yielded  a  stalk  upward  of  two  feet 
high,  profusely  covered  with  leaves,  but  did  not  head.  The  Early 
York  ripens  very  early,  and  is  much  esteemed.  The  Ox-Heart  is  a 
variety  true  to  its  name,  and  very  plump  and  sound  ;  it  is  a  good  cab- 

*  Mr.  Kelley  has  erroneously  connected  the  wild  nut-grass  (  Cyperus  repens)  with  the  escu- 
lent from  the  south  of  Spain,  {Cyperus  esculentus.)  The  chufa  belongs  to  the  same  genus 
but  does  not  possess  the  power  of  spreading  itself  voluntarily. 


566  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

bage.     The  Savoys,  however,  are  the  general  favorites  for  winter  use. 

Neio  White  Globe  Onion. — This  is  a  finely-flavored  onion,  hut  did  not 
succeed  very  well.  It  is,  perhaps,  better  adapted  to  a  more  southern 
latitude. 

Salsify. — Will  give  this  another  trial  next  season.  The  root,  this 
year,  was  much  smaller  than  an  ordinary-sized  parsnip. 

Celery. — This  will  receive  another  trial ;  needs  forcing  in  a  hot-bed. 

Lettuce  and  Cucumbers. — All  did  well.  Consider  the  curled  variety 
the  best. 

Peas. — The  Early  Emperor  and  Champion  of  England  are  decidedly 
the  best  varieties  we  have  yet  raised ;  the  latter  being  a  late  variety 
with  us. 

Victoria  Pie  Plant. — This  produced  stalks  from  the  seed  this  sea- 
son, some  as  large  as  those  from  roots  in  the  garden  seven  years  old. 

Crimson  Clover. — This  was  sown  rather  late,  but  grew  w^ell,  and  the 
seed  matured  finely.  It  has  a  large,  cone-shaped  head,  and  is  of  a 
bright  crimson  color.  By  its  rapid  growth,  it  must  gain  favor  where- 
ever  introduced. 

Some  attention  is  now  given  to  the  raising  of  tame  grasses,  as 
experience  of  ten  years  here  has  plainly  shown  that  it  is  folly  for  the 
farmers  to  depend  upon  the  marshes  for  wild  hay.  It  will  sometimes, 
in  certain  localities,  bear  cutting  two  and  three  years  in  succession ; 
but  the  second  crop  is  generally  much  lighter  than  the  first,  whereas, 
in  other  places,  the  first  cutting  is  followed  by  a  thrifty  crop  of  thistles 
and  weeds  of  endless  variety. 

The  new  organization,  the  Northwood  Farmers'  Club,  is  composed 
of  several  of  the  members  of  the  old  Benton  County  Agricultural  So- 
ciety, which  has  sunk  into  oblivion,  owing  to  the  county  having  been 
divided  into  four  new  counties.  To  attend  the  meetings  of  that  society, 
many  of  the  members  were  obliged  to  travel  fifty  miles  each  way.  By 
having  clubs  scattered  through  the  counties,  where  members  can  meet 
more  frequently,  and  in  their  own  neighborhoods,  much  more  beneficial 
results  will  follow.  The  office  of  our  club  will  be  kept  open  during 
business  hours,  and  we  intend  to  have  several  papers  on  file,  and  a 
corrected  list  of  wholesale  and  retail  prices  of  products  of  the  farm. 
Each  member  will  also  register,  in  a  book  kept  by  the  secretary,  the 
amount  of  grain  he  wishes  to  dispose  of,  or  if  he  desires  to  purchase 
any  stock,  making  it,  at  the  same  time,  a  ready  place  to  purchase  and 
sell  anything  appertaining  to  the  farm. 

Hereafter,  the  success  or  failure  with  seeds  from  your  Ofiice  will  be 
made  out  in  full,  at  regular  meetings  of  the  club,  and  printed  copies 
will  be  forwarded  to  you. 


From  John  Danforth,  of  New  London,  Connecticut. 

I  received  from  the  Patent  Ofiice  some  California  pumpkin  seeds, 
which  I  planted  in  my  garden  early  in  the  spring,  with  two  rows  of 
green  corn  of  thirty-six  hills.  The  pumpkin  seeds  came  up  soon  and 
well,  ran  from  forty  to  sixty  feet,  and  blossomed  and  set  well ;  growing 
as  fast  as  cucumbers  in  the  month  of  September.     The  green  corn  was 


MISCELLANEOUS.  567 

cut  up  at  the  roots,  and  the  sun  admitted  to  the  vines ;  they  were  taken 
in  and  harvested  before  frost,  I  had  over  one  hundred  of  the  finest 
and  best  California  pumpkins  that  were  ever  seen  together  in  any  of 
our  Northern  States.  Tlieir  weight  was  about  four  tons,  some  single 
ones  weighing  over  one  hundred  pounds.  It  takes  about  six  months 
to  raise  them  in  our  climate.  The  ground  must  be  rich  and  good.  I 
put  a  wheelbarrow-load  of  the  best  hog  manure  into  each  hill  of  corn 
and  j)umpkins.  I  also  planted  some  of  the  seed  where  an  old  hog-pen 
had  stood.  They  were  neither  hoed  nor  weeded,  yet  ran  sixty  feet, 
and  I  took  pumpkins  from  the  vines  weighing  over  one  hundred  pounds. 
They  sell  readily  in  our  market  at  two  cents  per  pound.  I  will  furnish 
the  seeds  by  return  mail  to  any  applicant  who  will  send  post  office 
stamps. 

I  also  received  from  the  Patent  Office  a  paper  of  Boston  marrowfat 
squash  seeds,  which  I  planted  in  my  garden,  and  raised  about  a  dozen 
of  the  largest  and  finest  squashes  that  I  ever  saw ;  the  largest  of  them 
weighing  from  forty  to  fifty  pounds.  When  they  were  cut  open,  they 
would  smell  like  a  ripe  musk-melon.  I  have  sold  some  of  them  at 
three  cents  per  pound.  The  ground  was  rich  and  manured  in  the  hill, 
which  had  a  southeastern  exposure. 


F'rom  0.  B.  Nichols,  Corresponding  Secretary  of  Clinton  County  Agri- 
cultural and  Mechanical  Association^  at  Carlyle,  Illinois. 

December  10,  1859. 

I  received  from  the  Patent  Office  a  parcel  of  Tuscan  wheat,  for  ex- 
periment, in  the  fall  of  1858.  I  put  it  in  drills,  10  inches  apart,  and 
cultivated  with  the  hoe.  On  the  27th  of  May  the  rust  made  its  ap- 
pearance, and  rendered  it  worthless  ;  May  red,  which  stood  only  about 
30  feet  from  it,  was  not  affected.  I  also  tried  some  white  wheat,  with 
the  same  result.  I  did  not  cut  either  variety.  An  experience  of  22 
years  of  wheat  raising  in  the  prairie  satisfies  me  that,  as  a  general 
rule  to  insure  success,  we  must  sow  the  earliest  varieties  to  be  procured 
from  the  south.  Of  22  crops,  I  have  never  lost  but  one,  and  that  was 
sowed  on  the  30tli  of  January. 

Not  one  farmer  among  the  six  who  tried  the  Tuscan  wheat  succeeded. 

The  turnip  seed  proved  worthless,  except  the  Yellow  Malta  and  the 
Snow  Ball.  The  Ox-heart  and  Drumhead  Cabbage  proved  first  rate, 
and  also  all  three  of  the  varieties  of  beets,  namely,  the  Large  Scarlet, 
the  White  Sugar,  and  the  Small  Early  Castelnaudry,  Mangold  wurzel 
and  beans  were  fine  ;  the  squashes  not  good  ;  but  the  best  of  all  was 
the  delicious  nutmeg  and  ice-cream  watermelon. 

The  law  of  Congress  for  the  collection  and  distribution  of  seeds 
should  immortalize  the  names  of  every  member  who  voted  for  it. 


F7vm  J.  A.  MePvTZ,  Secretary  of  the  Union  County  Aricultural  Society, 


Pennsylvania. 


Organized  November  13,  1852,  and  chartered  September  19,  1857, 
our  present  number  of  members  is   150.     The  amount  required  for 


668  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

life-memlDersliip  is  flO.  Our  other  modes  of  obtaining  funds  are  loj 
selling  admission  tickets  on  fair  days.  We  at  present  possess  10 
acres  of  land,  valued  at  |2,000.  A  fair  or  show  is  held  once  a  year, 
in  October,  when  from  |200  to  |400  are  awarded  as  premiums.  The 
largest  ever  offered  were  for  the  Ibest  blooded  stallion,  $6;  and  for  the 
best  short-horned  Durham,  Alderney,  or  Devon  bull,  $5.  We  have  a 
course  on  our  ground.  Every  fall  an  account  of  our  transactions  is 
published  in  the  county  newspapers. 

The  benefits  resulting  from  our  organization  are  manifest ;  a  feeling 
of  ambition  has  arisen,  which  must  ultimately  produce  great  and  per- 
manent good  to  every  interest.  Blooded  animals,  of  the  domestic 
breeds,  have  been  introduced,  and  are  now  being  crossed  upon  the 
common  stocks.  The  average  yield  of  erops  has  increased,  and  farm- 
ing and  the  mechanic  arts  generally  have  improved. 


From  Charles  A.  Leas,  United  States  Consul  at  Bevel,  Russia. 

June  16,  1859. 
I  send  samples  of  very  hardy  Livonian  and  Esthonian  wheat,  rye, 
and  barley,  which  are  cultivated  to  great  advantage  in  this  sixtieth 
degree  of  latitude  north,  in  a  common  limestone  soil,  and  which  I 
think  would  succeed  to  a  good  growth  in  the  northern  portions  of  the 
United  States.  The  flavor  of  thiis  rye,  when  converted  into  spirits, 
has  for  many  years  been  pronounced,  in  France  and  Germany,  most 
desirable  for  the  making  of  wine  and  Holland  gin.  For  those  purposes 
large  quantities  are  annually  shipped  from  this  place. 


From  W.  M.  West,  of  Plattsmoutli,  Cass  county,  Nebrasha. 

January  1,  1859. 

This  county  being  mostly  prairie,  the  scarcity  of  timber  is  our 
greatest  annoyance.  The  soil  is  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  the 
various  fruits  and  vegetables  of  this  latitude. 

The  wheat  crop  of  the  past  season  was  attacked  by  rust,  and  conse- 
quently almost  a  failure ;  the  Mediterranean  or  Black  Sea  wheat  being 
the  only  variety  that  succeeded.  Corn  has  yielded  well,  and  a23pears 
to  be  unusually  nutritious.  All  other  crops  have  been  very  good, 
except  potatoes,  which  were  not  more  than  half  so  productive  as  usual. 
These  results  are  attributable  to  the  superabundant  rains  which  have 
visited  this  country  for  the  last  seventeen  months. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  569 

The  various  grasses  introduced  here  have  prospered,  but  the  prairie 
grass  answering  all  purposes,  little  care  is  taken  to  procure  foreign 
varieties.  Cultivated  fruits  are  confined  to  a  few  varieties  of  grapes, 
plums,  cherries,  gooseberries,  currants,  and  raspberries.  The  native 
grapes  of  this  vicinity  are  inferior  ;  but  there  is  a  variety  of  native 
plum,  some  of  which  are  worthy  a  place  in  the  most  select  collection. 
The  native  gooseberries  are  large,  and  entirely  smooth. 

The  first  settlement  in  this  county  was  made  in  1854.  The  first 
crops  were  raised  in  1855.  In  1856,  an  agricultural  society  was 
organized,  which  held  the  first  fair  in  October  of  that  year,  and  the 
exhibition  of  horses,  mules,  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry,  vegetables, 
dairy  products,  and  needlc-worlv  would  have  honored  some  long-settled 
eastern  counties.  Each  annual  fair  shows  rapid  improvement,  and  we 
expect  to  stand  first  in  the  agriculture  of  Nebraska. 


CONTRIBUTIONS  OF  SEEDS,  CUTTINGS,  &c. 

The  Agricultural  Division  of  the  Patent  Ofiice  is  indebted  for  seeds 
and  cuttings  to  many  persons,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  These  are 
at  all  times  acceptable,  though  some  have  been  received,  we  regret  to 
state,  in  a  condition  unfit  lor  germination,  while  the  greater  part 
would  not  bear  transmission  to  distant  localities.  The  recent  erection 
of  propagating  houses  in  Washington,  which  are  under  the  control  of 
this  Ofiice,  will  enable  the  department  to  test  all  contributions,  to  in- 
crease the  amount  of  those  proving  valuable,  and  to  distribute  them  in 
vigorous  condition  over  the  country. 

It  is  proper,  also,  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  many  seeds  and  re- 
markable products  presented  by  successful  growers.  Participants 
in  the  distributions  should  exert  themselves  to  disseminate  over  their 
own  neighborhoods  seeds  of  the  best  varieties  raised.  Should  they,  on 
the  other  hand,  have  any  new  or  important  seeds,  which  they  desire 
to  make  more  generally  known,  the  Agricultural  Division  will  take 
pleasure  in  instituting  experiments  and  distributing  the  product. 

From  abroad,  the  Ofiice  has  to  acknowledge  various  favors  from  our 
ministers  and  consuls,  many  of  whom  show  increasing  interest  in 
agricultural  matters,  and  a  commendable  disposition  in  this  respect 
to  render  their  residence  in  foreign  countries  materially  useful  to  their 
fellow  countrymen  at  home. 

Among  numerous  contributions  we  select  the  following  : 

1858. 

March  17. — Grape  cuttings  from  Dr.  Th.  Koester,  secretary  of  Comal 
County  Agricultural  Society,  New  Braunfels,  Texas. 

March  31. — Four  boxes  of  grafts  from  IJnited  States  consul,  Basle, 
Switzerland. 

April  2. — Sixteen  varieties  of  flower  and  vegetable  seeds  from  Pro- 
fessor Blunee,  of  Calvert  College,  New  Windsor,  Mary- 
land. 


570  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

July       3. — Seeds  from  Algiers  and  China  from  Marshal  Vaillantj, 

minister  of  war,  France,  per  Alexander  Vattemare. 
August  2. — Australian  wheat,  (2  pints  of,)  yield  fifty  to  seventy-five 
bushels  per  acre,  from  Mr,  William  Dougherty,  Berrien 
Springs,  Michigan. 
August  5. — Two  boxes  of  "Espirito  santo"   plant  from  C.  A.  Ray- 
mond, purser  of  steamship  Moses  Taylor. 
August20. — Venetian  sumac,  received  -from  Charles  F.  Loring,  Aus- 
trian consul  general,  New  York. 

Sept.  8. — 178  specimens  of  seeds,  presented  by  the  Imperial  and 
Central  Horticultural  Society  of  Paris,  and  forwarded 
by  Alexander  Vattemare. 

Sept.  11. — Plum  stones,  {Prunus  cMccasa,)  one  quart,  by  Major  H. 
C.  Williams,  from  Santa  Fe,  New  Mexico. 

October  6. — Seeds  of  white  summer  wild  grape  from  farm  of  Dr.  Sut- 
phin,  Liberty,  Bedford  county,  Virginia. 

Nov.  1. — Four  bundles  of  wild  rice  from  J,  Volney  S wetting,  Ber- 
lin, Wisconsin. 

Nov.  9. — A  can  of  live-oak  acorns  from  Palatka,  Florida,  sent  by 
Mr.  Glover. 

Dec.  1. — Seeds  of  Kaki,  a  delicious  variety  of  persimmon,  from 
Townsend  Harris,  consul  general,  Simoda,  Japan. 

Dec.      17. — 470  leaves  and  berries  ofYaupan  from  Beaufort,  South 
Carolina,  per  Edward  Ralph,  jr. 
1859. 

April  20. — Three  cans  of  grape  cuttings  from  Governor  Steele,  of  Pe- 
terborough, N.  H. 

April  26. — A  sample  of  wax,  and  seeds  of  wax  tree  (Bhus  succeda- 
nea)  from  Japan. 

May  24. — Sample  of  cotton,  coifee,  sugar,  India  rubber,  from  Cerea, 
Brazil,  sent  by  United  States  consul  at  Pernambuco,  W. 
W.  Stapp. 

May     28. — Seeds  from  Hon.  C.  R.  Buckalew,  resident  minister,  Quito. 

July  11. — Bottle  of  pawpaw  brandy  for  analysis,  from  John  Law, 
Evansville,  Indiana. 

July  16. — Box  of  tea  seed  from  Hon.  R.  K.  Meade,  envoy  extraor- 
dinary, &c.,  Rio  Janeiro,  Brazil. 

July  14. — Seeds  from  A.  J.  Smith,  United  States  consul  Laguayra, 
S.  A. 

Aug.  1. — Samples  of  wheat,  rye,  and  barley,  from  Esthonia,  ^er 
United  States  consul  at  Revel,  Russia. 

Aug.  21. — Two  cans  of  Berkeley  county  grapes,  from  Dr.  R.  McSherry, 
Martinsburg,  Va. 

Sept.      2. — Seeds  of  black  grape,  from  James  Topling,  Liberty,  Va. 

Sept.  5. — Two  quarts  of  Roanoke  wheat,  from  Charles  Heermann, 
of  Hundermark,  Darby  post  office.  Pa. 

Sept.  5. — Box  containing  bulbs,  fibers,  grasses,  &c.,  from  United 
States  consul,  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Sept.  10. — Seeds  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  plants,  from  W.  0.  Hampton, 
Mount  Victory,  Ohio. 


CONTRIBUTIONS   OF   SEEDS,  5*71 

Sept,  29. — Bottle  of  Vuelta  Abajo  tobacco,  from  United  States  consul, 
Havana. 

Oct.  20. — Keceived  one  barrel  and  two  boxes  of  seeds^  Kev,  T.  J. 
Barclay^  Jerusalem,  Holy  Land. 

Oct.  29, — Sixteen  samples  of  vegetable  seeds,  from  S.  B.  Tucker, 
St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Nov.  1. — One  bnsbel  bag  of  Algaroba  beans,  (Carob,  or  St.  John's 
Bread,)  from  United  States  consul  Barcelona,  Spain. 

Nov.  9. — Can  of  smooth  barked  hickory,  from  H.  Z.  Abell,  Welsh- 
field,  Ohio. 

Nov.     14. — Tree  seeds  from  W.  0.  Hampton,  Mount  Victory,  Ohio, 

Nov.     14. — Seeds  from  J.  W.  Sliaifer,  Fairfield,  Iowa. 

Nov,  14. — Sixteen  bunches  of  Los  Angeles  grapes,  (2-|  to  3  pounds 
each,)  from  M.  Keller,  Los  Angeles,  California. 

Nov,  28. — Strawberry  watermelon  seeds,  from  Yucatan,  and  spice 
melon  seeds,  from  T.  N.  Hornsby,  Fisherville,  Ky. 

Nov.  30. — Velvet  and  crimson  spinach  seeds,  from  William  New- 
love,  of  Penn  Yan,  N.  Y.,  per  Charles  Ketchum. 

Nov.  30. — Eleven  bags  of  dried  grapes,  from  Dr.  Henry  Connely, 
of  Albuquerque,  N.  M. 

Nov.  30. — One  hundred  cuttings  of  grape  vine,  from  William  Clark, 
of  Northampton,  Mass. 

Nov.  30. — One  hundred  cuttings  of  sweet-water  grape,  fromN.  Hard- 
ing, Boston,  Mass. 

Dec.  1. — Plum  pits,  from  the  mountains  near  Downieville,  Cal., 
from  A.  T.  Langton,  postmaster. 

Dec,  1. — Keceived  bottle  of  pawpaw  spirit,  from  Dr.  Jackson,  of 
Boston,  for  Hon.  John  Law,  of  Evansville,  Indiana. 

Dec.       5.— Bundle  of  tree  seeds,  from  Kobt.  Howell,  of  Nichols,  N.  Y. 

Dec.  5. — One  hundred  grape  cuttings,  (Dracutt  Amber,)  from  Asa 
Clements,  Lowell,  Mass. 

Dec.  12. — Received  from  Beverly  L.  Clarke,  United  States  minister 
resident  at  Guatemala,  box  containing  sample  of  vege- 
table tallow,  made  from  the  ''  Myristica  sebacea]"  nuts 
accompanying. 

Dec.  14, — One  hundred  cuttings,  and  bundle  of  seeds  of  Concord 
grape,  sent  by  Hon.  E.  W.  Bull,  of  Concord,  Mass. 

Dec.     21. — Box  of  osier  willow,  from  Hartford,  Conn. 


572 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


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573 


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674 


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576 


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578 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


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580 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


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INVENTIONS   OR   DISCOVERIES. 


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582 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


OOQOQOOOGOQOOOiXlGOCD         OOGOODOOOOGOOOOOOOOO         GOQOOO         QO'JOQOQOCX) 


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583 


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584 


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585 


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580 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


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687 


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INVENTIONS    OR   DISCOVERIES. 


689 


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